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Sala fighting the tiger, the symbol of Hoysala Empire at Belur, Karnataka

Literature in the Hoysala Empire refers to a body of literature composed in the Kannada language and the Sanskrit language during the ascendancy of the Hoysala Empire which lasted from the 11th through the mid-14th century.[1] The Hoysala empire was established around 1025 by Nripa Kama II, although it came into to political prominence in Southern India only during the rule of king Vishnuvardhana (1108–1152).[2] The empire lasted until 1343, although its power declined gradually after its defeat to the Mugal invaders in 1321.[3]

Kannada literature during this period consisted of writings relating to the socio-religious developments of the Jain and Veerashaiva faiths, and to a lesser extent that of Vaishnava faith. The earliest well-known brahmin writers in Kannada were from the Hoysala court. While most of the courtly textual production was in Kannada,[4] an important corpus of monastic Vaishnava literature relating to Dvaita (dualistic) philosophy was written by the renowned philosopher Madhvacharya in Sanskrit. Madhvacharya toured India twice, successfully disputing other philosophers. He established eight monasteries in Udupi to spread his teachings.[5]

Writing Kannada literature in non-Sanskritic native metres was popularised for the first time by the court poets. These metres were the sangatya, compositions sung to the accompaniment of a musical instrument; shatpadi, a six line verse; and ragale, lyrical compositions in blank verse.[6] However, Jain writers continued to use the traditional champu, a mixed prose-verse form of writing.[7] Important literary contributions in Kannada were made not only by court poets but also by noblemen, commanders, ministers, ascetics and saints associated with the monastery.[8][9][10][11]

Kannada writings

Overview

Main articles: Hoysala Empire and Hoysala architecture
Noted Kannada poets and writers in Hoysala Empire
(1100-1343 CE)
Nagachandra 1105
Kanti 1108
Rajaditya 12th. c
Harihara 1160–1200
Udayaditya 1150
Vritta Vilasa 1160
Kereya Padmarasa 1165
Nemichandra 1170
Sumanobana 1175
Rudrabhatta 1180
Aggala 1189
Palkuriki Somanatha 1195
Sujanottamsa(Boppana) 1180
Kavi Kama 12th c.
Devakavi 1200
Raghavanka 1200–1225
Bhanduvarma 1200
Balachandra Kavi 1204
Parsva Pandita 1205
Maghanandycharya 1209
Janna 1209–1230
Puligere Somanatha 13th c.
Hastimalla 13th c.
Chandrama 13th c.
Somaraja 1222
Gunavarma II 1235
Polalvadandanatha 1224
Andayya 1217–1235
Sisumayana 1232
Mallikarjuna 1245
Naraharitirtha 1281
Kumara Padmarasa 13th c.
Mahabala Kavi 1254
Kesiraja 1260
Kumudendu 1275
Nachiraja 1300
Ratta Kavi 1300
Nagaraja 1331
Noted Kannada poets and writers in the Seuna Yadava Kingdom
Kamalabhava 1180
Achanna 1198
Amugideva 1220
Chaundarasa 1300

Beginning with the 12th century, important socio-political changes were taking place in the southern Deccan. During this period, the Hoysalas, native Kannadigas from the Malnad region (hill country in modern Karnataka) were on the ascendant as a political power.[12][13][14][15] They are known to have existed as chieftains from the mid-10th century when they distinguished themselves as subordinates of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani.[16] In 1116, king Vishnuvardhana defeated the Cholas of Tanjore and annexed Gangavadi (modern southern Karnataka),[17] thus bringing the region back under native rule. In the following decades, with the waning of the Chalukya power, the Hoysalas proclaimed independence and grew into one of most powerful ruling families of southern India.[2][18] Consequently, literature in Kannada, the local language, received impetus.[19]

Literary developments in the Hoysala empire pertaining to Kannada language can be broadly sub-divided based on social developments. The dominance of Jain writings;[20] competition from Veerashaiva writers not belonging to the Vachana poetic tradition;[21] rebuttals to Shaiva writings from Jain writers;[22] early brahminical works (Vaishnava);[23][24] birth of the bhakti (devotional) movement in the Kannada speaking region, writings on secular topics [25] and the development of the native metres (ragale, sangatya and shatpadi).[6][26][27]

As in earlier centuries, Jain authors wrote about tirthankars (saints), princes and other personages important to the Jain religion. Jain versions of the Hindu epics such as the Ramayana and Bhagavata (tales of god Krishna) were also written. In fact, Jains writers are more numerous in Kannada than in any other Dravidian language. Their age of predominance, starting from the earliest known works to the 12th century is called the "Augustan age" of Kannada literature.[28] The Veerashaiva writers, devotees of the Hindu god Shiva, wrote about his 25 forms, and the expositions of Shaivism. Vaishnava authors wrote treatments of the Hindu epics, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Bhagavata.[29] Breaking away from the old Jain tradition of using the champu metre for writing Kannada literature, Harihara (1160) penned poems in the ragale metre in Siva-ganada-ragalegalu. His nephew, Raghavanka (1200), established the shatpadi tradition by writing a unique version of the story of King Harishchandra in Harishchandra Kavya. Sisumayana (1235) introduced the sangatya metre in his Anjanacharita and Tripuradahana. [30] However, some scholars continued to employ Sanskritic metres such as champu (Ramachandra Charitapurana )[31], shataka (100 line verses, Pampa sataka) and ashtaka (8 line verse, Mudige ashtaka).[32]

The exact beginnings of the haridasa movement in the Kannada spoken region has been disputed. A claim has been made that the movement was first inspired by saint Achalananda Dasa of Turvekere (in modern Tumkur district) in the 9th century.[33] However, neither the structure of Kannada used in Achalananda Dasa's compositions nor the discovery of a composition with the pen name "Achalanada Vitthala" which mentions the 13th century philosopher Madhvacharya lend support to the 9th century theory. Naraharitirtha (1281), one of earliest disciples of Madhvacharya is therefore considered the earliest haridasa to write Vaishnava compositions in Kannada.[34] Secular topics were popular and included writings on natural sciences (Rattasutra), mathematics (Vyavaharaganita), treatises on poetry (Sringararatnakara), fiction (Lilavati), grammar (Shabdamanidarpana), rhetoric (Udayadityalankara) and others.[9][25][35]

Important contributions were made by some very literary families. Mallikarjuna, the noted anthologist (1245), his brother-in-law Janna (1207), perhaps the most famous scholar in king Veera Ballala II's court, and Mallikarjuna's son Keshiraja (1260), considered by some[who?] the greatest theorist of the Kannada language, and Sumanobana, the grandfather of Keshiraja (on the mothers side) who was in the court of King Narasimha I, came from a Jain family.[36][37] Trailblazers Harihara (1160) and his nephew Raghavanka (1200) came from a Shaiva family (devotees of god Shiva).[36]

The conviction of the Hoysala rulers towards the development of Kannada language was strong and this is seen even in their epigraphs which were often written in polished and poetic language, rather than prose, on material whose margins were suitably decorated with floral designs.[38] Writers bilingual in Kannada and Telugu were given encouragement and this caused interaction between the two languages, a trend which remained popular even in modern times. Palkuriki Somanatha (1195) and Chakrapani Ranganatha (1195) are the most well-known from this cadre. A Chola chieftain, Nannechoda (c. 1150) used many Kannada words in his Telugu writings.[39] In addition to the Hoysala patronage, Kannada poets and writers during this period enjoyed royal support over a wide geographic area in the western Deccan. The Western Chalukyas, the southern Kalachuris, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri and the Silharas of Kolhapur are some of the ruling families who enthusiastically used Kannada in inscriptions and promoted its literature.[40][38][41][42]

There are several poets and writers from this period whose writings have not come down to us. Information about these writers, not necessarily from the Hoysala court are available from references. Some of them are Maghanandi (probable author of Rama Kathe and guru of Kamalabhava of 1235), Balachandra (guru of Nagachandra of 1105), Nachi Raja (Nachiraji, a commentary on the Amara Khosha, 1158), Srutakirti (guru of Aggala of 1189 and author of Raghava Pandaviya and possibly a Jina-stuti), Sambha Varma (mentioned by Nagavarma of 1145),[43] Vira Nandi (Chandraprabha Kavyamala),[44] Dharani Pandita (Bijjala raya Charita and Varangana Charita),[45] Amrita Nandi (Dhanvantari Nighantu), Vidyanatha (Prataparudriya), Ganeshvara (Sahitya Sanjivana),[46] Harabhakta, a Veerashaiva mendicant (Vedabhashya, 1300) and Siva Kavi (author of Basava Purana in 1330).[47]

Jain epics

Jain temple at Halebidu, a Hoysala construction

During the early 12th century ascendancy of the Hoysalas, imperial ambitions were being entertained by the kings of the dynasty. King Vishnuvardhana wanted to perform Vedic sacrifices and surpass his overlords, the Western Chalukyas, in military and architectural achievements. This led to his conversion from Jainism to Vaishnavism. Around the same time, the famous philosopher Ramanujacharya sought refuge from the Cholas in Hoysala territory and popularised the Sri Vaishnava (a sect of Vaishnavism) faith. Though Jains continued to dominate the cultural scenario in modern southern Karnataka region for a while, these social changes would later contribute to the decline of Jain literary output.[48][49] The growing political clout of the Hoysalas attracted many bards and scholars to their court where they wasted little time in writing panegyrics on their patrons.[50]

Nagachandra (1105), a scholar and the builder of the Mallinatha Jinalaya (Jain temple in honor of the 19th Jain tirthankar, Mallinatha, in Bijapur, Karnataka) wrote Mallinathapurana, an account of the evolution of the soul of the Jain saint. According to some historians, he was patronised by king Veera Ballala I.[51] Later, he wrote his magnum opus, a Jain version of the Hindu epic Ramayana called Ramachandra Charitapurana (or Pampa Ramayana). Written in the traditional champu metre and in the Pauma charia tradition of Vimalasuri, it is the earliest extant version of the epic in the Kannada language.[31]

Kannada inscription, 1114 CE at Doddagaddavalli

The work contains sixteen sections and deviates significantly from the original epic by Valmiki. Nagachandra eulogises villain king Ravana as a tragic hero, who in a moment of weakness commits the sin of abducting Sita (Rama's wife) but is eventually purified by her devotion to the Hindu god Rama. In a further deviation, Lakshmana, Rama's loyal brother, kills Ravana in the final battle, where as in other versions of the epic, Rama kills Ravana.[31] Eventually, Rama takes jainadiksha (converts to Jainism), becomes an ascetic and attains nirvana (enlightenment).[52] Considered a complementary work to Pampa Bharatha of Adikavi Pampa (941, a Jain version of the epic Mahabharata), the work earned Nagachandra the honorific "Abhinava Pampa" ("new Pampa"). It is only in Kannada language that a Jain version of the Hindu epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana exists, in addition to their Brahminical version.[53]

Kanti (1108), known for her wit and humor, was one of the earliest female poets of Kannada language and a contemporary of Nagachandra with whom she indulged in debates and repartees.[54] Rajaditya, a native of either Puvinabage or Raibhag (modern Belgaum district) was in the Hoysala court during the days of king Veera Ballala I and king Vishnuvardhana.[55][56] He skillfully wrote in easy verse his mathematical topics (such as arithmetic) and is credited with three of the earliest writings in mathematics in the Kannada language; Vyavaharaganita, Kshetraganita and Lilavati.[57] Udayaditya, a Chola prince, authored a piece on rhetoric called Udayadityalankara (1150). It was based on Dandin's Sanskrit Kavyadarsa.[35]

Age of Harihara

Chennakeshava temple (1116), the first great Hoysala construction at Belur, their early capital

Harihara (or Harisvara, 1160), who came from a family of karnikas (accountants) in Hampi, was one of the earliest Veerashaiva writers who was not part of the Vachana poetic tradition. He is considered one of the most influential Kannada poets of the medieval era. A non-traditionalist, he has been called "poet of poets" and a "poet for the masses". Kannada poetry took a turn due to his efforts and he was an inspiration for generations of poets to follow.[58][59] Impressed by his early writings, Kereya Padmarasa, the court poet of king Narasimha I introduced him to the king who took Harihara under his patronage.[60] A master of many metres, he authored the Girijakalyana ("Marriage of the mountain born goddess–Parvati") in the Kalidasa tradition, employing the champu style, with the story leading to the marriage of Shiva and Parvati in ten sections.[61][62] According to an interesting anectode, Harihara was so against eulogising earthly mortals that he physically abused his protege Raghavanka for writing about King Harishchandra in the landmark work Harishchandra Kavya (c. 1200).[63] Harihara is credited with being the developer of the native ragale metre[64] as well as for being the earliest poetic biographer in the Kannada language for authoring a biography of Basavanna called Basavarajadevara ragale, a work that gives interesting details about the life of the protagonist while not always conforming to popularly held beliefs.[65][66] Ascribed to him are one hundred poems in the ragale metre and is called the Nambiyanana ragale (also called Shivaganada ragale or Saranacharitamanasa–"The holy lake of the lives of the devotees") after the saint Nambiyana.[67][68][69] In the sataka metre he wrote the Pampa sataka and in the ashtaka metre, the Mudige ashtaka in c. 1200.[32]

Poetic Inscription in old Kannada by Jain poet Boppana (1180 CE) at Shravanabelagola

Famous among Vaishnava writers and the first brahmin writer (of the Smartha sect) of repute, Rudrabhatta, wrote Jagannatha Vijaya (1180) in a style that is considered a transition between ancient and medieval Kannada.[70] He was patronised by Chandramouli, a minister in the court of king Veera Ballala II. The writing is about the life of Hindu god Krishna in champu metre leading to the fight with Banasura and is based on an earlier writing Vishnupurana.[10]

Nemichandra, court poet of king Veera Ballala II as well as the Silhara king Lakshmana of Kholapur wrote Lilavati Prabandham, the earliest available true fiction (and hence a novel) in Kannada, with an erotic bent.[71][72] Written in the champu metre, with the ancient town Banavasi as the background, it narrates the love story of a Kadamba prince and a princess who eventually marry after facing many obstacles.[73] The story is based on a c. 610 Sanskrit original called Vasavadatta by Subhandu.[74] His other work Neminathapurana, unfinished on account of his death (and hence called Ardhanemi or "incomplete Nemi"), details the life of the 22nd Jain tirthankar Neminatha while treating the life of Hindu god Krishna from a Jain angle.[73]

Palkuriki Somanatha, a native of modern Karnataka or Andhra Pradesh is considered one of the foremost multi-linguial Shaiva (believer of god Shiva) poets of the 12th–13th centuries. Historians are divided about his time and place of birth and death, and his original faith. He was adept in Sanskrit, Telugu and Kannada languages. He was a devotee of Basavanna, the founder of the Veerashaiva movement and hence all his writings propagate that faith.[75] Some[who?] scholars believe he was born a brahmin and later adopted to the Shaiva faith though a claim has been made that he was born a Jangama (follower of the Shaiva faith).[76] His time of birth has been identified as either the 12th century[77] or late 13th century.[78] In Kannada, his most important writings are Silasampadane, Sahasragananama and Pancharatna. His well known poems, written in the ragale metre are Basava ragale, Basavadhya ragale and Sadguru ragale. He is known to have humbled many Vaishnava poets in debates.[79][75]

Other well-known personalities from the 12th century included several Jain writers. Aggala who authored Chandraprabhapurana (1189), an account of the life of the the 8th Jain tirthankar Chandraprabha, Sujanottamsa who wrote a panegyric on Gomateshwara of Shravanabelagola, and Vritta Vilasa (1160) who authored Sastra sara and Dharmaparikshe, the latter being his version of the Sanskrit original of the same name written by Amitagati in c. 1014. In this champu writing, the author narrates the story of two Kshatriya princess who went to Benares and exposed the vices of the gods after discussions with the brahmins there. The author questions the credibility of Hanuman (Hindu Monkey god) and the Vanaras (monkey-like humanoids in the Hindu epic Ramayana). Though controversial, the work sheds useful information on contemporary religious beliefs;[80][81] Kereya Padmarasa (1165), a Veerashaiva poet patronised by king Narasimha I wrote Dikshabodhe in the ragale metre and would become the protagonist of a later work Padmarajapurana; the brahmin poets, Deva Kavi (1200) who authored a romance piece called Kusumavali, and Kavi Kama (12th century), the author of a treatise called Sringara-ratnakara on the rasa (flavor) of poetical sentiment.[82] Sumanobana (1170), was a poet-grammarian and the Katakacharya ("military teacher") under king Narasimha I. He was also a priest in Devagiri, the Seuna Yadava capital.[37][83]

Jain–Veerashaiva conflict

Ishvara temple (1220) at Arasikere

Harihara's nephew and protege, the dramatic poet Raghavanka (1200) of Hampi, whose style is compared to that of 10th century poet Ranna, was the first to establish the shatpadi metre in Kannada literature in the epic Harishchandra Kavya.[84][85] It is believed[who?] that in no other language has the story of King Harishchandra been dealt with this interpretation. The writing is an original both in tradition and inspiration fully utilising the potential of the shatpadi metre.[86][87] The narration has many noteworthy elegiac verses such as the mourning of Chandramati over the death of her young son Lohitashva from snake bite.[88] The very writing that made Raghavanka famous was rejected by his guru Harihara. His other famous writings adhering to strict Shaiva principles and written to appease his guru, are the Siddharama charitra (or Siddharama Purana), a larger than life stylistic eulogy of the compassionate 12th century Veerashaiva saint Siddharama of Sonnalige;[86] the Somanatha charitra, a propagandist work which describes the life of saint Somayya (or Adaiah) of Puligere (modern Lakshmeshwar), his humiliation by a Jain girl and his revenge; the Viresvara charita, a dramatic story of the blind wrath of a Shaiva warrior Virabhadra; the Hariharamahatva, an account of Harisvara of Hampi, and Sarabha charitra, the last two works now considered lost.[89][90]

In 1209, the Jain scholar, minister, builder of temples and army commander Janna wrote among other classics, Yashodhara Charite, a unique set of stories in 310 verses dealing with Sadomasochism, transmigration of the soul, passion gone awry and cautionary morals for human conduct. The writing, though inspired by Vadiraja's Sanskrit classic of the same name is noted for its original interpretation, imagery and style.[91] In one story, the poet narrates the infatuation of a man for his friends wife. Having killed his friend, the man abducts the wife who dies of grief. Overcome by repentance, he burns himself on the funeral pyre of the woman.[92][93] The stories of infatuation reaches a peak when Janna narrates the attraction of Amrutamati, the queen, to the ugly mahout Ashtavakra, who pleases the queen with kicks and whip lashes–a story that has piqued the interest of modern research.[94] In honour of this work, Janna received the title Kavichakravarthi ("Emperor among poets") from his patron king Veera Ballala II.[95] His other classic Anathanatha Purana (1230) is an account of the life of the fourteenth tirthankar Ananthanatha.[96][97]

Old Kannada Hoysala inscription of 1220 CE at Ishvara temple in Arasikere, Karnataka

Andayya took a non-conformist path (which was never repeated again in Kannada literature) and wrote Madana Vijaya ("Triumph of cupid") in the 1217–1235 time frame using only pure Kannada words (desya) and naturalised Sanskrit words (tadbhava), totally avoiding assimilated Sanskrit words (tatsamas).[11] This is seen by some as a rebuttal, to prove that writing Kannada literature without borrowed Sanskrit words was possible.[98] The poem narrates the story of the moon being imprisoned by Shiva in his abode in the Himalayas. In his anger, Kama (Cupid, the god of love, also called Manmata) assailed Shiva with his arrows only to be cursed by Shiva that he be separated from his beloved. Kama then contrived to rid himself of Shiva's curse. The work also goes by other names such as Sobagina Suggi ("Harvest of Beauty"), Kavane Gella ("Cupid's Conquest") and Kabbigara-kava ("Poets defender").[99] Kama has an important place in Jain writings even prior to Andayya. The possibility that this writing was yet another subtle weapon in the intensifying conflict between the dominant Jains,[100] and the Veerashaivas, whose popularity was on the rise is not lost on historians.[101]

Mallikarjuna, a Jain ascetic, compiled an anthology of poems called Suktisudharnava ("Gems from the poets") in 1245 in the court of King Vira Someshwara.[11] Some interesting observations have been made by scholars from this important undertaking. While the anthology itself provides insight into poetic tastes of that period (and hence qualifies as a "history of Kannada literature"), it also performs the function of "guide for poets", an assertive method of bridging the gap between courtly literary intelligentsia and folk poetry.[102] Being a guide for "professional intellectuals", the work, true to its nature, often includes poems eulogising kings and royalty but completely ignores poems of the 12th century vachana canon (Veerashaiva folk literature).[103] However, the selection of poems includes contributions from Harihara, the non-conformist Veerashaiva writer. This is suggestive of a compromise by the author and his attempt to give representation for the "rebels".[103]

Other notable writers of the early 13th century were Bhanduvarma (1200) author of Harivamsabhyudaya and Jiva sambhodana, the latter bearing on morals and renunciation, and written addressing the soul,[104] Maghanandycharya (1209) author of Sastrasara Samuccaya-tiku,[105] Hastimalla, who worte Purvapurana,[105] Chandrama, author of Karkala Gomateshvara charite,[106] Sisumayana, who introduced a new form of composition called sangatya in 1232 in the books Anjanacharita which was inspired by Ravisena's Sanskrit Padma charitra, and an allegorical poem called Tripuradahana ("Burning of the triple fortress").[104][11] Somaraja (1222), a Veerashaiva scholar wrote a eulogy of Udbhata, the ruler of Gersoppa, and called it Sringarasara (or Udbhatakavya).[107] Other Jain writers were Parsva Pandita, author of Paravanathapurana, Gunavarma II, the author of the story of the 9th Jain tirthankar Pushpadanta called Pushpadanta purana (both were patronised by the Ratta kings of Saundatti).[8][11] Polalva Dandanatha (a commander, minister, and the builder of the Harihareshwara temple in Harihar) wrote Haricharitra in 1224. He was patronised by king Veera Ballala II and his successor, Vira Narasimha II.[8] Puligere Somanatha authored a book on morals called Somesvarasataka.[108]

Consolidation of grammar

See also: Kannada grammar and Haridasa
Chennakeshava temple (1273) at Somanathapura, Karnataka–the last famous Hoysala construction

Keshiraja was a notable writer and grammarian of the 13th century. He came from a family of famous poet-writers. Though five of Keshiraja's writings are not traceable, his most enduring work on Kannada grammar, Shabdamanidarpana ("Mirror of Word Jewels", 1260), is available and testifies to his scholarly acumen and literary taste.[109][110][9] True to his wish that his writing on grammar should "last as long as the sun, the moon, the oceans and the Meru mountain lasted", Shabdamanidarpana is popular even today and is considered a standard authority on old Kannada grammar. It is prescribed as a text book for students of graduate and post graduate level studies in Kannada language. Though Keshiraja followed the model of Sanskrit grammar (of the Katantra school) and that of earlier writings on Kannada grammar (by king Amoghavarsha I of 9th century and grammarian Nagavarma II of 1145), his work has an originality of its own.[109] Keshiraja's lost writings are Cholapalaka Charitam, Sri Chitramale, Shubhadraharana, Prabodhachandra and Kiratam (or Kiratarjuniyam)[109]

Mid-13th century old Kannada inscription from Mallikarjuna temple in Basaral, Karnataka

An important development of this period, which would have a profound impact on Kannada literature even into the modern age was the birth of the Haridasa ("servants of Hari or Vishnu") movement. This devotional movement, though reminiscent in some ways to the Veerashaiva movement of the 12th century (which produced Vachana poetry and taught devotion to God Shiva), was in contrast, intimately tied to temple and devotion to Hindu god Vishnu as the supreme God.[111] The inspiration behind this movement was the philosophy of Madhvacharya of Udupi. Naraharitirtha (1281) is considered the first well-known haridasa and composer of Vaishnava devotional songs in Kannada. Before his induction into the Madhva order, he had served as a minister in the court of Kalinga.[10] The Vaishnava poetry however disappeared for about two centuries after Naraharitirtha's death, before resurfacing as a popular form of folk literature during the rule of the Vijayanagara Empire.[112] Only three of Naraharitirtha's compositions are available today.[113]

Other writers worthy of mention are Mahabala Kavi, the author of Neminathapurana (1254), an account of the 22nd Jain tirthankar Neminatha,[114] Kumudendu, author of a Jain version of the epic Ramayana, but in shatpadi metre in 1275. The effort was influenced by Pampa Ramayana of Nagachandra but is not as popular as the original.[115] Kumara Padmarasa (son of Kereya Padmarasa) wrote the Sananda Charitre in shatpadi metre.[116] Ratta Kavi, a Jain noble wrote a quasi-scientific piece called Rattasutra (or Rattamala) in 1300. The writing bears on natural phenomenon such rain, earthquakes, lightening, planets and omens.[104][9] Towards the end of the Hoysala rule, Nagaraja wrote Punyasrava in 1331 in champu style, a work that narrates the stories of puranic heroes in 52 tales and is said to be a translation from a Sanskrit writing.[104][9]

Sanskrit writings

See also: Vaishnavism and Dvaita
Krishna temple in Udupi, a centre of the Madhvacharya monastery in Karnataka

The Vaishnava movement in the Kannada speaking regions found momentum after the arrival of the philosopher Ramanujacharya (1017–1137). Fleeing possible persecution from the Chola King (who was a Shaiva), Ramanujacharya sought refuge initially in Tondanur and later moved to Melkote.[117] But this event had no impact on Vaishnava literature in Hoysala country at that time. However, it was the teachings of Madhvacharya (1238–1317), propounder of the Dvaita philosophy, that had a direct impact on Vaishnava literature, both in Sanskrit and Kannada languages (called haridasa literature).[118]

Born as Vasudeva in Pajaka village near Udupi in 1238, he learnt the Vedas and Upanishads under his guru Achyutapreksha. He was initiated into sanyasa (ascetism) after which he earned the name Madhvacharya (or Anandatirtha).[119] Later, he disagreed with the views of his guru and began to travel India. He defeated many scholars and philosophers during this time and won over Naraharitirtha, a minister in Kalinga, who would later become Madhvacharya's first notable disciple. Unlike Adi Shankaracharya (788–820) who preached Advaita philosophy (monism) and Ramanujacharya who propounded Vishishtadvaita philosophy (qualified monism), Madhvacharya taught the Dvaita philosophy (dualism).[120]

Madhvacharya taught complete devotion to god Vishnu, emphasising on Jnanamarga or "path of knowledge", and insisted that the path of devotion "can help a soul to attain elevation" (Athmonathi). He was however willing to accept devotion to other Hindu deities as well.[121] He wrote 37 works in Sanskrit including Dwadasha Sutra in which his devotion to god Vishnu found full expression, Gita Bhashya, Gita Tatparya Nirnaya, Mahabharata Tatparya Nirnaya, Bhagavata Tatparya Nirnaya, Mayavada Khandana and Vishnu Tattwa Nirnaya.[122][121] He established eight monasteries near Udupi to propagate his teachings, which, along with the Uttaradhi monastery, the Raghavendra monasteries in Mantralayam (modern Andhra Pradesh) and Nanjanagud (near modern Mysore) are the most well-known.[123]

The writings of Madhvacharya and Vidyatirtha (author of Rudraprshnabhashya) may have been absorbed by Sayanacharya, brother of Vidyaranya, the patron saint of the founders of the Vijayanagara empire in the 14th century.[124] Bharatasvamin, who was patronised by Hoysala king Ramanatha wrote a commentary on Samaveda,[125] Shadgurusishya wrote commentary on Aitareya Brahmana and Aranyaka, and Katyayana wrote Sarvanukramani. A family of hereditary poets whose names have not been identified held the title "Vidyacharkravarti" (poet laureate) in the Hoysala court. One of them wrote Gadyakarnamrita, a description of the war between Hoysala king Vira Narasimha II and the Pandyas, in early 13th century.[126] His grandson, with the same title and in the court of Veera Ballala III composed a poem called Rukminikalyana in 16 cantos and wrote commentaries (on poetics) on the Alankarasarvasva and Kavyaprakasa.[126] Kalyani Devi, a sister of Madhvacharya, and Trivikrama, his disciple, wrote commentaries on the Dvaita philosophy. To Trivikrama is ascribed a poem narrating the story of Usha and Aniruddha called Ushaharana. Narayana Pandita composed Madhwavijaya, Manimanjari and a poem called Parijataharana. The Jain writer Ramachandra Maladhari authored Gurupanchasmriti.[127]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 132
  2. ^ a b Thapar (2003), p. 368
  3. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 129
  4. ^ Pollock (2006), pp. 288–289
  5. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 155
  6. ^ a b Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 164, 203
  7. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 358
  8. ^ a b c Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 20–21
  9. ^ a b c d e E.P.Rice (1921), p. 45
  10. ^ a b c Sastri (1955) p. 364
  11. ^ a b c d e E.P.Rice (1921), pp. 43–44
  12. ^ Quote:"A purely Karnataka dynasty" (Moraes 1931, p10)
  13. ^ Rice, B.L. (1897), p335
  14. ^ Natives of South Karnataka (Chopra 2003, p150 Part–1)
  15. ^ Keay (2000), p. 251
  16. ^ From the Marle inscription (Chopra 2003, p. 149, part–1)
  17. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 124
  18. ^ Keay (2000), p. 252
  19. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 19
  20. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 358
  21. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 361
  22. ^ Nagaraj in Pollock (2003), p. 366
  23. ^ Rudhrabhatta and Naraharitirtha (Sastri, 1955, p. 364)
  24. ^ Kavi Kama and Deva (Narasimhacharya 1988, p. 20)
  25. ^ a b Rajaditya's ganita (mathematics) writings (1190) and Ratta Kavi's Rattasutra on natural phenomena are examples (Sastri 1955, pp. 358–359)
  26. ^ Rice E.P. (1921), p. 59
  27. ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1181
  28. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 65, 67
  29. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 61
  30. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 359, 362
  31. ^ a b c Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1180
  32. ^ a b Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 248
  33. ^ Belur Keshavadasa in the book Karnataka Bhaktavijaya (Sahitya Akademi 1987, p. 881)
  34. ^ Sahitya Akademi 1987, p. 881
  35. ^ a b Sastri (1955), p. 358
  36. ^ a b Nagaraj in Pollock (2003), p. 364
  37. ^ a b Sahitya Akademi (1988), pp. 1475–1476
  38. ^ a b Ayyar (2006), p. 600
  39. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 27–28
  40. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 68
  41. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 133–134, p. 143, pp. 114–115
  42. ^ Masica (1991), pp. 45–46
  43. ^ Rice Lewis (1985), p. xx
  44. ^ Rice Lewsi (1985), p. xxi
  45. ^ Rice Lewis (1985), p. xxiii
  46. ^ Rice Lewis (1985), xxiv
  47. ^ Rice Lewis (1985), xxvi
  48. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 132
  49. ^ Rice Lewis (1985), pp. xxiv-xxv
  50. ^ Keay 2000, p. 251
  51. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 133
  52. ^ Sastri (1955), pp. 357–358
  53. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 66
  54. ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1603
  55. ^ Rice E.P. (1921), p. 36
  56. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 133
  57. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 358
  58. ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 191
  59. ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1411, p. 1550
  60. ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1548
  61. ^ Sastri (1955), pp. 361–362
  62. ^ Narasimhacharya, (1988), p. 20
  63. ^ Nagaraj in Pollock (2003), p. 364
  64. ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 551
  65. ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 179
  66. ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 404
  67. ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 205
  68. ^ Sastri (1955), pp. 361–362
  69. ^ Rice E.P. (1921), p. 60
  70. ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 203
  71. ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 203
  72. ^ Rice E.P. (1921), p. 43
  73. ^ a b Sastri (1955), p. 358 Cite error: The named reference "nemi" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  74. ^ Rice E.P. (1921), p. 43
  75. ^ a b Sahitya Akademi (1996), p. 4133
  76. ^ Bandaru Tammayya in Sahitya Akademi (1996), p. 4133
  77. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 20
  78. ^ Seshayya in Sahitya Akademi (1996), p. 4133
  79. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 362
  80. ^ Rice B.L. (1897), p. 499
  81. ^ Rice E.P. (1921), p. 37
  82. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 20, 62
  83. ^ Rice E.P. (1921), p. 45
  84. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 362
  85. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 20
  86. ^ a b Sahitya Akademi (1988), pp. 1181
  87. ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 207
  88. ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1149
  89. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 362
  90. ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 207
  91. ^ Sahitya Akademi (1996), p. 4629
  92. ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1181
  93. ^ Rice E.P. (1921), p. 43–44
  94. ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 204
  95. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p20
  96. ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 620
  97. ^ Nagaraj in Pollock (2003), p. 377
  98. ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 170
  99. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 357
  100. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 65
  101. ^ Nagaraj in Pollock (2003), p. 366
  102. ^ Nagaraj (2003), p. 363
  103. ^ a b Nagaraj (2003), p. 364
  104. ^ a b c d Sastri (1955), p. 359
  105. ^ a b Singh (2001), p. 975
  106. ^ Singh (2001), p. 979
  107. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 21
  108. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 362
  109. ^ a b c Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1476
  110. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 359
  111. ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 192–193
  112. ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 192
  113. ^ Shiv Prakash (1997), p. 195
  114. ^ Rice E.P. (1921), p. 43
  115. ^ Sahitya Academi (1996), p. 4003
  116. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 151
  117. ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 192
  118. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 154
  119. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 150, 155
  120. ^ a b Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 193
  121. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 155
  122. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 155–156
  123. ^ Prof. K.T. Pandurangi in Kamath 2001, pp. 132–133
  124. ^ Sastri (1955), p. 310
  125. ^ a b Sastri (1955), p. 316
  126. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 133

References

  • Ayyar, P. V. Jagadisa (1993) [1993]. South Indian Shrines. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 8120601513.
  • Kamath, Suryanath U. (2001) [1980]. A concise history of Karnataka : from pre-historic times to the present. Bangalore: Jupiter books. OCLC 7796041. LCCN 80-9 – 0.
  • Keay, John (2000) [2000]. India: A History. New York: Grove Publications. ISBN ISBN 0-8021-3797-0. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
  • Lewis, Rice (1985). Nagavarmma’s Karnataka Bhasha Bhushana. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 8120600622.
  • Masica, Colin P. (1991) [1991]. The Indo-Aryan Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521299446.
  • Moraes, George M. (1990) [1931]. The Kadamba Kula, A History of Ancient and Medieval Karnataka. New Delhi, Madras: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-0595-0.
  • Nagaraj, D.R. (2003) [2003]. "Critical Tensions in the History of Kannada Literary Culture, pp. 323–383". In Sheldon I. Pollock (ed.). Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia. Berkeley and London: University of California Press. Pp. 1066. ISBN 0520228219. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapter= (help)
  • Narasimhacharya, R (1988) [1988]. History of Kannada Literature. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-0303-6.
  • Pollock, Sheldon (2006). The Language of Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture and Power in Pre-modern India. Berkeley and London: University of California Press. Pp. 703. ISBN 0520245008.
  • Rice, E.P. (1982) [1921]. Kannada Literature. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 8120600630.
  • Rice, B.L. (2001) [1897]. Mysore Gazatteer Compiled for Government-vol 1. New Delhi, Madras: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-0977-8.
  • Sastri, Nilakanta K.A. (2002) [1955]. A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar. New Delhi: Indian Branch, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-560686-8.
  • Shiva Prakash, H.S. (1997). "Kannada". In Ayyappapanicker (ed.). Medieval Indian Literature:An Anthology. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 8126003650.
  • Singh, Narendra (2001). "Classical Kannada Literature and Digambara Jain Iconography". Encyclopaedia of Jainism. Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 8126106913.
  • Thapar, Romila (2003) [2003]. The Penguin History of Early India. New Delhi: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-302989-4.
  • Various (1987) [1987]. Encyclopaedia of Indian literature - vol 1. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 8126018038.
  • Various (1988) [1988]. Encyclopaedia of Indian literature - vol 2. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 8126011947.
  • Various (1996) [1996]. Encyclopaedia of Indian literature - vol 5. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 8126012218.

External links

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