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CamelCaseIsNamedAfterThe "humps"OfItsCapitalLetters,SimilarToTheHumpsOfA BactrianCamel.

CamelCase (stylizedAs camelCaseOr CamelCase;AlsoKnownAs camelCapsOrMoreFormallyAs medialCapitals)IsThePracticeOfWritingCompoundWordsOrPhrasesSuchThatEachWordOrAbbreviationInTheMiddleOfThePhraseBeginsWithA capitalLetter,WithNoInterveningSpacesOrPunctuation.CommonExamplesInclude "iPhone", "eBay", "FedEx", "DreamWorks",And "HarperCollins".ItIsAlsoSometimesUsedInOnlineUsernamesSuchAs "JohnSmith",AndToMakeMulti-word domainNamesMoreLegible,ForExampleInAdvertisements.

SomeSystemsPreferCamelcaseWithTheFirstLetterCapitalised,OthersNot.^[1]<refName=nfrmwk>Template:CiteWeb</ref>^[2]ForClarity,ThisArticleCallsTheTwoAlternatives upperCamelCase (initialUpperCaseLetter,AlsoKnownAs PascalCase)And lowerCamelCase (initialLowerCaseLetter).SomePeopleAndOrganizations,Notably Microsoft,<refName=nfrmwk/>UseTheTerm camelCaseOnlyForLowerCamelCase. PascalCaseMeansOnlyUpperCamelCase.

CamelCaseIsDistinctFrom TitleCase,WhichCapitalisesAllWordsButRetainsTheSpacesBetweenThem,AndFrom TallManLettering,WhichUsesCapitalsToEmphasizeTheDifferencesBetweenSimilar-lookingWordsSuchAs "predniSONE"And "predniSOLONE".

TheName "CamelCase"IsNotRelatedToThe "CamelBook",ThePopularNicknameOfTheBook ProgrammingPerlDueToThePictureOfACamelOnItsCover,WhichUsesAll-lowercaseIdentifiersWith underscores (sometimesCalled snakeCase)InItsSampleCode.

VariationsAndSynonyms

TheOriginalNameOfThePractice,UsedIn mediaStudies, grammarsAndThe OxfordEnglishDictionary,Was "medialCapitals".OtherNamesSuchAs "InterCaps"Or "CamelCase"AreRelativelyRecentAndMoreCommonInComputer-relatedCommunities.OtherSynonymsInclude:

BumpyCaps<refName="semicolon">Template:CiteWeb</ref>
NerdCaps<refName="semicolon"/>
CamelBack (orCamel-back)Notation^[3]OrCamelCaps^[4]
CapitalizedWordsOrCapWordsForUpperCamelCaseIn Python<refName="python">[4]At [5]</ref>
CompoundNames<refName="compoundNames">Template:CiteWeb</ref>
EmbeddedCaps (orEmbeddedCapitals)^[5]
HumpBack (orHump-back)Notation^[6]

InterCapsOrIntercapping^[7] (abbreviationOf InternalCapitalization^[8])
MixedCaseForLowerCamelCaseInPython<refName="python"/>
PascalCaseForUpperCamelCase^[9]^[10]^[11] (afterThe PascalProgrammingLanguage)
SmalltalkCase
TurtleCase^{[citation needed]}
WikiWord<refName="WikiWordUsedBy TWiki">Template:CiteWeb</ref>OrWikiCase<refName="WikiCaseMentionedIn WikiWikiWeb">Template:CiteWeb</ref> (especiallyInOlder wikis)
StudlyCapsIncludesEvenRandomlyMixedCapitalization,AsIn MiXeDCaPitALiZaTioN (typicallyAStereotypedAllusionTo onlineCulture),AndThusEncompassesBothStylesOfCamelCase.<refName="semicolon"/>

TheEarliestKnownOccurrenceOfTheTerm "InterCaps"OnUsenetIsInAnApril 1990PostToTheGroup alt.folklore.computersByAviRappoport.<refName="compoundNames" />TheEarliestUseOfTheName "CamelCase"OccursIn 1995,InAPostByNewtonLove.^[12]LoveHasSinceSaid, "WithTheAdventOfProgrammingLanguagesHavingTheseSortsOfConstructs,TheHumpinessOfTheStyleMadeMeCallItHumpyCaseAtFirst,BeforeISettledOnCamelCase.IHadBeenCallingItCamelCaseForYears. ...TheCitationAboveWasJustTheFirstTimeIHadUsedTheNameOnUSENET."^[13]

TraditionalUseInNaturalLanguage

InWordCombinations

TheUseOfMedialCapitalsAsAConventionInTheRegularSpellingOfEverydayTextsIsRare,ButIsUsedInSomeLanguagesAsASolutionToParticularProblemsWhichAriseWhenTwoWordsOrSegmentsAreCombined.

InItalian,PronounsCanBeSuffixedToVerbs,AndBecauseTheHonorificFormOfSecond-personPronounsIsCapitalized,ThisCanProduceASentenceLike nonHoTrovatoIlTempoDiRisponderLe ("IHaven'tFoundTimeToAnswerYou" -Where LeMeans "you").

In German,TheMedialCapitalLetter I,Called Binnen-I,IsSometimesUsedInAWordLike StudentInnen ("students")ToIndicateThatBoth Studenten ("maleStudents")And Studentinnen ("femaleStudents")AreIntendedSimultaneously.However,Mid-wordCapitalisationDoesNotConformTo GermanOrthography;ThePreviousExampleCouldBeCorrectlyWrittenUsing parenthesesAs Student(inn)en,AnalogousTo "congress(wo)man"InEnglish.^[14]

In Irish,CamelcaseIsUsedWhenAnInflectionalPrefixIsAttachedToAProperNoun,ForExample iNGaillimh ("in Galway"),From Gaillimh ("Galway"); anTAlbanach ("theScottishPerson"),From Albanach ("ScottishPerson");And goHÉirinn ("to Ireland"),From Éire ("Ireland").InRecent ScotsGaelicOrthography,AHyphenHasBeenInserted: anT-Albannach.

ThisConventionIsAlsoUsedBySeveralWritten BantuLanguages (e.g., kiSwahili, "SwahiliLanguage"; isiZulu, "ZuluLanguage")AndSeveralIndigenous languagesOfMexico (e.g. Nahuatl, Totonacan, Mixe–Zoque,AndSome Oto-MangueanLanguages).

In DutchTheLetter JIsCapitalizedIfItIsImmediatelyPrecededByACapital I,ForExampleInTheCountryname IJsland.

InEnglish,MedialCapitalsAreUsuallyOnlyFoundInScottishOrIrish "Mac-"Or "Mc-"Names,WhereForExample MacDonald,McDonald,And MacdonaldAreCommonSpellingVariantsOfTheSameName,AndInAnglo-Norman "Fitz-"Names,WhereForExampleBoth FitzGeraldAnd FitzgeraldAreFound.

InTheirEnglishStyleGuide TheKing'sEnglish,FirstPublishedIn 1906, H.W.And F.G.FowlerSuggestedThatMedialCapitalsCouldBeUsedInTriple compoundWordsWhere hyphensWouldCauseAmbiguity—theExamplesTheyGiveAre KingMark-like (asAgainst KingMark-like)And Anglo-SouthAmerican (asAgainst Anglo-SouthAmerican).However,TheyDescribedTheSystemAs "tooHopelesslyContraryToUseAtPresent."^[15]

InTransliterations

InTheScholarlyTransliterationOfLanguagesWrittenInOtherScripts,MedialCapitalsAreUsedInSimilarSituations.ForExample,InTransliterated Hebrew, ha'<spanStyle="font-family:TimesNewRoman">IvriMeans "theHebrewPerson"Or "theJew"And b'YerushalayimMeans "inJerusalem". In TibetanProperNamesLike rLobsang,The "r"StandsForAPrefixGlyphInTheOriginalScriptThatFunctionsAs toneMarkerRatherThanANormalLetter.AnotherExampleIs ts<spanStyle="font-family:TimesNewRoman">Iurku,ALatinTranscriptionOfThe ChechenTermForTheCappingStoneOfTheCharacteristic MedievalDefensiveTowersOf ChecheniaAnd Ingushetia;TheCapitalLetter "<spanStyle="font-family:TimesNewRoman">I"HereDenotingA phonemeDistinctFromTheOneTranscribedAs "i".

InAbbreviations

MedialCapitalsAreTraditionallyUsedInAbbreviationsToReflectTheCapitalizationThatTheWordsWouldHaveWhenWrittenOutInFull,ForExampleInTheAcademicTitles PhDOr BSc.InGerman,TheNamesOfStatutesAreAbbreviatedUsingEmbeddedCapitals,E.g.StGB (Strafgesetzbuch)ForCriminalCode,PatG (Patentgesetz)ForPatentAct,BVerfG (Bundesverfassungsgericht)For FederalConstitutionalCourt,OrTheVeryCommonGmbH (GesellschaftMitBeschränkterHaftung)For CompanyWithLimitedLiability.InThisContext,ThereCanEvenBeThreeOrMore "CamelCase"Capitals,E.g.InTzBfGForTeilzeit-UndBefristungsgesetz (ActOnPart-TimeAndLimitedTermOccupations).InFrench,CamelCaseAcronymsSuchAs OuLiPo (1960)WereFavoredForATimeAsAlternativesToInitialisms.

CamelCaseIsOftenUsedToTransliterateInitialismsIntoAlphabetsWhereTwoLettersMayBeRequiredToRepresentASingleCharacterOfTheOriginalAlphabet,E.g., DShKFrom Cyrillic ДШК.

HistoryOfModernTechnicalUse

ChemicalFormulae

TheFirstSystematicAndWidespreadUseOfMedialCapitalsForTechnicalPurposesWasTheNotationForChemicalFormulaeInventedByTheSwedishChemist JacobBerzeliusIn 1813.ToReplaceTheMultitudeOfNamingAndSymbolConventionsUsedByChemistsUntilThatTime,HeProposedToIndicateEachChemicalElementByASymbolOfOneOrTwoLetters,TheFirstOneBeingCapitalized.TheCapitalizationAllowedFormulaeLike "NaCl"ToBeWrittenWithoutSpacesAndStillBeParsedWithoutAmbiguity.^[16]^[17]

Berzelius'SystemContinuesToBeUsed,AugmentedWithThree-letterSymbolsSuchAs "Uue"ForUnconfirmedOrUnknownElementsAndAbbreviationsForSomeCommonSubstituents (especiallyInTheFieldOfOrganicChemistry,ForInstance "Et"For "ethyl-").ThisHasBeenFurtherExtendedToDescribeThe aminoAcidSequencesOf proteinsAndOtherSimilarDomains.

EarlyUseInTrademarks

SinceTheEarly 20thCentury,MedialCapitalsHaveOccasionallyBeenUsedFor corporateNamesAndProduct trademarks,SuchAs

DryIceCorporation (1925)MarketedTheSolidFormOf carbonDioxide (CO₂)As "DryIce",ThusLeadingToItsCommonName.<refName="AboutDryIce">Template:CiteBook</ref>
CinemaScopeAnd VistaVision,Rival widescreen movieFormats (1953)
ShopKo (1962)
MisteRogers,The CanadianVersionOf MisterRogers'Neighborhood (1962)^[18]
AstroTurf (1967)
ConAgra,FormerlyConsolidatedMills (1971).
MasterCraft (1968)

ComputerProgramming

InThe 1970sAnd 1980s,MedialCapitalsWereAdoptedAsAStandardOrAlternative namingConventionForMulti-word identifiersInSeveral programmingLanguages.ThePreciseOriginOfTheConventionInComputerProgrammingHasNotYetBeenSettled.A 1954ConferenceProceedings^[19]OccasionallyInformallyReferredToIBM's SpeedcodingSystemAs "SpeedCo". ChristopherStrachey'sPaperOn GPM (1965),^[20]ShowsAProgramThatIncludesSomeMedialCapitalIdentifiers,Including "NextCh"And "WriteSymbol".

Multiple-wordDescriptiveIdentifiersWithEmbeddedSpacesSuchAs endOfFileOr charTableCannotBeUsedInMostProgrammingLanguagesBecauseTheSpacesBetweenTheWordsWouldBe parsedAs delimitersBetween tokens.TheAlternativeOfRunningTheWordsTogetherAsIn endoffileOr chartableIsDifficultToUnderstandAndPossiblyMisleading;ForExample, chartableIsAnEnglishWord (ableToBeCharted).

SomeEarlyProgrammingLanguages,Notably Lisp (1958)And COBOL (1959),AddressedThisProblemByAllowingA hyphen ("-")ToBeUsedBetweenWordsOfCompoundIdentifiers,AsIn "END-OF-FILE":LispBecauseItWorkedWellWithPrefixNotation (aLispParserWouldNotTreatAHyphenInTheMiddleOfASymbolAsASubtractionOperator)AndCOBOLBecauseItsOperatorsWereIndividualEnglishWords.ThisConventionRemainsInUseInTheseLanguages,AndIsAlsoCommonInProgramNamesEnteredOnA commandLine,AsInUnix.

However,ThisSolutionWasNotAdequateForMathematically-orientedLanguagesSuchAs FORTRAN (1955)And ALGOL (1958),WhichUsedTheHyphenAsAnInfixSubtractionOperator.TheseEarlyLanguagesInsteadAllowedIdentifiersToContainUnrestrictedEmbeddedSpaces,DeterminingTheEndOfTheIdentifierByContext.ThisApproachWasAbandonedInLaterLanguagesDueToTheComplexityItAddsTo tokenization. (FORTRANInitiallyRestrictedIdentifiersToNoMoreThanSixCharacters,EffectivelyPreventingMulti-wordIdentifiersExceptThoseMadeOfVeryShortWords,SuchAs "GOTO"="GOTO".)

ExacerbatingTheProblem,Common punchedCardCharacterSetsOfTheTimeWereUppercaseOnlyAndLackedOtherSpecialCharacters.ItWasOnlyInTheLate 1960sThatTheWidespreadAdoptionOfThe ASCIICharacterSetMadeBothLowerCaseAndThe underscoreCharacter _UniversallyAvailable.SomeLanguages,Notably C,PromptlyAdoptedUnderscoresAsWordSeparators,AndIdentifiersSuchAs end_of_fileAreStillPrevalentInCProgramsAndLibraries (asWellAsInLaterLanguagesInfluencedByC,SuchAs PerlAnd Python).However,SomeLanguagesAndProgrammersChoseToAvoidUnderscores—amongOtherReasonsToPreventConfusingThemWith whitespace—andAdoptedCamelCaseInstead.

CharlesSimonyi,WhoWorkedAt XeroxPARCInThe 1970sAndLaterOversawTheCreationOfMicrosoft'sOfficeSuiteOfApplications,InventedAndTaughtTheUseOf HungarianNotation,OneVersionOfWhichUsesTheLowerCaseLetter(s)AtTheStartOfA (capitalized)VariableNameToDenoteItsType.OneAccount^{[citation needed]}ClaimsThatTheCamelCaseStyleFirstBecamePopularAtXeroxPARCAround 1978,WithThe MesaProgrammingLanguageDevelopedForThe XeroxAltoComputer.ThisMachineLackedAnUnderscoreKey,AndTheHyphenAndSpaceCharactersWereNotPermittedInIdentifiers,LeavingCamelCaseAsTheOnlyViableSchemeForReadableMultiwordNames.ThePARCMesaLanguageManual (1979)IncludedACodingStandardWithSpecificRulesForUpperAndLowerCamelCaseThatWasStrictlyFollowedByTheMesaLibrariesAndTheAltoOperatingSystem.

The SmalltalkLanguage,WhichWasDevelopedOriginallyOnTheAltoAndBecameQuitePopularInTheEarly 1980s,MayTemplate:AccordingToWhomHaveBeenInstrumentalInSpreadingTheStyleOutsidePARC.CamelCaseWasAlsoUsedByConventionForManyNamesInThe PostScriptPageDescriptionLanguage (inventedBy AdobeSystemsFounderAndEx-PARCScientist JohnWarnock),AsWellAsForTheLanguageItself.InAddition, NiklausWirth,TheInventorOf Pascal,CameToAppreciateCamelCaseDuringASabbaticalAtPARCAndUsedItIn Modula,HisNextProgrammingLanguage.

SpreadToMainstreamUsage

WhateverItsOriginsWithinTheComputingWorld,ThePracticeSpreadInThe 1980sAnd 1990s,WhenTheAdventOfThe personalComputerExposedHackerCultureToTheWorld.CamelCaseThenBecameFashionableForCorporate tradeNames,InitiallyInTechnicalFields;MainstreamUsageWasWellEstablishedBy 1990:

(1962) PolyGram,FormerlyOneOfThe majorLabelsOfThe musicIndustry.
(1971) AeroVironment
(1976) InterCity 125
(1977) CompuServe, UnitedHealthCare (nowUnitedHealthcare).^[21]
(1978) WordStar
(1979) MasterCard, SportsCenter, VisiCalc
(1980) EchoStar
(1982) MicroProse, WordPerfect
(1983) NetWare
(1984) BellSouth, LaserJet, MacWorks, iDEN
(1985) PageMaker, EastEnders
(1986) SpaceCamp
(1987) ClarisWorks, HyperCard, PowerPoint
(1990) HarperCollins, SeaTac,Iconic WorldWideWeb

DuringThe dot-comBubbleOfTheLate 1990s,TheLowercasePrefixes "e" (for "electronic")And "i" (for "Internet",^[22] "information", "intelligent",Etc.)BecameQuiteCommon,GivingRiseToNamesLike Apple's iMacAndThe eBoxSoftwarePlatform.

In 1998,DaveYostSuggestedThatChemistsUseMedialCapitalsToAidReadabilityOfLongChemicalNames,E.g.WriteAmidoPhosphoRibosylTransferaseInsteadOf amidophosphoribosyltransferase.^[23]ThisUsageWasNotWidelyAdopted.

CamelcaseIsSometimesUsedForAbbreviatedNamesOfCertainNeighborhoods,E.g.NewYorkCityNeighborhoods SoHo (SouthOf HoustonStreet)And TriBeCa (Triangle Below CanalStreet)AndSanFrancisco's SoMa (SouthOf Market).SuchUsagesErodeQuickly,SoTheNeighborhoodsAreNowTypicallyRenderedAs Soho, Tribeca,And Soma.

InternalCapitalizationHasAlsoBeenUsedForOtherTechnicalCodesLike HeLa (1983).

CurrentUsageInComputing

ProgrammingAndCoding

Template:MainArticle TheUseOfMedialCapsForCompoundIdentifiersIsRecommendedByThe codingStyleGuidelinesOfManyOrganizationsOrSoftwareProjects.ForSomeLanguages (suchAs Mesa, Pascal, Modula, JavaAnd Microsoft's .NET)ThisPracticeIsRecommendedByTheLanguageDevelopersOrByAuthoritativeManualsAndHasThereforeBecomePartOfTheLanguage's "culture".

StyleGuidelinesOftenDistinguishBetweenUpperAndLowerCamelCase,TypicallySpecifyingWhichVarietyShouldBeUsedForSpecificKindsOfEntities: variables, recordFields, methods, procedures, types,Etc.TheseRulesAreSometimesSupportedBy staticAnalysisToolsThatCheckSourceCodeForAdherence.

TheOriginal HungarianNotationForProgramming,ForExample,SpecifiesThatALowercaseAbbreviationForThe "usageType" (notDataType)ShouldPrefixAllVariableNames,WithTheRemainderOfTheNameInUpperCamelCase;AsSuchItIsAFormOfLowerCamelCase.

ProgrammingIdentifiersOftenNeedToContain acronymsAndInitialismsThatAreAlreadyInUpperCase,SuchAs "oldHTMLFile".ByAnalogyWithTheTitleCaseRules,TheNaturalCamelCaseRenderingWouldHaveTheAbbreviationAllInUpperCase,Namely "oldHTMLFile".However,ThisApproachIsProblematicWhenTwoAcronymsOccurTogether (e.g., "parseDBMXML"WouldBecome "parseDBMXML")OrWhenTheStandardMandatesLowerCamelCaseButTheNameBeginsWithAnAbbreviation (e.g. "SQLServer"WouldBecome "sQLServer").ForThisReason,SomeProgrammersPreferToTreatAbbreviationsAsIfTheyWereLowerCaseWordsAndWrite "oldHtmlFile", "parseDbmXml"Or "sqlServer".However,ThisCanMakeItHarderToRecogniseThatAGivenWordIsIntendedAsAnAcronym.^[24]

WikiLinkMarkup

CamelCaseIsUsedInSome wikiMarkupLanguagesForTermsThatShouldBeAutomaticallyLinkedToOther wikiPages.ThisConventionWasOriginallyUsedIn WardCunningham'sOriginal wikiSoftware, WikiWikiWeb,AndCanBeActivatedInMostOtherWikis.SomeWikiEnginesSuchAs TiddlyWiki, TracAnd PmWikiMakeUseOfItInTheDefaultSettings,ButUsuallyAlsoProvideAConfigurationMechanismOr pluginToDisableIt. WikipediaFormerlyUsedCamelCaseLinkingAsWell,ButSwitchedToExplicitLinkMarkupUsing squareBracketsAndManyOtherWikiSitesHaveDoneTheSame.SomeWikisThatDoNotUseCamelCaseLinkingMayStillUseTheCamelCaseAsANamingConvention,SuchAs AboutUs.

OtherUses

The NIEMRegistryRequiresThat XMLDataElementsUseUpperCamelCaseAndXMLAttributesUseLowerCamelCase.

MostPopular command-lineInterfacesAnd scriptingLanguagesCannotEasilyHandleFileNamesThatContainEmbeddedSpaces (usuallyRequiringTheNameToBePutInQuotes).Therefore,UsersOfThoseSystemsOftenResortToCamelCase (orUnderscores,HyphensAndOther "safe"Characters)ForCompoundFileNamesLike MyJobResume.pdf.

MicrobloggingAnd socialNetworkingSitesThatLimitTheNumberOfCharactersInAMessage (mostFamously Twitter,WhereThe 140-characterLimitCanBeQuiteRestrictiveInLanguagesThatRelyOnAlphabets,IncludingEnglish)ArePotentialOutletsForMedialCapitals.UsingCamelCaseBetweenWordsReducesTheNumberOfSpaces,AndThusTheNumberOfCharacters,InAGivenMessage,AllowingMoreContentToFitIntoTheLimitedSpace. Hashtags,EspeciallyLongOnes,OftenUseCamelCaseToMaintainReadability (e.g. #CollegeStudentProblemsIsEasierToReadThan #collegestudentproblems).

InWebsiteURLs,SpacesAre percent-encodedAs "%20",MakingTheAddressLongerAndLess humanReadable.ByOmittingSpaces,CamelCaseDoesNotHaveThisProblem.

ReadabilityStudies

CamelCaseHasBeenCriticisedAsNegativelyImpactingReadabilityDueToTheRemovalOfSpacesAndUppercasingOfEveryWord.^[25]

A 2009StudyComparing snakeCaseToCamelCaseFoundThatCamelCaseIdentifiersCouldBeRecognisedWithHigherAccuracyAmongBothProgrammersAndNon-programmers,AndThatProgrammersAlreadyTrainedInCamelCaseWereAbleToRecogniseThoseIdentifiersFasterThanUnderscoredSnake-caseIdentifiers.^[26]

A 2010Follow-upStudy,UnderTheSameConditionsButUsingAnImprovedMeasurementMethodWithUseOfEye-trackingEquipment,Indicates: "WhileResultsIndicateNoDifferenceInAccuracyBetweenTheTwoStyles,SubjectsRecognizeIdentifiersInTheUnderscoreStyleMoreQuickly."^[27]

References

^ Template:CiteWeb
^ Template:CiteWeb
^ [1] Archived 2008-04-11 at the Wayback MachineAt PurdueUniversityCollegeOfTechnology
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^ [2],ByNannetteThacker (05/01/1999)
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^ [3]Template:DeadLink
^ Template:CiteBook
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^ JönsJacobBerzelius (1813). EssayOnTheCauseOfChemicalProportionsAndOnSomeCircumstancesRelatingToThem:TogetherWithAShortAndEasyMethodOfExpressingThem. AnnalsOfPhilosophy 2, 443-454, 3, 51-52; (1814) 93-106, 244-255, 353-364.
^ HenryM.Leicester &HerbertS.Klickstein,Eds. 1952, ASourceBookInChemistry, 1400-1900 (Cambridge,MA:Harvard)
^ Template:CiteWeb
^ Template:CiteWeb
^ Template:CiteJournal
^ Template:CiteWeb
^ Template:CiteNews
^ Feedback, 20June 1998Vol 158No 2139 NewScientist 20June 1998
^ Template:CiteJournal
^ Template:CiteNews
^ Template:CiteJournal
^ Template:CiteJournal

ExternalLinks

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[6],Also [7]
.NETFrameworkGeneralReferenceCapitalizationStyles
[8],ByBillWalsh,AtTheSlot
[9],ByKevinLarson,AdvancedReadingTechnology,MicrosoftCorporation
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[1] Template:CiteWeb

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[3] [1] Archived 2008-04-11 at the Wayback MachineAt PurdueUniversityCollegeOfTechnology

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[6] [2],ByNannetteThacker (05/01/1999)

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[16] JönsJacobBerzelius (1813). EssayOnTheCauseOfChemicalProportionsAndOnSomeCircumstancesRelatingToThem:TogetherWithAShortAndEasyMethodOfExpressingThem. AnnalsOfPhilosophy 2, 443-454, 3, 51-52; (1814) 93-106, 244-255, 353-364.

[17] HenryM.Leicester &HerbertS.Klickstein,Eds. 1952, ASourceBookInChemistry, 1400-1900 (Cambridge,MA:Harvard)

[18] Template:CiteWeb

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[20] Template:CiteJournal

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[23] Feedback, 20June 1998Vol 158No 2139 NewScientist 20June 1998

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[25] Template:CiteNews

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