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Vellalar

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This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Cyberanthropologist (talk | contribs) at 06:57, 23 May 2021 (I have removed the varna cruff from the intro, it has been expanded already in the varna section and in the etymology section, repetition of varna in the intro makes the article very redundant.). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

For other uses, see Vellalar (disambiguation).

Vellalar
ReligionsHinduism, Christianity
LanguagesTamil
Subdivisions
[1]
Related groupsTamil people

Vellalar is a Tamil caste used primarily by various Sub castes who traditionally pursued agriculture as a profession in the Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and northeastern parts of Sri Lanka. Some of the communities that identify themselves as a Vellalar are the numerically strong Arunattu Vellalar, Chettiar Vellalar[2][3][4] Chozhia Vellalar, Nanjinad Vellalar,[5] Karkarthar Vellalar, Kongu Vellalar, Thuluva Vellalar, and Sri Lankan Vellalar [6][7].The Vellalar enjoyed a status almost as high as Brahmins, due to the possession of land—the basis of wealth.[8] Vellalar were dominant communities in Tamil agrarian societies for 600 years until the decline of the Chola empire in the 13th century, with their chieftains able to practise state-level political authority after winning the support and legitimisation of Brahmins and other higher-ranked communities with grants of land and honours.[9]

Etymology

The word Vellalar may come from the root Vellam for flood, which gave rise to various rights of land; and it is because of the acquisition of land rights that the Vellalar got their name.[10]

According to C.E. Ramachandran, the earliest reference to the name is attested in the Tolkāppiyam, which divided the society in four classes Arasar, Andanar, Vanigar and Vellalar.[11] This is corroborated by multiple authors.[12][13][14][15][16]

Classification in the Tolkāppiyam

In the Tolkāppiyam,

Verse 1572 states: "The Vēlālar class take to no occupation but farming & cultivation."[17]

Verse 1573 states: "Weapons of war and wreaths to wear, The Vēlālar have access to, as they go on Mission of the state"[17]

This is also corroborated by Ramachandra Dikshitar,[18] who writes: "The Porul Sutra 75 of the Tolkāppiyam refers to the four-fold classification of castes, Araśar (Ksatriyas), Antaṇar (Brahmanas),Vaṇikar (merchants) and Vēlāḷar (agriculturists).The Vēlāḷas became in their turn divided into two classes, the higher and the lower. It is significant to note that the term Sudra is not to be found in this grammatical work but some authors did equate the Vellalars with Shudras.[19][20] The petty chiefs or the Kurunilamannar generally belonged to the Vēlāḷa community. Despite Nacciṉārkkiṉiyar equating Vellalars with Shudras,[20] according to him these Vēlāḷas had marital relations with royal families, served as army commanders and were chieftains of smaller kingdoms."[18]

Historians like K.A.Nilakanta Sastri, R.S.Sharma and S.Thiruvenkatachari have stated that the in the four fold Tolkāppiyam classification, Vellalars cannot be equated with Shudras.[21][22][23][24]. It can be argued that the Vellalas belong to the Vanikar class mentioned in the Tolkāppiyam, as Muttusvami Srinivasa Iyengar states that a class of Vellalas called Kula-Vanikar or Vellan-Chettis involved in trade of grains[25] and as M.D.Raghavan states that the Vellan Chettis are a subdivision of the Chozhia Vellalar.[26] But most historians distinguish between the Vanikars mentioned in the Tolkappiyam and the Vellalar cultivators, although their functions did not always fit into the ordained definitions.[12][27][28][29][18][30]

History

Vellālars worshipping lingam, snake-stones and Ganēsa from Castes and Tribes of Southern India (1909).

The Vellalars have a long cultural history that goes back to over two millennia in southern India,[31] where once they were a dominant land-owning community that through an alliance with the Brahmins, formed the ruling class.[32][33]

Verse 31 of the Karmandala Satakam states that the Vellālas of Kārmandalam belonged to the clan of the Gangas: they were both Srotriyas; practitioners of Vedic rites or Southerners or Virāthiyars or people who were followers of either Buddhism or Jainism or Northerners.[34] In Verse 33, it is mentioned that the Gangas belonged to both Suryavamsa and Somavamsa and they had matrimonial alliances with other kings.[34]

According to the anthropologist Kathleen Gough, "the Vellalars were the dominant secular aristocratic caste under the Chola kings, providing the courtiers, most of the army officers, the lower ranks of the kingdom's bureaucracy, and the upper layer of the peasantry".[33]

In Kerala, Vellalars were feudatory overlords who were bestowed with titles such as Pillai, Menon, Panicker, Kurup, Nambiar, etc.[35] It is believed the Vellalars were the progenitors of corresponding Nair lineages.[36][37][38][39][40][41][42] Copper plate land grants in the west coat to Vellala Karalars date their settlements to the ninth century at the latest.[43][44] This pattern of Vellalars becoming Nairs is corroborated by many examples by historians such as S. N. Sadasivan, L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer, Hayavadana Rao, Subramania Iyer, H. A Stuart, Edgar Thurston, etc. with evidence for the same.[45][46][47][44][48][49][50][42]

Following the arrival of Dutch missionaries in the early 18th century, some Vellalar converted to Christianity.[51]

Varna Classification

The Varna status of the Vellalars is a contested and complex topic, they have been classified as Vaishyas[52][53][54][55][56][57][58][59] varna and as Shudras,[60][61][62][63][64][65][66][67] by various historians. However the traditional chaturvarna system was inapplicable to South India where there existed only 3 classes: Brahmin, Non-Brahmin and Dalit.[68][69][70][71] All non-Brahmins were classified as Shudras irrespective of their status and function. Historians like K.A.Nilakanta Sastri, R.S.Sharma and S.Thiruvenkatachari have opined that the Vellalars cannot be equated with Shudras as they were a ruling class, who were respected as much as the Brahmins.[72][73][74][75]

As Vaishyas

The various Puranas mentioning the Vaishya status accorded to the Vellalars during the reign of the Chola emperors, is elaborated in the Abhidana Chintamani.[76]

Appar, a Saiva Vellala saint who lived during the 6th-7th Century CE, was described as a Vaishya by birth by some authors.[77][78] The Saiva saint from 8th century CE, Eyarkon Kalikamar, 29th among the 63 Saiva Nayanmars mentioned in Sekkizhar's Periya Puranam, dated 12th century CE, is described as a Vellala of the Vaishya caste[79] by Vidya Deheija in 1988.

The Vaishnavite Vellala Saint Nammazhwar, who lived ca. 798 CE, was classified as Vysya, among the Four great Vysya saints of Hinduism, by the All India Vaishya Samaj in 1988.[80] This is corroborated by Dr.Panchapakesa Jayaraman, Vedic priest & scholar, ex-director of Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, in his book "A Brief History of Vaishnava Saint Poets: The Alwars" where he mentions that Nammalwar, a Vellala, belongs to the Vaishya caste.[81] Nammazhwar's grandfather, Tiruvazhmarban Pillai, also a Vellala, is mentioned as a Vysya.[82]

The Karmandala Satakam by Ãrai Kiḻãr, dated 1292-1342 C.E, during the reign of Hoysala King Veera Ballala III, states in verse 52:

A Chettiar Vellālar or Vellān Chetty wearing the sacred thread, Madras, 1837

"The Vellalas of Karmandalam belonged to the Mānava Gotra & practiced the rite of upanayana or wearing the sacred thread."[83]

As per the Apastambha Shrauta Sutra, The Mānava Gotra is a Rājarși-derived Dvija Gotra used by the 3-upper castes.[84]

An elderly Chettiar Vellālar wearing the sacred thread in Sunnambukulam, Tamil Nadu. Photographed during the Census of India, 1961.

The Vaidika Upanayana ceremony performed by the Vellalas, for wearing the Yajñopavita or the sacred thread, traditionally done for the 3 upper castes, namely Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya respectively,[85] is also well documented in the British era and modern records.[86][87][88][89][90] In his letters from 1947, Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy, a Sri Lankan Vellalar, records his Vellala ancestry from Thanjavur, and states that the Vellalars are traditionally given the Vaidika Upanayana ceremony and wear the sacred thread or Yajñopavita.[91] He also mentions his Upanayana ceremony conducted by a Brahmin from Punjab and his son Rama's Upanayana ceremony in Bengal.[92][93] Edgar Thurston quotes H.A Stuart's commentary on the Vellalas, “His offsprings are the Vellālas, who aspire to belong to the Vaisya caste, since that includes Gōvaisyas, Bhūvaisyas, and Dhanavaisyas (shepherds, cultivators and merchants). A few, therefore, constantly wear the sacred thread, but most put it on only during marriages or funerals as a mark of the sacred nature of the ceremony.”[94]

Historian Usha R. Vijailakshmi observes that Verse 34 connects the origin of the Gangas to the origin of the Karakatha Vellalas of Southern Karnataka, as follows: "Gangeya Murthaka pala was born to Lord Shiva and he had two wives; the first wife had 54 sons & the second wife had 52 sons. Out of these Bhupalar, (one who practiced Agriculture) gave birth to 35 Vellala leaders, Dhanapalar, who was into trade, gave birth to 35 Vellala leaders Gopalar, (one who herded cattle) and one Agamurthi gave birth to 1 Vellala leader".[34]

The terms Bhupālar, Dhanapālar, & Gopālar refer to the 3 subdivisions of Vaishyas: Bhu-vaishya, Dhana-vaishya & Go-vaishya[95][57][52] respectively. Their professions correspond to the duties laid out for Vaishyas in the Manusmriti, which states, "trade, animal husbandry, and agriculture has been prescribed as the livelihood for the Vaishya. Their Law, however, is giving gifts, studying the Vedas, and offering sacrifices."[96]. This is corroborated by Muttusvami Srinivasa Iyengar, who classifies the Vellalas as Vaishyas with Bhu-Vaishya and Kula Vanikar or Vellan Chetti sub-divisions, and cites the duties of the Bhu-Vaishya sect of Vellalars as mentioned in a verse of the 9th century CE text, the Purapporul Venba Maalai: "(1) tilling, (2) cow-breeding, (3) trade, (4) studying the Vedas, (5) worship of sacrificial' fire, and (6) giving aims. Here the Vellalas are spoken of as Bhu-Vaishyas".[97]

Usha R. Vijailakshmi notes that the same legend from the Karmandala Satakam[98] is dealt with in certain detail by Edgar Thurston in his seminal work - Castes and Tribes of Southern India, in which he discusses the Vellala community of Tamil Nadu.[99] Edgar Thurston classifies the Vellalas as Vaisyas,[100][54][55] and mentions their traditional subdivision into Bhūmi Pālakulu or Bhu-Vaishyas, Vellal Shetti or Dhana-Vaishyas, and Govu-Shetlu or Go-Vaishyas as mentioned in the Baramahal records[56][101] which state that in Murdaka Palakulu, the son of Bhumi Devi born on the banks of the Ganges, after winning a battle with Vishwakarma, attained the titles 1) Bhūmi Pālakudu or saviour of the earth, 2) Ganga kulam or descendant of the river Ganga, and 3)Murdaka Pālakudu or protector of the plough, alluding to his being born with a ploughshare in his hand, and it was ordained that a person of the caste should put the crown on the king's head at the coronation. They next invested him with the yegnōpavitam or string, and, in order that he might propagate his caste, they gave him in marriage the daughters of the gods Indra and Kubēra. [102] Murdaka Pālakulu had fifty-four sons by the daughter of the god Indra, and fifty-two by the daughter of the god Kubēra, whom he married to the one hundred and six daughters of Nala Kubarudu, the son of Kubēra, and it was ordained that;

  • thirty-five of them should be called Bhūmi Pālakulu, and should till the ground;
  • thirty-five of them named Vellal Shetti, and their occupation be traffic; and
  • thirty-five of them named Gōvu Shetlu, and their employment breeding and feeding of cattle.[103]

The 1961 Census of India, quotes Edgar Thurson who classifies the Vellalas as Vaishyas.[54][55]

According to Anthropologist Irawati Karve, there is a tradition among the Vellalans that there were 3 divisions of the Vaishyas : (1) Bhu-Vaishyas or farmers ,(2) Go-Vaishyas or husbandmen & (3) Dhana-Vaishyas or merchants. The last division is claimed to have given rise to the Chettis who originally belonged to the Vellala tribe.[52] Busnagi Rajannan states that the Kongu Vellalars are also referred to as Bhu-Vaishyas, Bhu-Pālan or Gangavamsam.[104] Simon Casie Chitty notes in the British Government Ceylon District Gazetteer of 1834 that the Sri Lankan Vellalars also follow this 3 fold classification of Vaishyas; The Chettiar Vellalar are Dhana-Vaishyas, the Karkathar Vellalar, Tuluva Vellalar and Chozhia Vellalar are Bhu-Vaishyas, and the Idayers are Go-Vaishyas.[57] Alongside classifying the Vellalas as Vaishyas, Chetty also documents that the Jaffna Vellalas belong to the Bhu-Vaishya caste caste,[105] and the Colombo Chetties belong to the Dhana-Vaishya[106] caste.[57] Hayavadana Rao documents the Nanjinad Vellalas as Bhu-Vaishyas in the Travancore Government Gazette of 1911.[107] The "Yalpana Vaipava Malai" or "The History of the Kingdom of Jaffna", composed by Mayil Vakanan in 1739, states that the Vellalars are synonymous with Vaishyas.[58] A.R. Desai notes in 1975 that the Vellalas follow a more ritualistic , " Sanskritic ” style of life and proclaim themselves as Vaishyas.[108] Rangappa Thiruvengadam Pillai, who recorded a Diary of events in the Tamil region from 1761-1768, was called a Vaishya by Stephen S. Jayaseela.[109]

The 1981 Census of India mentions the Chettiar Vellalar, Mudaliar, & Kongu Vellalars or Gounders alongside Vysya community of Karnataka for their involvement in substantial businesses.[110]

As Shudras

The Vellalars have also been classified as high ranking Shudras by various historians since the colonial period.[66][111][112][62][63][64][12][67] In his work Edgar Thurston terms Francis Whyte’s summary as excellent, where Whyte states “By general consent, the first place in social esteem among the Tamil Shudra castes is awarded to them”. [113] He also mentions that in ‘The Tamils eighteen hundred years ago’ , Mr. V. Kanakasabhai while not directly calling the Vellalas as Sūdras, indirectly implies that the ordinary Vellalas should be considered as Shudras, and that those Vellalas who were kings should be honoured as Kshatriyas.[114]

In the 1871 Madras Presidency census, Vellalars were ranked as Shudras, despite their claims that they were of Vaishya status.[115] A petition was made to the municipal commissioners of Madras, protesting against their being classed as Shudras, in which the Manusmriti was cited to point out that "the Vellalas do come exactly within the most authoritative definition given of Vaishyas and do not come within the like definition of Shudras"[115] The Vellalars who were land owners and tillers of the soil and held offices pertaining to land, were ranked as Sat-Shudra[62][63][116] in the 1901 census; with the Government of Madras recognised that the 4-fold division did not describe the South Indian, or Dravidian, society adequately.[117] This was again met with protests by the Vellalars.[118]

It is believed that the land based agricultural Vellalars were classified as shudras due to the changed perception of the functional role of the vaisya and sudra castes in the early centuries of the Christian Era.[119][120]

"I have argued that owing to the changed perception of the functional role of the vaisya and sudra castes in the early centuries of the Christian era, the land - based agricultural communities of the south were placed in the sudra caste and they stood next only to brahmanas. Hence , the Vellalas who were landowners and tillers of the soil and held offices pertaining to land were ranked as sudras but nevertheless became a status category at the regional of sub - regional level."[121]

According to some historians, the rights of the Indian Vellalars who were ranked as Shudras[122][123] to wear the sacred thread was disputed.

"However, caste as understood and practised in Sri Lanka is incompatible even with the Manu Smriti. For example, an essential feature of high caste is that the males are entitled to and must wear the sacred thread. But even the most exalted Goigama Buddhist and Tamil Vellala families do not claim this right. Only a very small number of Brahmins and certain others, mostly of relatively recent Indian origin do so. The right of these ‘certain others’ to wear the sacred thread is subject to dispute."[122]

The Vellalars themselves usually admitted to the Shudra Varna stated Norwegian anthropologist Anne Sigfrid Grøsneth in her 2010 publication.[124] However she also mentions that Vellalas are generally seen by others and by themselves in terms of purity as next to the Brahmins.[125]

Swami Vedachalam criticised the Brahmins for vilifying Tamils by putting them altogether under the Shudra varna. He wrote that the Varna system was alien to Tamils. He also condemned the classes who sought to bring themselves under the Aryan appellations of Brahmins, Kshatriya and Vaisya, to escape being called the Shudra.[126]

Henry Thambiah in ‘The Laws and Customs of the Tamils of Jaffna’ criticises Simon Casie Chetty’s work ‘The Castes, Customs, Manners and Literature of the Tamils’ where Chetty classifies the Vellalas under the Vaishya caste.[127] He also states the caste system in Jaffna as it exists was ample proof of the theories advanced by V. Kanakasabhai[114] and Swamy Vedachalam[127]

Sri Lanka

Main article: Sri Lankan Vellalar

The Vellalars of Sri Lanka have been chronicled in the Yalpana Vaipava Malai and other historical texts of the Jaffna kingdom. They form half of the Sri Lankan Tamil population and are the major husbandmen, involved in tillage and cattle cultivation.[128][6] Local Sri Lankan literature, such as the Kailiyai Malai, an account on Kalinga Magha, narrates the migration of Vellala Nattar chiefs from the Coromandel Coast to Sri Lanka.[129] The Kings of Jaffna married among the Vellalas.[130]

Their dominance rose under Dutch rule and they formed one of the colonial political elites of the island.[131][132]

See also

Notes

References

  1. ^ "Vellala | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com.
  2. ^ Harriss-White, Barbara (1996). A Political Economy of Agricultural Markets in South India: Masters of the Countryside. SAGE Publications. p. 236. ISBN 978-0-80399-299-3.:"Vellalars were divided into many subcastes: Pillais, Chettiars, Mudaliars"
  3. ^ Raghavan, M.D. (1971). Tamil Culture in Ceylon: A General Introduction. Kalai Nilayam. p. 131.:"The Solia Vellalas are sub-divided into Vellan Chetties, meaning the Vellala merchant"
  4. ^ Karve, Irawati (1981). Biology of the People of Tamil Nadu. Indian Society of Human Genetics. p. 19.:"There is a tradition among the Vellalans that there were 3 divisions of the Vaisyas : ( 1 ) Bhuvaisyas or farmers , ( 2 ) Govaisyas or husbandmen and ( 3 ) Dhanavaisyas or merchants . The last division is claimed to have given rise to the Chettis who originally belonged to the Vellala tribe."
  5. ^ Rao, C. Hayavadana Rao (2014). The Vellalas of Nanjanad, Travancore State, India. Anthropos, University of California. p. 514.:"Of the three subdivisions among Vysias, the Vellalas belong to one that is known as Bhoo-Vysias."
  6. ^ a b Derges, Jane (2013). Ritual and Recovery in Post-Conflict Sri Lanka. Routledge. p. 77. ISBN 978-1136214882.
  7. ^ Ramaswamy, Vijaya (2017). Historical Dictionary of the Tamils. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 390. ISBN 978-1-53810-686-0.
  8. ^ Upinder Singh (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. p. 592. ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0.
  9. ^ Moffatt, Michael (2015). An Untouchable Community in South India: Structure and Consensus. Princeton University Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-40087-036-3.
  10. ^ Venkatasubramanian, T. K. (1993). Societas to Civitas: evolution of political society in South India : pre-Pallavan Tamil̤akam. Kalinga Publications. p. 64. ISBN 9788185163420.
  11. ^ Ramachandran, C. E. (1974). Ahananuru in Its Historical Setting. University of Madras. p. 58.
  12. ^ a b c Narayana, M. G. S. (1977). Re-interpretations in South Indian History. India, South: College Book House. p. 15.:”They mention Parppar Andanar or Marayor ( Brahmins ) , Aracar ( Kings or Kshatriyas ) , Vanikar ( Merchants or Vaisya ) , and Vellalar ( Cultivators or Sudra ) , in many places . ( Tol . Porul : 625 , 626 , 632 and 635 )“
  13. ^ Adoor K. K. Ramachandran Nair (1986). Kerala State Gazetteer. Vol. 2. Trivandrum: State Editor, Kerala Gazetteers : Sale and distribution, Supt., Govt. Presses. p. 246. OCLC 21872148.:”Sangam clasics are replete with references to Andanar or Marayo r like Parppar , Arasar ( king or Kshatriyas ) Vanikar ( Merchants or Vaisya ) and Vellalar ( cultivators)”
  14. ^ M. Abraham Pandither (1984). Karunamirtha Sagaram on Srutis: A Treatise on Music Or Isai-Tamil, which is One of the Main Divisions of Muttamil Or Language, Music & Drama. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. p. 64.:”Natchinarkiniyar says that the law of marriage was the same for the four castes in ancient times , but that the Vellalars ( Sudras ) were excluded from it from the time of the second Ooli.”
  15. ^ Joseph Puthenkalam (1977). Marriage and the Family in Kerala: With Special Reference to Matrilineal Castes. Calgary: Dept. of Sociology, University of Calgary. p. 17.:”P.T. Sreenivasa Iyangar says, in 'A History of South India' that, at the period of ' Tolkappiyam ' ( c . 500 A.D. ) caste system , as such, did not exist, though its beginnings may be inferred from the poet's references to ' anthanar ' ( Brahmins ), ' arachans ' ( rulers ), ' vanikkars ' ( merchants ), and ' vellalars ' ( farmers ) as ...”
  16. ^ T. V. Kuppuswami (1978). MATRIX OF THE SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARLY TAMILS, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Volume I. Vol. 39. Indian History Congress. p. 195.:”The fourth class was called Vellalar . The Sangam works state that the Vellalar were agriculturists . There is a reference in Tolkappiyam which states that there is no other occupation for the Vellalar except tilling the soil , though there is evidence in the same work that their functions in society included other kinds of duties too”
  17. ^ a b Murugan, V (2000). Tolkāppiyam in English. Institute of Asian studies (Chennai). p. 644.
  18. ^ a b c Dikshitar, Ramachandra (2007). Studies in Tamil Literature and History. Klempner Press. p. 181. ISBN 978-1-40677-245-6.
  19. ^ Adoor K. K. Ramachandran Nair (1986). Kerala State Gazetteer. Vol. 2. Trivandrum: State Editor, Kerala Gazetteers : Sale and distribution, Supt., Govt. Presses. p. 246. OCLC 21872148.:”Sangam clasics are replete with references to Andanar or Marayo r like Parppar , Arasar ( king or Kshatriyas ) Vanikar ( Merchants or Vaisya ) and Vellalar ( cultivators)”
  20. ^ a b M. Abraham Pandither (1984). Karunamirtha Sagaram on Srutis: A Treatise on Music Or Isai-Tamil, which is One of the Main Divisions of Muttamil Or Language, Music & Drama. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. p. 64.:”Natchinarkiniyar says that the law of marriage was the same for the four castes in ancient times , but that the Vellalars ( Sudras ) were excluded from it from the time of the second Ooli.”
  21. ^ R.S.Sharma; K.M.Shrimali (2008). A Comprehensive History of India: pt.2. India: People's Publishing House. p. 226. ISBN 978-8-17304-561-5.:"The vellālars cannot be equated with the shudras of the north since some of them had the right of marriage with members of the royal families and a section of them known as veļirs were local rulers and feudatories"
  22. ^ Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta Sastri. A Comprehensive History of India, Volume 4, Part 2. India: Indian History Congress. p. 226. ISBN 978-8-17304-561-5.:"The vellālars cannot be equated with the shudras of the north since some of them had the right of marriage with members of the royal families and a section of them known as veļirs were local rulers and feudatories"
  23. ^ S. Thiruvenkatachari (1978). Studies in Arts and Sciences. India: Ram Bros : available from SISSWP Society. p. 330.:"The fourth division was not the Sudra, but the peasant or the Vellala - who was not the low menial that he was in the north-Indian caste system. The Vellala was as much respected as the Brahmin or Kshatriya."
  24. ^ Indira Gandhi; Indira Gandhi Abhinandan Samiti (1975). The Spirit of India: volumes presented to Shrimati Indira Gandhi by the Indira Gandhi Abhinandan Samiti. India: Asia Pub. House.:"The fourth division was not the Sudra, but the peasant or the Vellala - who was not the low menial that he was in the north-Indian caste system. The Vellala was as much respected as the Brahmin or Kshatriya."
  25. ^ Aiyangar, M. Srinivasa (2018). Tamil Studies, or Essays on the History of the Tamil People, Language, Religion and Literature. India: Franklin Classics Trade Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-35301-211-0."(1) tilling, (2i cow-breeding, (3) trade, (4) studying the Vedas, (5) worship of sacrificial' fire, and (G) giving aims. Here the Vellalas are spoken of as Bhu-Vaisyas." "trade in grains was formerly followed by a class of Vellalas called Kula-Vanikar or Vellan- Chettis"
  26. ^ Raghavan, M.D. (1971). Tamil Culture in Ceylon: A General Introduction. Kalai Nilayam. p. 131.:"The Solia Vellalas are sub-divided into Vellan Chetties, meaning the Vellala merchant"
  27. ^ Adoor K. K. Ramachandran Nair (1986). Kerala State Gazetteer. Vol. 2. Trivandrum: State Editor, Kerala Gazetteers : Sale and distribution, Supt., Govt. Presses. p. 246. OCLC 21872148.:”Sangam clasics are replete with references to Andanar or Marayo r like Parppar , Arasar ( king or Kshatriyas ) Vanikar ( Merchants or Vaisya ) and Vellalar ( cultivators)”
  28. ^ M. Abraham Pandither (1984). Karunamirtha Sagaram on Srutis: A Treatise on Music Or Isai-Tamil, which is One of the Main Divisions of Muttamil Or Language, Music & Drama. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. p. 64.:”Natchinarkiniyar says that the law of marriage was the same for the four castes in ancient times , but that the Vellalars ( Sudras ) were excluded from it from the time of the second Ooli.”
  29. ^ Joseph Puthenkalam (1977). Marriage and the Family in Kerala: With Special Reference to Matrilineal Castes. Calgary: Dept. of Sociology, University of Calgary. p. 17.:”P.T. Sreenivasa Iyangar says, in 'A History of South India' that, at the period of ' Tolkappiyam ' ( c . 500 A.D. ) caste system , as such, did not exist, though its beginnings may be inferred from the poet's references to ' anthanar ' ( Brahmins ), ' arachans ' ( rulers ), ' vanikkars ' ( merchants ), and ' vellalars ' ( farmers ) as ...”
  30. ^ T. V. Kuppuswami (1978). MATRIX OF THE SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARLY TAMILS, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Volume I. Vol. 39. Indian History Congress. p. 195.:”The fourth class was called Vellalar . The Sangam works state that the Vellalar were agriculturists . There is a reference in Tolkappiyam which states that there is no other occupation for the Vellalar except tilling the soil , though there is evidence in the same work that their functions in society included other kinds of duties too”
  31. ^ Meluhha and Agastya : Alpha and Omega of the Indus Script By Iravatham Mahadevan pages 16: "The Ventar-Velir-Velalar groups constituted the ruling and land-owning classes in the Tamil country since the beginning of recorded history""Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 June 2011. Retrieved 7 June 2011.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  32. ^ Al-Hind: Early medieval India and the expansion of Islam, 7th-11th centuries By André Wink pages 321: "Not only were the Vellalas the landowning communities of South India,..."[1]
  33. ^ a b Gough, Kathleen (2008). Rural Society in Southeast India. Cambridge University Press. p. 29. ISBN 9780521040198.
  34. ^ a b c Vijailakshmi, Usha R. (2010). KARMANDALA SATAKAM: POLITICO-SOCIO-CULTURAL ANALYSIS OF MEDIEVAL TAMIL LITERATURE ON THE VELLALA COMMUNITY OF SOUTH KARNATAKA. Indian History Congress. p. 430.
  35. ^ Hermann Gundert; T. Madhava Menon (Translated to English) (2003). Keralolpatti. Thiruvananthapuram: International School of Dravidian Linguistics : Distributor, Dravidian Linguistics. p. 68. ISBN 8185692351. OCLC 60393384.:”To the Vellalar also was granted feudatory overlordship status and titles like Vazhum Vazhunnor, Kartha, Kambammiki, Nayar, Menon, Pilla, Panikkar, etc.”
  36. ^ Hermann Gundert; T. Madhava Menon (Translated to English) (2003). Keralolpatti. Thiruvananthapuram: International School of Dravidian Linguistics : Distributor, Dravidian Linguistics. p. 59. ISBN 8185692351. OCLC 60393384.:”Those belonging to Vellala lineages are known as Thangal, Kammal, Kurup, Panikkar, Nayar, Atiyoti, Nambiyar, Chellattan, Thalachennor, Talappennor, Menokki, Menon, Appan, Ammoman, Ammavan, etc.”
  37. ^ Iyer, L. K. Ananthakrishna (1912). The Cochin Tribes And Castes. Vol. 2. Madras: The Government Of Cochin. p. 15.:”Kiriyattil Nayars—They form the highest of all the Nayar subdivisions in the Cochin State as well as south Malabar... The members of the aristocratic class who still bear the titles of Panikkar, Kurup, Kaimal, Kartha, Menon, and Menokki belong to this class....The Nayars of this class are, according to current tradition, connected with the sixty-four families of Vellalas, whom Dr. Oppert has tried to identify with the Pallavas.”
  38. ^ L. A. Krishna Iyer (1968). Social History of Kerala: The Dravidians. Vol. 2. Madras: Book Centre Publications. p. 3.:”The evidence in early Tamil literature goes to show that the Nayars and the Vellalas were originally of the same stock.”
  39. ^ G. Arunima (2003). There Comes Papa: Colonialism and the Transformation of Matriliny in Kerala, Malabar, C. 1850-1940. New Delhi: Orient BlackSwan. p. 118. ISBN 8125025146.:”Thus, the Dravidian inhabitants of Malabar, the Nayars, who were originally the vellalar, or agriculturists, were converted into the “protecting” or “governing” class.”
  40. ^ William Logan; P. J. Cherian (2000). William Logan's Malabar Manual: New Edition with Commentaries. Vol. 1. Thiruvananthapuram: Kerala Gazetteers Department. p. 116. ISBN 8185499373. OCLC 52039872.:”In this way the real agriculturists except the Vellalar (irrigators) out of whom the class of Nayars seems to have been originally formed, came to be treated as being outside the caste system altogether.”
  41. ^ Balakrishnan N. Nair (1959). The Dynamic Brahmin. Bombay: Popular Book Depot. pp. 12–13.:”Indeed the Pillais among the Nanchinad Vellalas appear to have undergone Sanskritic influence at the hands of the Tamil Brahmins and Kannada “Pottis” at a later stage so that they attained the status of ‘"Amhalavasis” and gradually merged into the same class of ‘‘Nayars” through " inter-marriage. The “Pillais” among the “Nayars of Southern Travancore must therefore be considered originally to have been of Tamil extraction even though for reasons which can be historically adduced this process of “cultural fertilisation” at the lower reaches between two communities of almost identical culture appears to have come to an abrupt end since the beginning of the nineteenth century when Brahmanical ascendancy regained in vigour and led to the stratification of social classes in Travancore.”
  42. ^ a b Krishnamachari, Suganthi (30 April 2020). "Inscriptions talk of fascinating Kongu connection". The Hindu. Retrieved 17 April 2021.:”The research of epigraphist Pulavar Dr. S. Raju shows the vestiges of the Kongu connection among the Vellala migrants to Palakkad...There is a Kongu Chola inscription, more than a 1,000 years old, which talks of Vellalan Kumaran Kumaranaana Dhananjaya Pallavaraiayan, living in Palakkad. Many Kongu Vellalas lived in Palakkad, Chittur, Kollangodu and Alathur. One story that repeats in literature and copper plates is that of the marriage of a Chola princess into the Chera royal family, and the subsequent movement of 8,000 Kongu Vellalas to Chera Nadu...‘Alagumalai Kuravanji’ talks of these Vellalas”... “According to Mezhi Vilakkam, the Vellalas had landed rights (kani urimai) in Kochi, Kollam, Kozhikode and Palakkad”...”Mannadiyar is a title, which the Angarath and Vadaseri families of Kerala have”... “William Logan, in his Malabar Manual, says that the Mannadiyars were a caste of Vellalars from Kangeyam, in Coimbatore province, who had settled in Palakkad. Mandradi is a title held by many Kongu Vellala families”.. “Mandradi became Mannadi in Malayalam”...”Menon is a title indicative of a person’s social status, and derives from the Tamil word Melavan, meaning a person of high rank“...”Interestingly, many of the Mannadiyars are Menons.” says Raju”
  43. ^ Edgar Thurston; K. Rangachari (2001). Castes and Tribes of Southern India. Vol. 1. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. pp. 241–244. ISBN 8120602889.:p241.”Like other Sūdras of Travancore, they add the title Pillai to their name, which is often preceded by the title Kannaku.”; p242.”From a copper-plate grant in the possession of the Syrian Christians, dated A.D. 824, we learn that one family of carpenters, and four families of Vellālas, were entrusted with the growing of plants on the sea-coast, the latter being the Karalars or trustees. From this it appears that the Vellālas must have settled on the west coast in the ninth century at the latest. The Nanchinād Vellālas were not originally different from their Pāndyan analogues, but settled in the tāluks above mentioned, over which the Pāndyans held sway during several periods in mediæval times.”; p243.”In their dress and ornaments, too, the Nanchinād Vellālas living in North Travancore differ from those of the south, inasmuch as they adopt the practice of the Nāyars...The Nanchinād Vellālas are well known, throughout Travancore, for their thrift, industry, and mathematical acumen. Several families have dropped the designation of Vellāla, and adopted Nanchinād Nāyar as their caste-name.”; p244.”The presents to the bridegroom include...very often an iron writing-style and knife. This is said to be symbolical of the fact that the Vellālas formed the accountant caste of Travancore, and that several families of them were invited from Madura and Tinnevelly to settle down in Nanchinād for this purpose...The Nanchinād Vellālas contract temporary alliances with Nāyar women...”
  44. ^ a b Rao, C. Hayavadana (1916). The Vellalas of Nanjanad, Travancore State, India. Vol. 10/11. Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft mbH. pp. 521–522. Retrieved 16 May 2021. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help):”From a reference to Vellalans, in the copper plate grants in the possession of the Syrian Christians dated 824 A. D., it is inferred by Mr. Thurston in his “Tribes and Castes of South India” that Vellalas originally settled in the West Coast about the 9™ Cent. A. D. It is also possible; according to Mr. Subramania Iyer, who says in a note to him, that Vellalas of Madura and Travancore settled as accountants in Travancore at the request of the local Rajas. In evidence of this may be cited the fact that even now one of the presents to a bridegroom at his marriage is a writing style of the kind so well-known in Southern India. A good many Vellalas too were actually noted accountants to the State until very recently. Like their Tamil brethren of British India, these Vellalas style themselves Pillai.”
  45. ^ Sadasivan, S. N (2000). A social history of India. New Delhi, India: APH Pub. Corp. p. 282. ISBN 817648170X.:”Similarly a class of Chettis of Coimbatore whose relative status in Tamil Nadu was much lower than that of the Tiyyas , entered Kerala as late as the middle of the 19th century and found a place for them among the Nayars. Recorded as Vellalans and...”
  46. ^ Sadasivan, S. N (2000). A social history of India. New Delhi, India: APH Pub. Corp. p. 283. ISBN 817648170X.:”The Konakachettis or Chettipillais (vendors of loin cloth or penial covers) who entered Kerala from Tamil Nadu around the 17th century took the title Pillai which is also a caste title of the Nayars of South Kerala. Although the Nayars in the earlier years considered them polluting, the similarity in their titles led to the establishment of proximity sprouting the logic of convenience for them to inter - marry. The original five divisions of the Nayars , Illam , Kiriyam , Padamangalam , Swaroopam and Tamilpadam have now little resistance for intermingling.”
  47. ^ Edgar Thurston; K. Rangachari (2001). Castes and Tribes of Southern India. Vol. 1. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. p. 298. ISBN 8120602889.:“Padamangalam and Tamil Padam were not originally Nāyars, but immigrants from the Tamil country. They are confined to a few localities in Travancore, and until recently there was a distinctive difference in regard to dress and ornaments between the Tamil Padam and the ordinary Nāyars. The occupation of the Padamangalakkar is temple service, such as sweeping, carrying lamps during processions, etc. The Tamil Padakkar are believed to have taken to various kinds of occupation, and, for this reason, to have become merged with other sections.”
  48. ^ Iyer, L. K. Ananthakrishna (1912). The Cochin Tribes And Castes. Vol. 2. Madras: The Government Of Cochin. pp. 13–14.:“The Nayars...Their origin is still problematical, but it is generally held that they are a Dravidian people who have been modified by mixture with the Nambuthiris...They may have been among the first invaders of Malabar and consequently assumed a dominant position...This process of assimilation is going on even yet. Chetties of Coimbatore . . . Gollas . . . from the north have similarly, in course of time, assumed Nayar customs and manners, and are now styled Nayars. Again the Rajas and Chieftains of the country sometimes raised individuals or classes who had rendered them meritorious service to the rank of Nayars. These men were therefore styled Nayars, but formed a separate sub-division with little or no communion with the rest of the Nayar class, until at least, after the lapse of generations, when their origin was forgotten.”
  49. ^ Mysore Narasimhachar Srinivas (1995). Social Change in Modern India. New Delhi: Orient Longman Private Limited. p. 18. ISBN 812500422X.:”Thus the two patrilineal Tamil trading castes , the Tarakans ( of Angadipuram ) and Mannadiyārs ( of Pālghāt tāluk ) , gradually changed , in about 120 to 150 years , from patriliny to matriliny . Tarakan women had husbands from Nambūdri Brahmin or Samanthan families while Tarakan men married Kiriyam Nāyar women. Some Tarakan women had connubial relations with men of the royal Vellāttiri lineage , and this was a source of wealth for the lucky Tarakan lineages.”
  50. ^ Edgar Thurston; K. Rangachari (2001). Castes and Tribes of Southern India. Vol. 1. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. p. 283. ISBN 8120602889.:“"The Nāyars," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes...Chettis of Coimbatore, for example, who settled in Palghāt and Valluvanād within living memory, have developed by this time into Nāyars...Again the rājahs and chieftains of the country sometimes raised individuals or classes who had rendered them meritorious service to the rank of Nāyars. These men were thereafter styled Nāyars, but formed a separate sub-division with little or no communion with the rest of the Nāyar class, until at least, after the lapse of generations, when their origin was forgotten.”
  51. ^ Etherington, Norman, ed. (2005). Missions and Empire. Oxford University Press. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-19153-106-4.
  52. ^ a b c Karve, Irawati (1981). Biology of the People of Tamil Nadu. Indian Society of Human Genetics. p. 19.:"There is a tradition among the Vellalans that there were 3 divisions of the Vaisyas : ( 1 ) Bhuvaisyas or farmers , ( 2 ) Govaisyas or husbandmen and ( 3 ) Dhanavaisyas or merchants . The last division is claimed to have given rise to the Chettis who originally belonged to the Vellala tribe."
  53. ^ Vijailakshmi, Usha R. (2010). KARMANDALA SATAKAM: POLITICO-SOCIO-CULTURAL ANALYSIS OF MEDIEVAL TAMIL LITERATURE ON THE VELLALA COMMUNITY OF SOUTH KARNATAKA. Indian History Congress. p. 432.:"Verse 34: Gangeya Murthaka pala was born to Lord Shiva and he had two wives; the first wife had 54 sons & the second wife had 52 sons. Out of these Bhupalar, (one who practiced Agriculture) gave birth to 35 Vellala leaders, Dhanapalar, who was into trade, gave birth to 35 Vellala leaders Gopalar, (one who herded cattle) and one Agamurthi gave birth to 1 Vellala leader"
  54. ^ a b c Nambiar, P.K. (1961). Village Survey Monographs, 13 Kadukkara, Part VI, Vol-IX, Census Year 1961 (PDF). India: Office of the Registrar General. pp. 7–8. "These people are considered as high caste Hindus and Mr. Thurston classifies them as a sub-sect of Vaisyas. According to Mr. Thurston these people belong to the sub-sect known as Buvaisyas as distinguished from Thanavaisyas. The former are cultivators by tradition and the latter are traders by profession. The word Vellala is believed to be derived from the word Velanmai meaning cultivation and thereby indicating their traditional occupation." Cite error: The named reference "nambiar1961" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  55. ^ a b c Census Division, India (1965). Madras: Volume 9, Part 6, Issue 13 of Census of India 1961, India Census Division. India: Office of the Registrar General. pp. 7–8. considered as high caste Hindus and Mr . Thurston classifies them as a sub - sect of Vaisyas . According to Mr . Thurston these people belong to the sub - sect known as Buvaisyas as distinguished from Thanavaisyas . The former are cultivators by tradition and the latter are traders by profession . The word Vellala is believed to be Cite error: The named reference "census7" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  56. ^ a b Thurston, Edgar. Castes and Tribes of Southern India.: "The traditional story of the origin of the Vellālas is given as follows in the Baramahal Records.*" "Murdaka Pālakulu had fifty-four sons by the daughter of the god Indra, and fifty-two by the daughter of the god Kubēra, whom he married to the one hundred and six daughters of Nala Kubarudu, the son of Kubēra, and his sons-in-law made the following agreement with him, viz., that thirty-five of them should be called Bhūmi Pālakulu, and should till the ground; thirty-five of them named Vellal Shetti, and their occupation be traffic; and thirty-five of them named Gōvu Shetlu, and their employment breeding and feeding of cattle."
  57. ^ a b c d Chitty, Simon Casie (2016). The Ceylon Gazetteer: Containing an Accurate Account of the Districts, Provinces, Cities, Towns ... &c. of the Island of Ceylon. Palala Press. p. 230. ISBN 978-1358116018. Cite error: The named reference "chitty230" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  58. ^ a b Brito, C. (1999). Yalpana Vaipava Malai or The History of the Kingdom of Jaffna, Translated from Tamil with an Appendix and a Glossary. Asian Educational Services, New Delhi. p. 98. ISBN 81-206-1362-7.:"Velalar... Vellalar...Cultivator caste, i. e., same as Vaisya, p. lxxxiii." Cite error: The named reference "brito98" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  59. ^ Aiyangar, M. Srinivasa (2018). Tamil Studies, or Essays on the History of the Tamil People, Language, Religion and Literature. India: Franklin Classics Trade Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-35301-211-0."(1) tilling, (2i cow-breeding, (3) trade, (4) studying the Vedas, (5) worship of sacrificial' fire, and (G) giving aims. Here the Vellalas are spoken of as Bhu-Vaisyas." "trade in grains was formerly followed by a class of Vellalas called Kula-Vanikar or Vellan- Chettis"
  60. ^ Susan Bayly (22 April 2004). ‪Saints, Goddesses and Kings: Muslims and Christians in South Indian Society, 1700-1900‬. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 385, 393, 411, 412, 421. ISBN 0521372011.
  61. ^ Gail Omvedt (2008). ‪Seeking Begumpura: The Social Vision of Anticaste Intellectuals‬. Navayana Pub. p. 189.:”Dubois had a fascination for the brahmans and upper sudras ( vellalas and others )”
  62. ^ a b c Price, Pamela G. (1996). Kingship and Political Practice in Colonial India. Cambridge University Press. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-52155-247-9.:”Dominant castes like the land - controlling Vellalar , whose practices were compatible with Brahminic ideas of purity , were considered high - ranking Sudras in the government system” Cite error: The named reference "price61" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  63. ^ a b c Diehl, Anita (1977). E. V. Ramaswami Naicker-Periyar: A Study of the Influence of a Personality in Contemporary South India. Stockholm ; Göteborg ; Lund: Esselte studium. p. 16. ISBN 9789124276454.:”In Tamil Nadu the traditional caste society is in practice reduced into Brahmins and Sudras, kith a large third group classified in administrative terms as Scheduled and Backward classes.) Prominent among the Sudras are Vellalar , Chettiar and Gounder” Cite error: The named reference "diehl16" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  64. ^ a b Yanagisawa, Haruka (1996). A Century of Change: Caste and Irrigated Lands in Tamilnadu, 1860s-1970s. Manohar. p. 35. ISBN 9788173041594.:”Manual of Tinnevelly district tabulates the composition of the village population as follows : Brahmans , 10 families ; Vellalar and other ' Sudra ' landholders ...” Cite error: The named reference "yanagisawa35" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  65. ^ Pillai, P. Chidambaram (2008). Right of Temple Entry. Chennai: MJP Publishers. p. 33. ISBN 9788180940392.:”The Brahmin goes with the Vellala and others of the Sudra caste in this affair”
  66. ^ a b Samuel Joshua (2020). ‪Untouchable Bodies, Resistance, and Liberation: A Comparative Theology of Divine Possessions‬. The Netherlands: BRILL. p. 129.:”to choose Aaron, who was a Pillai, belonging to the Vellalar-Shudra community.”
  67. ^ a b Anne Sigfrid Grøsneth (2010). ‪Lost Selves and Lonely Persons: Experiences of Illness and Well-being Among Tamil Refugees in Norway‬. Carolina Academic Press. p. 49.:”The status of the Vellala caste itself , however , does not completely confirm a Dumontian perspective . The Vellalas usually admit to the sudra varna , which is the lowest of the four caste categories within the Sanskrit classification , thus meant to fulfill various service functions in society”
  68. ^ Fox, Richard G. (January 1969), "Varna Schemes and Ideological Integration in Indian Society", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 11 (1): 27–45, doi:10.1017/S0010417500005132: "When recognition of a regional varna scheme has been unavoidable—such as the tripartite division into Brahmins, non-Brahmins, and Untouchables in much of the South— it has been explained in terms of an historical corruption or breakdown of the standard four-class system, rather than regarded as a functional entity in its own right."
  69. ^ Jalal, Ayesha (1995). Democracy and Authoritarianism in South Asia: A Comparative and Historical Perspective. Cambridge University Press. p. 204. ISBN 978-0-521-47862-5.
  70. ^ Bernard, Jean Alphonse (2001). From Raj to the Republic: A Political History of India, 1935–2000. Har Anand Publications. p. 37. ISBN 9788124107669.
  71. ^ Raychaudhuri, Tapan; Habib, Irfan; Kumar, Dharma (1982). The Cambridge Economic History of India: c.1200–c.1750. Cambridge University Press Archive. pp. 27–28. ISBN 978-0-521-22692-9.
  72. ^ R.S.Sharma; K.M.Shrimali (2008). A Comprehensive History of India: pt.2. India: People's Publishing House. p. 226. ISBN 978-8-17304-561-5.:"The vellālars cannot be equated with the shudras of the north since some of them had the right of marriage with members of the royal families and a section of them known as veļirs were local rulers and feudatories"
  73. ^ Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta Sastri. A Comprehensive History of India, Volume 4, Part 2. India: Indian History Congress. p. 226. ISBN 978-8-17304-561-5.:"The vellālars cannot be equated with the shudras of the north since some of them had the right of marriage with members of the royal families and a section of them known as veļirs were local rulers and feudatories"
  74. ^ S. Thiruvenkatachari (1978). Studies in Arts and Sciences. India: Ram Bros : available from SISSWP Society. p. 330.:"The fourth division was not the Sudra, but the peasant or the Vellala - who was not the low menial that he was in the north-Indian caste system. The Vellala was as much respected as the Brahmin or Kshatriya."
  75. ^ Indira Gandhi; Indira Gandhi Abhinandan Samiti (1975). The Spirit of India: volumes presented to Shrimati Indira Gandhi by the Indira Gandhi Abhinandan Samiti. India: Asia Pub. House.:"The fourth division was not the Sudra, but the peasant or the Vellala - who was not the low menial that he was in the north-Indian caste system. The Vellala was as much respected as the Brahmin or Kshatriya."
  76. ^ Iravīntiran̲, Na (2003). இந்துத்துவம், இந்து சமயம், சமூக மாற்றங்கள். கவுட் விஷன். p. 112.:"வெள்ளாளர் வைசியர்கள்"
  77. ^ Smith, Ronald Morton (2002). Developments in Indian Religion. Canadian Scholars' Press. p. 33.:"Appar was a vaisya"
  78. ^ Leiden, International Congress of Orientalists (2018). Actes Du Sixième Congrès International Des Orientalistes. Wentworth Press. p. 300. ISBN 978-0-27090-885-5.:"He was a Vellala or Vaisya by birth ."
  79. ^ Dehejia, Vidya (1988). Slaves of the Lord: The Path of the Tamil Saints. Munshiram Manoharlal. p. 178. ISBN 978-8-12150-044-9.:"EYARKON KALIKAMAR Caste : vaishya ( vellala )"
  80. ^ Gupta, Ke.Si. (1988). Vaishyas in India, Volume 1. All India Vaishya Samaj. p. 38.:"VYSYA. SAINTS. NAMMALVAR. According to tradition Nammalvar is the first amongst Alvars of Ramanuja Visista Advaita Siddhantha and he was is known traditionally one who born in a Vysya family ."
  81. ^ P., Jayaraman (2019). A Brief History of Vaishnava Saint Poets : The Alwars. India: Vani Prakashan. p. 60. ISBN 978-9-38901-269-9. Nammalwar belonging to the Vellala, Vaishya community
  82. ^ Ramesh, M.S. (2000). 108 Vaishnavite Divya Desams: Divya desams in Malai Nadu and Vada Nadu. T.T. Devasthanams. p. 95.:"A vysya by name Tiruvazhmarba was married to lady by name Brindha . They had no children . They prayed to the Lord of Tirupatisaram and were blessed with a daughter named ******* Udaya nangai ."
  83. ^ Vijailakshmi, Usha R. (2010). KARMANDALA SATAKAM: POLITICO-SOCIO-CULTURAL ANALYSIS OF MEDIEVAL TAMIL LITERATURE ON THE VELLALA COMMUNITY OF SOUTH KARNATAKA. Indian History Congress. p. 432.
  84. ^ Scharfe, Hartmut (1973). Handbuch der Orientalistik: Indien, Part 2. BRILL. p. 115. ISBN 978-9-00409-060-6."ĀśśS I 1,3,5f . prescribes gotra - s derived from rājarși - s ( such as Mānava , Aila , Paurūrava ) for kings , or Mānava for all the three upper castes if the exact gotra is unknown ; vaisya - s sometimes used Bhālandana , Vātsapra or Mārkhila"
  85. ^ Kentish Coomaraswamy, Ananda (1988). Selected Letters of Ananda K. Coomaraswamy. Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts. p. 437. ISBN 978-0-90562-306-1.:"Yajñopavita is the sacred thread which all the ' twice born ' , ie , the three uppercastes , among the Hindus begin wearing when they come of age . The rite that confers this is called upanayana ."
  86. ^ Journal of Kerala Studies, Volume 32. University of Kerala. 2005. p. 134.:"a few of the Vellalas constantly wear the sacred thread"
  87. ^ Raghavan, M.D (1971). Tamil Culture in Ceylon: A General Introduction. Kalai Nilayam. p. 129.:"A few therefore constantly wear the sacred thread"
  88. ^ Record Office, Madras (India : State) (1957). Tanjore District Handbook. Superintendent Government Press. p. 156.:"They generally style themselves as Chettiars or Mudaliars and engage themselves partly in trade and partly in agriculture . The men , except that they wear the sacred thread and paint on their foreheads a sect - mark which is like the ordinary Vaishnava mark"
  89. ^ B. S. Baliga (Rao Bahadur.), Madras (India : State) (1957). Madras District Gazetteers, Volume 1. Superintendent, Government Press. p. 156.:"They generally style themselves as Chettiars or Mudaliars and engage themselves partly in trade and partly in agriculture . The men , except that they wear the sacred thread and paint on their foreheads a sect - mark which is like the ordinary Vaishnava mark"
  90. ^ Venkataramaiah, K. M. (1996). A Handbook of Tamil Nadu. International School of Dravidian Linguistics. p. 424.:"others being Sara ! ! ı , Kaikkutti and Coliya ( cõliya ) . They do not intermarry . They are vegetarians and wear the sacred thread . They have the title Pillai"
  91. ^ Kentish Coomaraswamy, Ananda (1988). Selected Letters of Ananda K. Coomaraswamy. Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts. p. 437. ISBN 978-0-90562-306-1.:"Our people are Vellalas , originally from Tanjore , but long settled in N . Ceylon ( Jaffna ) and then also in Colombo . They are Saivas , they are given upanayana and wear the thread ."
  92. ^ Kentish Coomaraswamy, Ananda (1988). Selected Letters of Ananda K. Coomaraswamy. Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts. p. 436. ISBN 978-0-90562-306-1.:"We do wear the yajñopavita ; I have received upanayana from a Brahman in the Punjab , and shall resume wearing the thread when we come to India . I suggested that you should accept the offer to give you upanayana in Bengal"
  93. ^ Kentish Coomaraswamy, Ananda (1988). Selected Letters of Ananda K. Coomaraswamy (PDF). Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts. p. 436. ISBN 978-0-90562-306-1.:"We do wear the yajñopavita ; I have received upanayana from a Brahman in the Punjab , and shall resume wearing the thread when we come to India . I suggested that you should accept the offer to give you upanayana in Bengal"
  94. ^ Thurston, Edgar. Castes and Tribes of Southern India.: "a severe drought fell upon the land, and the people prayed to Bhūdēvi, the goddess of the earth, for aid. She pitied them, and produced from her body a man carrying a plough, who showed them how to till the soil and support themselves. His offsprings are the Vellālas, who aspire to belong to the Vaisya caste, since that includes Gōvaisyas, Bhūvaisyas, and Dhanavaisyas (shepherds, cultivators and merchants). A few, therefore, constantly wear the sacred thread, but most put it on only during marriages or funerals as a mark of the sacred nature of the ceremony."
  95. ^ Rajannan, Busnagi (1992). Salem Cyclopedia: A Cultural and Historical Dictionary of Salem District, Tamil Nadu. Institute of Kongu Studies (Salem, India). p. 340. ISBN 978-8-19002-880-6.:"VELLALAR , Kongu . They are variously referred to as Bupaalan , Buvaisya, Dhevar, Gangavamsam, Rayar and most commonly vivasayee and kudiyaanavar.”
  96. ^ Olivelle, Patrick (2005). Manus Code Of Law: A Critical Edition And Translation Of The Mānava Dharmaśāstra. Oxford University Press. p. 212. ISBN 978-0-19517-146-4.
  97. ^ Aiyangar, M. Srinivasa (2018). Tamil Studies, or Essays on the History of the Tamil People, Language, Religion and Literature. India: Franklin Classics Trade Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-35301-211-0."(1) tilling, (2i cow-breeding, (3) trade, (4) studying the Vedas, (5) worship of sacrificial' fire, and (G) giving aims. Here the Vellalas are spoken of as Bhu-Vaisyas." "trade in grains was formerly followed by a class of Vellalas called Kula-Vanikar or Vellan- Chettis"
  98. ^ Vijailakshmi, Usha R. (2010). KARMANDALA SATAKAM: POLITICO-SOCIO-CULTURAL ANALYSIS OF MEDIEVAL TAMIL LITERATURE ON THE VELLALA COMMUNITY OF SOUTH KARNATAKA. Indian History Congress. p. 432.:"Verse 34: Gangeya Murthaka pala was born to Lord Shiva and he had two wives; the first wife had 54 sons & the second wife had 52 sons. Out of these Bhupalar, (one who practiced Agriculture) gave birth to 35 Vellala leaders, Dhanapalar, who was into trade, gave birth to 35 Vellala leaders Gopalar, (one who herded cattle)"
  99. ^ Vijailakshmi, Usha R. (2010). KARMANDALA SATAKAM: POLITICO-SOCIO-CULTURAL ANALYSIS OF MEDIEVAL TAMIL LITERATURE ON THE VELLALA COMMUNITY OF SOUTH KARNATAKA. Indian History Congress. p. 432.:"Interestingly, this legend is dealt with in certain detail by Edgar Thurston in his seminal work —- Castes and Tribes of Southern India, in which he discusses about Vellala community of Tamilnadu."
  100. ^ Nambiar, P.K. (1961). Village Survey Monographs, 13 Kadukkara, Part VI, Vol-IX, Census Year 1961. India: Office of the Registrar General. pp. 7–8. "These people are considered as high caste Hindus and Mr. Thurston classifies them as a sub-sect of Vaisyas. According to Mr. Thurston these people belong to the sub-sect known as Buvaisyas as distinguished from Thanavaisyas. The former are cultivators by tradition and the latter are traders by profession. The word Vellala is believed to be derived from the word Velanmai meaning cultivation and thereby indicating their traditional occupation."
  101. ^ Thurston, Edgar (2018). CASTES AND TRIBES OF SOUTHERN INDIA VOL 1: With commentary by VED from VICTORIA INSTITUTIONS. VICTORIA INSTITUTIONS, Aaradhana, Deverkovil 673508 India. p. 125. ISBN 978-1-98077-710-6.:"Bhu vaisya (earth Vaisya).—A name returned by some Nattukottai Chettis and Vellalas."
  102. ^ Thurston, Edgar. Castes and Tribes of Southern India.: "First Bhūmi Pālakudu or saviour of the earth, because he was produced by her. Second, Ganga kulam or descendant of the river Ganga, by reason of having been brought forth on her banks. Third, Murdaka Pālakudu or protector of the plough, alluding to his being born with a ploughshare in his hand, and they likewise ordained that, as he had lost his diadem, he should not be eligible to sovereignty, but that he and his descendants should till the ground with this privilege. that a person of the caste should put the crown on the king's head at the coronation. They next invested him with the yegnōpavitam or string, and, in order that he might propagate his caste, they gave him in marriage the daughters of the gods Indra and Kubēra."
  103. ^ Thurston, Edgar. Castes and Tribes of Southern India.: "Murdaka Pālakulu had fifty-four sons by the daughter of the god Indra, and fifty-two by the daughter of the god Kubēra, whom he married to the one hundred and six daughters of Nala Kubarudu, the son of Kubēra, and his sons-in-law made the following agreement with him, viz., that thirty-five of them should be called Bhūmi Pālakulu, and should till the ground; thirty-five of them named Vellal Shetti, and their occupation be traffic; and thirty-five of them named Gōvu Shetlu, and their employment breeding and feeding of cattle."
  104. ^ Rajannan, Busnagi (1992). Salem Cyclopedia: A Cultural and Historical Dictionary of Salem District, Tamil Nadu. Institute of Kongu Studies (Salem, India). p. 340. ISBN 978-8-19002-880-6.:"VELLALAR , Kongu . A major caste of farmers in the district . They are variously referred to as Bupaalan , Buvaisya , Dhevar , Gangavamsam , Rayar , and most commonly as Kudiyaanavar and Vivasaayi ."
  105. ^ Tambiah, Henry Wijayakone (2001). The Laws and Customs of the Tamils of Jaffna. Women's Education & Research Centre, Colombo, Sri Lanka. p. 57. ISBN 978-9-55926-116-2.:"he classifies the Vellalas under the Vaisya caste and even goes to the extent of calling the Vellalas the "Poo Vasi Ya""
  106. ^ Tambiah, Henry Wijayakone (2001). The Laws and Customs of the Tamils of Jaffna. Women's Education & Research Centre, Colombo, Sri Lanka. p. 57. ISBN 978-9-55926-116-2.:"Simon Casie Chetty seems to think that the Colombo Chetties belong to the Tana Vasiya Caste”
  107. ^ Rao, C. Hayavadana Rao (2014). The Vellalas of Nanjanad, Travancore State, India. Anthropos, University of California. p. 514.:"Of the three subdivisions among Vysias, the Vellalas belong to one that is known as Bhoo-Vysias."
  108. ^ Desai, A.R. (1975). State and Society in India. Popular Prakashan. p. 458. ISBN 978-8-17154-013-6.:"Vellalas follow a more ritualistic , " Sanskritic ” style of life and proclaim themselves as Vaishyas ."
  109. ^ Stephen, S. Jeyaseela (2001). The Diary of Rangappa Thiruvengadam Pillai: 1761-1768. India: IIES. p. xix.:"Rangappa Thiruvengadam Pillai was a vaishya "
  110. ^ B. K. Das, India., Director of Census Operations, Karnataka (1983). Census of India, 1981: Karnataka, Volume 10, Part 2. Karnataka, India: Controller of Publications, Government of India. p. 163.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link):"Other locals belonging to Chettiar , Goundar , Mudaliar and Vysya communities are also doing a substantial business ."
  111. ^ Pillai, P. Chidambaram (2008). Right of Temple Entry. Chennai: MJP Publishers. p. 33. ISBN 9788180940392.:”The Brahmin goes with the Vellala and others of the Sudra caste in this affair”
  112. ^ Susan Bayly (22 April 2004). ‪Saints, Goddesses and Kings: Muslims and Christians in South Indian Society, 1700-1900‬. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 385, 393, 411, 412, 421. ISBN 0521372011.
  113. ^ "Page:Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Volume 7.djvu/427 - Wikisource, the free online library". en.wikisource.org. Retrieved 13 May 2021.
  114. ^ a b "Page:Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Volume 7.djvu/423 - Wikisource, the free online library". en.wikisource.org. Retrieved 13 May 2021.:"Then he singles out the Vellālas, and states that they have no other they have no other calling than the cultivation of the soil. Here he does not say that the Vellālas are Sūdras, but indirectly implies that the ordinary Vellālas should be reckoned as Sūdras, and that those Vellālas who were kings should be honoured as Kshatriyas."
  115. ^ a b Beteille, Andre (1996). Caste, Class and Power: Changing Patterns of Stratification in a Tanjore Village. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-908872-0.
  116. ^ Thurston, Edgar. Castes and Tribes of Southern India.
  117. ^ Kingship and political practice in colonial India, by Pamela G. Price, p.61: "...when government census officers placed Vellalar in the Sat-Sudra or Good Sudra category in its 1901 census, Vellalar castemen petitioned this designation, protesting this designation..
  118. ^ Price, Pamela G. (1996). Kingship and Political Practice in Colonial India. Cambridge University Press. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-52155-247-9.:"when government census officers placed Vellalar in the Sat-Sudra or Good Sudra category in its 1901 census, Vellalar castemen petitioned this designation, protesting this designation"
  119. ^ Sanjay Paswan; Pramanshi Jaideva (2002). Encyclopaedia of Dalits in India: Emancipation and empowerment. Delhi: Kalpaz Publications. p. 30-31.:”Hence, the Vellalas who were landowners and tillers of the soil and held offices pertaining to land were ranked as sudras but nevertheless became a status category at the regional of sub-regional level”
  120. ^ Sita Deulkar (2004). Dalits: Past, Present & Future. New Delhi: Dominant Publishers and Distributors. p. 297.:”I have argued that owing to the changed perception of the functional role of the vaisya and sudra castes in the early centuries of the Christian era , the land - based agricultural communities of the south were placed in the sudra caste and they stood next only to brahmanas. Hence , the Vellalas who were landowners and tillers of the soil and held offices pertaining to land were ranked as sudras but nevertheless became a status category at the regional of sub - regional level .”
  121. ^ Sita Deulkar (2004). ‪Dalits: Past, Present & Future‬. New Delhi: Dominant Publishers and Distributors. p. 297.:”I have argued that owing to the changed perception of the functional role of the vaisya and sudra castes in the early centuries of the Christian era , the land - based agricultural communities of the south were placed in the sudra caste and they stood next only to brahmanas. Hence , the Vellalas who were landowners and tillers of the soil and held offices pertaining to land were ranked as sudras but nevertheless became a status category at the regional of sub - regional level.”
  122. ^ a b B. Raman; N. Sathiya Moorthy; Kalpana Chittaranjan (2006). Sri Lanka, Peace Without Process. Saṁskṛiti. p. 56.:”However , caste as understood and practised in Sri Lanka is incompatible even with the Manu Smriti . For example , an essential feature of high caste is that the males are entitled to and must wear the sacred thread. But even the most exalted Goigama Buddhist and Tamil Vellala families do not claim this right.Only a very small number of Brahmins and certain others , mostly of relatively recent Indian origin do so . The right of these certain others ' to wear the sacred thread is subject to dispute. ”
  123. ^ Jonathan H. X. Lee; Kathleen M. Nadeau (2011). Encyclopedia of Asian American Folklore and Folklife. Vol. 2. ‪Santa-Barbara, California‬: ‪ABC-CLIO, 2011‬. p. 1050.:”The agricultural landowners (Vellala in Tamil and Goigama in Sinhalese) at the pinnacle of the Sudras ....”
  124. ^ Anne Sigfrid Grøsneth (2010). ‪Lost Selves and Lonely Persons: Experiences of Illness and Well-being Among Tamil Refugees in Norway‬. Carolina Academic Press. p. 49.:”The status of the Vellala caste itself , however , does not completely confirm a Dumontian perspective. The Vellalas usually admit to the sudra varna , which is the lowest of the four caste categories within the Sanskrit classification , thus meant to fulfill various service functions in society”
  125. ^ Anne Sigfrid Grøsneth (2010). ‪Lost Selves and Lonely Persons: Experiences of Illness and Well-being Among Tamil Refugees in Norway‬. Carolina Academic Press. p. 50.:"Vellalas are generally seen by others and by themselves in terms of purity as next to the Brahmins"
  126. ^ Tambiah, Henry Wijayakone (2001). The Laws and Customs of the Tamils of Jaffna. Women's Education & Research Centre, Colombo, Sri Lanka. p. 92. ISBN 978-9-55926-116-2.: “But quite recently, a kind of mania has afflicted some classes; the people whose professions, though much useful, are looked upon as low by Brahmins and their imitators, to bring themselves under the Aryan appellation of Brahmins, Kshatriya and Vaisya, escape being called the Sudra."
  127. ^ a b Tambiah, Henry Wijayakone (2001). The Laws and Customs of the Tamils of Jaffna. Women's Education & Research Centre, Colombo, Sri Lanka. p. 92. ISBN 978-9-55926-116-2.: “It is into this error that even such an erudite scholar like Simon Casie Chetty falls when in his work entitled: The Castes, Customs, Manners and Literature of the Tamils where he classifies the Vellalas under the Vaishya caste and even goes to the extent of calling the Vellalas 'The Poo Vasi Ya’. The caste system in Jaffna as it exists today is ample proof of the theories advanced by Kanagasabai and Swamy Vedachalam”
  128. ^ Fernando, A. Denis N. (1987). "PENINSULAR JAFFNA FROM ANCIENT TO MEDIEVAL TIMES: Its Significant Historical and Settlement Aspects". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka. 32: 84. JSTOR 23731055.
  129. ^ Holt, John (2011). The Sri Lanka Reader: History, Culture, Politics. Duke University Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0822349822.
  130. ^ Rajasuriar, G.K. (1998). The History of the Tamils and the Sinhalese of Sri Lanka. Quill Graphics. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-64636-570-1.
  131. ^ Gerharz, Eva (3 April 2014). The Politics of Reconstruction and Development in Sri Lanka: Transnational Commitments to Social Change. Routledge. p. 73. ISBN 9781317692799.
  132. ^ Welhengama, Gnanapala; Pillay, Nirmala (2014). The Rise of Tamil Separatism in Sri Lanka: From Communalism to Secession. Routledge. p. 168. ISBN 9781135119713.

Further reading

  • Lucassen, Jan; Lucassen, Leo (2014). Globalising Migration History: The Eurasian Experience. BRILL. ISBN 978-9-00427-136-4.
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