T-54/T-55

T-54/55
Polish T-55A, Poznań Citadel Museum of Arms (front · rear · detail)
Type	Main battle tank
Place of origin	Soviet Union
Service history
In service	1947 - present
Used by	See Operators
Wars	See Conflicts
Production history
Designer	Morozov Design Bureau (T-54) OKB-520 design bureau (T-54A, T-54B, T-55 and T-55A)
Designed	1945
Manufacturer	Uralvagonzavod (USSR), Kharkov Diesel Factory No. 75 (USSR), Bumar-Łabędy (Poland), ZTS Martin (Czechoslovakia)
Produced	1946 - 1981 (USSR) 1956 - 1979 (Poland) 1957 - 1983 (Czechoslovakia)
No. built	Estimated 86,000-100,000
Variants	See Variants
Specifications (T-55)
Mass	39.7 tonnes
Length	6.45 m (9 m with the barrel in forward position)
Width	3.37 m
Height	2.40 m
Crew	4 (commander, gunner, loader, driver)
Armor	203 mm front of the turret 150 mm sides of the turret 64 mm rear of the turret 39 mm top of the turret 97 mm upper front of the hull 99 mm lower front of the hull 79 mm upper sides of the hull 20 mm lower sides of the hull 46 mm rear of the hull 20 mm floor of the hull 33 mm top of the hull
Main armament	100 mm D-10T2G or D-10T2S series rifled gun 45 rounds
Secondary armament	7.62 mm SGMT medium coaxial machine gun (3500 rounds) 7.62 mm SGMT hull machine gun 12.7 mm DShK 1938/46 antiaircraft heavy machine gun (500 rounds) (Added since 1972) AK-47 assault rifle (200 rounds)
Engine	V-55 12-cylinder 4-stroke one-chamber 38.88 liter water-cooled diesel 581 hp (433 kW)
Power/weight	14.6 hp/tonne (10.9 kW/tonne)
Suspension	Torsion bar
Ground clearance	425 mm
Fuel capacity	254 gal (961 l) for T-55
Operational range	501 km (311 miles) 600 km (373 miles) with extra tanks
Maximum speed	6.85 km/h in 1st gear 14.66 km/h in 2nd gear 20.21 km/h in 3rd gear 28.99 km/h in 4th gear 55 km/h (34 mph) in 5th gear 6.85 km/h in reverse gear on road

The T-54 and T-55 tank were a series of main battle tanks designed by the Soviet Union. The first T-54 prototype appeared in 1946, shortly after the end of the Second World War. The T-54 was a further development of the T-44 tank. The T-54 tank entered full production in 1947 and became the main tank of the Soviet Red Army's armored units, as well as of the armies of the Warsaw Pact countries and other armies as well. T-54s and T-55s have been involved in many of the world's armed conflicts during the later 20th century.

The T-55 was a new version with many improvements over the T-54, such as nuclear blast and fallout protection. The production of the T-55 began in 1958. It has been described as the "most popular tank in history" and is the most widely used tank of all time. It was eventually replaced by the T-64 and the T-72 in the Soviet army. Original and modernized T-54s and T-55s continues to be used by other armies.

The design was so successful that tens of thousands of them were built in the USSR, Poland and Czechoslovakia and a downgraded version was licensed to the Chinese (Type 59). They were exported to as many as 50 other countries and were continuously upgraded and produced until 1979. The series eventually became the most produced tank in history. Estimated production numbers for the series range from 86,000 to 100,000, and the series is still in use worldwide, having received sophisticated retrofitting.

T-54 and T-55 tanks never directly faced their NATO Cold War adversaries in Europe, however, their first appearance in the west in 1960 spurred the United States to develop the M60.

Development history

T-44

Main article: T-44

The Soviet T-34 medium tank of 1940 is considered by many to have the best balance of firepower, protection and mobility of its time of any tank in the world. Its development continued throughout the Second World War and it continued to perform well, however, the designers could not imclude the latest technologies or major developments as the series production of the tank couldn't be interrupted during wartime.

In 1943, the Morozov Design Bureau resurrected the pre-war T-34M development project and created the T-44 medium tank. Thanks to a space-efficient torsion-bar suspension, a novel transverse engine mount, and the removal of the hull machine-gunner's crew position, the T-44 performed at least as well as the T-34, but with substantially better armour. However, a larger gun was desired which fire heavier high-explosive rounds and defeat thicker would armour. The T-44's turret, a development of the T-34-85 turret, was still incapable of mounting more powerful armament than its predecessor's 85 mm tank gun, a considerably weaker gun than the 88 mm and long 75 mm guns on newer German tanks, because these guns were very-high velocity weapons and had respectively 71 and 70-caliber length, compared to around 50 of the Soviet gun. This latter was more similar to the 88 L56 of Tiger I, but the normal ammunition used was simpler. In fact, its penetration power (around 100 mm at 1000 m) was not so different than the 76 mm American tank gun (usually rated around 100-120 mm RHAe at 900 m), and the main difference was the weight of the high-explosive shell, around 9 kg compared to 6 kg of the 75-76.2 mm calibres. Only about 1,823 T-44s were ever built, while Morozov proceeded with further development.

T-54 prototypes

The development of the first tank based on T-44A medium tank armed with 100 mm started in October 1944 at OKB-520 design bureau of the Stalin Ural Tank Factory No. 183 (Uralvagonzavod), located in Nizhny Tagil. The designing stage was completed in December. The prototype was read in February 1945. The trials conducted between March and April gave positive results and therefore it was decided for the new vehicle to enter service with the Red Army as T-54. The tank had almost the same hull and drive train as the T-44A, the only differences included the thickened front armour (120 mm on the upper section and 90 mm on the lower section) as well as different hatch and vision slot for the driver. The turret had increased diameter to 1800 mm as well as thicker armour (180 mm on the front, between 90 mm and 150 mm on the sides and 30 mm on the roof) and very well-protected gun mantlet. The armament included the 100 mm D-10TK tank gun as well as two 7.62 mm GWT machine guns. The tank was powered by a new V-54 12-cylinder 38.88 litre water-cooled diesel engine developing 520 hp (388 kW) at 2,000 rpm with two-stage reduction gearbox. The fuel capacity was also increased (530 litres in the internal fuel tank and 165 litres in the external fuel tank). Also the external fuel tanks were connected to the fuel system. The rubber rollers on road wheels were widened. The weight was increased to 35.5 tonnes which reduced the maximal road speed to 43.5 km/h. The maximal road operational range increased to 360 km. Because of the positive results of trials it was also decided to modernize the tank before starting production as well as to put the new tank's turret onto two modified serial T-44A medium tanks (for more details about it see T-44-100 and T-54 section in T-44 article).

Another T-54 prototype was built in July 1945 which received the alternative designation Ob'yekt 137. The tank was equipped with a new turret armed with 100 mm LB-1 tank gun and 7.62 mm SG medium coaxial machine gun. The armour thickness of the turret thickened (200 mm on the front, between 125 mm and 160 mm on the sides). The tank was also armed with two 7.62 mm SG-43 medium machine guns mounted inside boxes on the front of the fenders, each with 500 rounds of ammunition, operated by the driver. The turret was also fitted with the 12.7 mm DShK anti-aircraft heavy machine gun. The fuel capacity was increased (545 litres in internal fuel tanks and 180 litres in external fuel tanks) and because of it the maximal road operation range has stayed at 360 km despite the fact that the vehicle weight has increased to 39.15 tonnes. The prototype went through trials between July and November 1945. Although there were many drawbacks which had to be corrected and many changes which had to be done to vehicle's documentation, it was decided to begin serial production of the new vehicle and the vehicle officially entered service on 29 April 1946. The preparations began to start production in three factories.

T-54

File:T-54-1.jpg

The original T-54-1. It has a turret reminiscent of the T-34-85's, with prominent, undercut shot traps. This example has the fender machine gun boxes replaced with fuel tanks.

File:T-54-2 Morozov.jpg

A column of five T-54-2 tanks.

When the production slowly started the design was overviewed and 1490 changes were made. Thanks to this the Red Army received a tank which was superior to wartime designs and theoretically better than the newest tanks of the recent allies. Its 100 mm L53 gun produced less effective armour penetration than the 88 mm L71 gun on the Tiger II but was superior to the 88 mm L56 gun on the Tiger I, and comparable to the 75 mm L70 gun of the Panther medium tank. Due to its revolutionary design, this performance was achieved in a tank weighing four-fifths that of the Panther, two-thirds that of the Tiger I, and only just more than half that of the Tiger II. Also its light weight, powerful engine, and robust suspension gave it excellent cross-country mobility. The exploitation trials went without any breakdowns. The serial production version designated T-54-1 differed from the second T-54 prototype. It had thicker hull armour (80 mm on the sides, 30 mm on the roof and 20 mm on the bottom) which surpassed the one on German Tiger tank. Although the production was getting faster it unfortunately turned out that mass produced tanks were built without the required level of quality and many times broke down. Because of that the production was stopped and an improved T-54-2 (Ob'yekt 137R) version was designed. Several changes were made and a new turret was fitted. The new dome-shaped turret with flat sides was inspired by the turret from IS-3 heavy tank, it is similar to the later T-54 turret but with a distinctive overhang at the rear. It also had a shorter bustle. The fender machine guns were removed in favour of the bow mounted machine gun. Also the transmission system was modernized and the track was widened to 580 mm. T-54-2 entered production overall in 1949 (at Stalin Ural Tank Factory No. 183 (Uralvagonzavod) the production started in 1950). In 1951 a second modernization was made, designated T-54-3 (Ob'yekt 137Sh), and fitted with a new turret without side undercuts as well as new TSh-2-22 telescopic gunner's sight instead of the TSh-20. The tank also featured TDA smoke generating system. It served as a basis for T-54K command tank, with additional radio set, navigational equipment, ammunition load for the main gun decreased by 5 rounds and a charging unit, which was produced in small numbers.

T-54A and T-54B

In the beginning of 1950s the personnel of the OKB-520 design bureau of the Stalin Ural Tank Factory No. 183 (Uralvagonzavod), located in Nizhny Tagil has been changed considerably. Morozov was replaced by Kolesnikow who in turn was replaced by Leonid N. Kartsev in March 1953. The first decision of the new designer was to fit the 100 mm D-10T tank gun with STP-1 "Gorizont" vertical stabilizer. The new tank gun received the designation D-10TG and was fitted into the T-54's turret. The new tank also received the night vision equipment for the driver and was designated T-54A (Ob'yekt 137G). Originally had a small muzzle counter-weight, which was later replaced with a fume extractor. It is also equipped with OPVT wading snorkel, TSh-2A-22 telescopic sight, TVN-1 infrared driver's periscope and IR headlight, new R-113 radio, multi-stage engine air filter and radiator controls for improved engine performance, an electrical oil pump, bilge pump, automatic fire extinguisher and extra fuel tanks. The tank officially entered service in 1954 and production in 1955. It also served as a basis for T-54AK command tank, with additional R-112 radio set (front line tanks were equipped with R-113 radio set), TNA-2 navigational device, ammunition load for the main gun decreased by 5 rounds and the AB-1-P/30 charging unit, which was produced in small numbers. In October 1953 a T-54A tank, designated as T-54M (Ob'yekt 139) served as a testbed for new D-54T and D-54TS 100 mm smoothbore guns, "Raduga" and "Molniya" stabilization systems, which were later used in the T-62. These were not completely successful, so further T-55 development continued to use the D-10 series guns. It was also fitted with V-54-6 engine developing 581 hp (433 kW). It never went into production.

The new version based on T-54A, designated T-54B (Ob'yekt 137G2), and was designed in 1955. It is fitted with a new 100 mm D-10T2S tank gun with STP-2 "Tsyklon" 2-plane stabilizer. It entered production in 1957. During the last four months of production the new tanks were equipped with L-2 "Luna" infrared searchlight and TPN-1-22-11 IR gunner's sight, OU-3 IR commander's searchlight. In addition, modern APFSDS ammunition was developed, dramatically enhancing the penetrative performance of the gun to keep it competitive with NATO armor developments. T-54B also served as the basis for T-54BK command tank which had exactly the same additional equipment as the T-54AK command tank.

T-55

The original T-55 lacked an antiaircraft machine gun mount

After the first trials with nuclear weapons it turned out that T-54 can survive 2-15 kt nuclear charge at a range of more than 300 m from the epicenter. The crew however has chances of surviving the same explosion at a range of more than 700 m from the epicenter. So it was decided to create an NBC protection system which would start working 0.3 seconds after detecting gamma radiation. The task of creating basic PAZ (PAZ stands for Protivoatomnaya Zashchita) NBC protection system offering protecting against the deadly blast overpressure of a nuclear explosion and particulate filtration, but not against radiation or gas was given to the KB-60 design bureau in Kharkov and it was completed in 1956. The documentation was sent to Uralvagonzavod. It was decided to increase tank's battle capabilities by changing the tank's construction and introducing new production technologies. Many of those changes were earlier tested on T-54M (Ob'yekt 139). The tank was fitted with the new V-55 12-cylinder 4-stroke one-chamber 38.88 litre water-cooled diesel engine developing 581 hp (433 kW). Higher engine power was accomplished by increasing the pressure of fuel delivery and charging degree. It was planned to introduce a heating system for the engine compartment and MC-1 diesel fuel filter. The engine was supposed to be started pneumatically with the use of AK-150S charger and an electric starter. This eliminated the need for the tank to carry a tank filled with air. To allow easier access during maintenance and repairs it was decided to change hatches over the engine compartment. To increase the operational range fuel tanks with 300 litres were added to the front of the hull which increased the overall fuel capacity to 680 litres. The ammunition load for the main gun was increased from 34 to 45, 18 from which are stored in so called wet containers located in hull fuel tanks (the concept for which came from Kartsev's cancelled Ob'yekt 140 tank). The said ammunition load included high explosive-fragmentation and anti-tank rounds and it was also planned to introduce the BK5M HEAT rounds which penetrated 390 mm thick armour. The TPKU commander's vision device was supposed to be replaced by either the TPKUB or TPKU-2B. The gunner was supposed to receive TNP-165 vision device. The loader's hatch-mounted 12.7 mm DShK anti-aircraft heavy machine gun was dropped, because it was deemed worthless against high-performance jets. The fact that it was removed meant that the loader's hatch had to be modified. The tank was supposed to be equipped with "Rosa" fire protection system. The tank also had a thicker turret casting and an improved two-plane gun stabilization system from T-54B as well as night vision fighting equipment. To balance the weight of the new equipment the armour on the back of the hull was thinned slightly. The T-55 was significantly superior to the IS-2 Heavy Tank in all respects, included the rate of fire of the gun (at least four compared to less than three rounds per minute). Despite somewhat thinner frontal turret armour (200 mm rather than 250 mm), it also compared favourably with the IS-3, thanks to its improved antitank gun and better mobility. Heavy tanks soon fell from favour, with only 350 IS-3s produced and future Soviet heavy tank designs remaining as prototypes. The old model of highly mobile medium tanks and heavily armoured heavy tanks was replaced with a new paradigm: the "main battle tank". Parallel developments in the West would produce similar results. However the T-55 was simply a modernized T-54 but it received a new designation because of political reasons. It entered service with the Red Army on 8 May 1958. It entered production at Uralvagonzavod in 1958. Since 1959 the tank also served as a basis for T-55K command tank which was equipped with additional R-112 radio set, AB-1-P/30 fuel powered accumulator charging unit and TPN-1-22-11 night vision sight. All this additional equipment made it necessary to decrease the carried ammunition load for the main gun to 37 rounds and eliminate the bow machine gun. In the beginning of 1960s a T-55K was experimentally fitted with "Uran" TV relay apparatus used for battlefield observation. The tank was fitted with an external camera, the picture from which was relayed to a receiver in a BTR-50PU command vehicle. Additionally there was an observation camera mounted on a folding mast which was in turn mounted on UAZ 69 car. The range on which the picture could be relayed was between 10 km and 30 km. In 1961 a T-55 tank was used to test the "Almaz" TV complex which was supposed to replace the standard observation devices right after the nuclear explosion and while fording. There was a camera mounted on the hull for the driver and two cameras mounted on the turret, one for aiming and one for observation the picture from the cameras was relayed to two control screens. The tank had removed front hull fuel tanks and bow machine gun. Also the commander was seated on the driver's position while the driver sat next to him. The cameras allow battlefield observation and firing during daytime at ranges between 1.5 km and 2 km. However because of the low quality of the equipment the trials gave negative results. In the beginning of 1960s the OKB-29 design bureau in Omsk was working on adapting the tank to GTD-3T gas turbine engine developing 700 hp (522 kW). One T-55 tank fitted with the said gas turbine engine was passing trials which however weren't deemed unsatisfactory and the tank didn't go into production. Also in the same design bureau between 1962 and 1965 three experimental T-55 tanks (designated Ob'yekt 612) fitted with an automatic gearbox controlled by the electro-hydraulic device were tested. The trials showed that a gearbox of such kind will experience many break downs in a tank. At the same time the Ob'yekt 155ML (T-55 fitted with a launcher for three 9M14 "Malyutka" (NATO code: AT-3 Sagger) ATGMs mounted on the rear of the turret). Along with standard tanks a flamethrower armed version was designed (designated TO-55 (Ob'yekt 482)) which was produced until 1962. It was fitted with 460 litre tanks filled with flammable liquid instead of the hull front fuel tanks. the flamethrower replaced the coaxial machine gun. It was a much better way of mounting the flamethrower than in experimental Ob'yekt 483 based on T-54 tank where the flamethrower replaced the main gun. TO-55 flamethrower tanks were withdrawn from service in 1993.

During the 1950s, the T-55 remained a significantly smaller and lighter tank than its NATO contemporaries—the U.S. M48 Patton and the British Centurion—but with comparable or better firepower, protection, and reliability. The 100mm D-10T tank gun was considered a strong point of the T-54/55 because none of the Western tanks of the time used a gun of such high calibre and barrel length. This advantage lasted until the tank began to be surpassed by newer Western developments like the M60 Patton and upgraded Centurions. Due to the round's low velocity and the tank's simple fire-control system, however, the T-54/55 was able to rely on HEAT shaped-charge ammunition to engage tanks well into the 1960s, despite the relative inaccuracy of this ammunition at long ranges. The Soviets considered this acceptable for a potential European conflict, until the development of Chobham armor began reducing the effectiveness of HEAT warheads.

T-55A

The development on a more sophisticated NBC protection system which would protect the crew from fast neutrons, as good enough level of protection against gamma radiation was provided by the thick armour and PAZ basic NBC protection system, started in 1961. There was the POV plasticized lead antiradiation lining that provided such protection developed around that time. It was decided to lay it around the interior of the tank. Because of this driver's hatch had to be enlarged as had the combings over the commander's and loader's hatches to accommodate the new material (leading to visibly protruding turret hatches). It also protected the crew from fragments of penetrated armour. It was also equipped with full PAZ/FVU chemical filtration system. The coaxial 7.62 mm SGMT medium machine gun was replaced by 7.62 mm PKT tank machine gun. The hull was lengthened from 6.04 m to 6.2 m. Hull machine gun has been removed which gave place for 6 more 100 mm gun rounds. All of the changes done have increased the weight of the vehicle to 38 tonnes. The design works, which were done by OKB-520 design bureau of the Uralvagonzavod under leadership of Leonid N. Kartsev, concluded in creation of T-55A (Ob'yekt 155A). T-55A also served as a basis for T-55AK command tank.

T-54/T-55 modernizations

During serial production and exploitation the T-55 was modernized many times. Already during the beginning of production the T-55 was fitted with a new TSz-2B-32P sight. In 1959 a number of tanks received mountings for the PT-55 mineclearing system and few years later the tanks received mountings for BTU plough which weighted 2.3 tonnes and BTU-55 plough which weighted 1.4 tonnes. In 1967 BM8 APFSDS round with a muzzle velocity of 1415 m/s which could penetrate 275 mm thick armour at a range of 2 km. In 1970 a complex T-55/T-55A modernization was made at Uralvagonzavod which equipped the tank with 12.7 mm DShK 1938/46 anti-aircraft heavy machine gun to deal with helicopters although Polish tankers said that it was useless even for that since even while firing at a shooting range from ranges of 800 m, 500 m and 400 m no rounds hit the target. Newly produced T-55A tanks started receiving it in 1970. Old T-55/T-55A tanks were fitted with it during routine maintenance starting since 1972. Since 1974 T-55 tanks started receiving KTD-1 or KTD-2 laser rangefinder in an armoured box over the mantlet of the main gun and the R-123 or R-123M radio set. Simultaneously efforts were made to modernize and increase the lifespan of the drive train.

During production the T-55A was frequently modernized. In 1965 a new track was introduced which could be used for between 2000 km and 3000 km which was two times more when compared to the old track. However it required new drive sprocket with 14 teeth instead of 13. Since 1974 T-55A tanks were equipped with KTD-1 "Newa" rangefinder and TSzS-32PM sight. All T-55A tanks were equipped with TPN-1-22-11 night sight. R-113 radio set was replaced by R-123 radio set. Late production models had rubber sideskirts and glass cover for the driver which was used during longer marches.

T-54 and T-55 tanks continued to be upgraded, refitted, and modernized into the 1990s. Advances in armour-piercing and HEAT ammunition would improve the gun's antitank capabilities in the 1960s and 1980s.

A wide array of upgrades in different price ranges are provided by many manufacturers in different countries, intended to bring the T-54/55 up to the capabilities of newer MBTs, at a lower cost. Upgrades include new engines, explosive reactive armour, new main armament such as 120 mm or 125 mm guns, active protection systems, and fire control systems with range-finders or thermal sights. These improvements make it a potent main battle tank (MBT) for the low-end budget, even to this day.

One of these upgrade packages was produced by Cadillac Gauge Textron and a prototype named the Jaguar was produced. The Jaguar looked quite different from its predecessors. A newly-designed turret was formed by flat armour plates installed at different angles. The hull top was also new. The engine compartment and fuel tanks on the shelves over the tracks were also armour-protected. The Soviet-made 100mm gun was replaced with the American M68 105mm rifled gun fitted with the thermal sleeve. A Marconi fire control system which was originally developed for the American light tank Stingray was also fitted. The vehicle incorporated a Cadillac-Gauge weapon stabilizer and gunner's sight equipped with an integral laser rangefinder. The powerpack inherited by the Jaguar from the Stinger underwent only minor alterations and comprised the Detroit Diesel 8V-92TA engine and XTG-411 automatic transmission. In 1989, two Jaguar tanks were manufactured. The chassis were provided by PRC, while the hull tops, turrets and powerplants were manufactured by Cadillac Gauge Textron.

Another prototype upgrade package was produced by Teledyne Continental Motors (now General Dynamics Land Systems) for the Egyptian Army and was known as the T-54E. After further modifications, and trials it was sent into mass-production and received a designation Ramses II..

Description

Like many post-World War II tanks, the T-54 and T-55 have a conventional layout with fighting compartment in the front, engine compartment in the rear, and a dome-shaped turret in the centre of the hull. Driver's hatch is on the front-left of the hull roof. The commander's hatch is on the turret left—the gunner sits forward and below him—and the loader's hatch is on the turret right. The tank's suspension has the drive sprocket at the rear, and slack track (not suspended by return rollers). Engine exhaust is on the left fender. There is a prominent gap between the first and second road wheel—a distinguishing feature from the derivative T-62 tank, which has progressively larger spaces between road wheels towards the rear.

The T-54 can be recognized by the dome-shaped ventilator on the turret roof, in front of the loader's hatch, which the T-55 lacks.

The T-54 and T-55 tanks are outwardly very similar and difficult to distinguish visually. Many T-54s were also updated to T-55 standards, so the distinction is often downplayed with the collective name T-54/55. Soviet tanks were factory-overhauled every 7,000 km and often given minor technology updates. Many states have added or modified the tank's equipment; India, for example, affixed fake fume extractors to its T-54s and T-55s so that its gunners wouldn't confuse them with Pakistani Type 59s.

The older T-54 can be distinguished from the T-55 by a dome-shaped ventilator on the front-right of the turret and a driver-operated SGMT 7.62 mm machine gun mounted to fire through a tiny hole in the centre of the hull's front. Early T-54s lacked a gun fume extractor, had an undercut at the turret's rear, and a distinctive "pig-snout" gun mantlet.

Advantages and drawbacks

The T-54/55 tanks are very simple to operate compared to Western tanks, and are mechanically simple and robust. This makes them well-suited for operation by uneducated or poorly trained soldiers. The T-54/55 is small for the average main battle tank, presenting smaller targets for opponents to hit. The tanks also have good mobility thanks to relatively light weight (which permits easy movement by rail or truck carrier and allows easier bridge crossings), wide tracks (which cause lower ground pressure and hence good cross-country mobility), a good cold-weather start-up system, and a snorkel (which allows river crossings). The T-54/55 tanks have together been manufactured in the tens of thousands, and many still remain in reserve, or even in frontline use among the more ragtag fighting forces. Abundance and age together ensure that these tanks are both cheap and easy to purchase, which is another advantage. And while the T-54/55 is clearly not a match for modern MBT's, armour and ammunition upgrades can dramatically improve the old vehicles' performance to the point that they cannot be dismissed on the battlefield. (Gelbart 1996:75-78)

T-54/55 tanks also have many serious defects. Small size is achieved at the expense of reduced interior space and fewer crew comforts. This causes practical difficulties, as it constrains the physical movements of the crew and slows operation of controls and equipment.(Gelbart 1996:75-78) Israelis who crewed T-54/55's captured during the 1967 and 1973 wars constantly complained of this, and this remains a problem that cannot be remedied through any amount of upgrading.(Gelbart 1996:48) The low profile of the tanks also prevents them from depressing their main guns by more than -5° (the average for Western tanks is -10°), which is disadvantageous for defensive fighting using hills as cover. While both tanks have "stabilized" cannons, in practice the guns can only be fired accurately when the vehicles are at rest (this problem may have been solved with more recent upgrades). The 100mm gun is also very small by modern standards (and was in fact obsolete by the 1960s), and only has a chance at being effective when firing special ammunition (such as missiles)(Gelbart 1996:75-78). The ammunition on board these tanks is also inadequately shielded, increasing the odds that any enemy penetration of the fighting compartment could cause a catastrophic secondary explosion.(Gelbart 1996:48) And while the T-54/55 tanks can be upgraded, the stunning losses suffered by upgraded Iraqi T-55's against American M1 Abrams tanks during the Gulf War showed the inescapable limitations of the design. The T-54/55 tanks are simply outdated and cannot be expected to have much of a chance against modern opponents.

The T-54 is especially defective: It lacks NBC protection, a revolving turret floor (which complicated the crew's operations), and early models lacked gun stabilization. All of these problems were corrected in the T-55 tank, which is otherwise largely identical to the T-54.(Gelbart 1996:75-78)

Models

Characteristics of the T-54/55 models

	T-54-1 (Ob'yekt 137)	T-54-2 (Ob'yekt 137R)	T-54-3 (Ob'yekt 137Sh)	T-54A (Ob'yekt 137G)	T-54B (Ob'yekt 137G2)	T-55 (Ob'yekt 155)	T-55A (Ob'yekt 155A)
Weight (tonnes)	?	?	39.7	?	?	39.7	?
Crew	4 (commander, gunner, loader, driver)
Main gun	100 mm LB-1 rifled tank gun		100 mm D-10T rifled tank gun	100 mm D-10TG rifled tank gun	100 mm D-10T2S rifled tank gun	100 mm D-10T2G or D-10T2 rifled tank gun
Machine gun(s)	7.62 mm SGMT medium coaxial 7.62 mm SGMT medium bow mounted 2 × 7.62 mm SG-43 fender mounted 12.7 mm DShK anti-aircraft heavy	7.62 mm SGMT medium coaxial 7.62 mm SGMT medium bow mounted 12.7 mm DShK anti-aircraft heavy				7.62 mm PKT tank coaxial 7.62 mm SGMT medium bow mounted 12.7 mm DShK 1938/46 anti-aircraft heavy (added during routine maintenance since 1972)	7.62 mm PKT tank coaxial 12.7 mm DShK 1938/46 anti-aircraft heavy (added to the newly produced tanks since 1970, added to the old T-55A tanks during routine maintenance since 1972)
Engine	V-54 12-cylinder 38.88 liter water-cooled diesel developing 523 hp (390 kW)					V-55 12-cylinder 4-stroke one-chamber 38.88 liter water-cooled diesel developing 581 hp (433 kW)
Speed	?	?	48 km/h (30 mph) on road	?	?	6.85 km/h in 1st gear 14.66 km/h in 2nd gear 20.21 km/h in 3rd gear 28.99 km/h in 4th gear 55 km/h (34 mph) in 5th gear 6.85 km/h in reverse gear on road	?
Operational range	?	?	401 km (249 miles) 600 km (373 miles) with extra tanks	?	?	501 km (311 miles) 600 km (373 miles) with extra tanks	?
Fuel capacity	215 gal (814 l)					254 gal (961 l)

Production history

USSR

The T-54-1 production was slow at first as only 3 vehicles were built in 1946 and 22 in 1947. 285 T-54-1 tanks were build in 1948 by Stalin Ural Tank Factory No. 183 (Uralvagonzavod), located in Nizhny Tagil. By that time it completely replaced T-44 in production at Uralvagonzavod (UVZ) in Nizhny Tagil, and Kharkov Diesel Factory No. 75 (KhPZ). However the production had stopped because of a low level of production quality and many times breakdowns. T-54-2 entered production overall in 1949 (at Stalin Ural Tank Factory No. 183 (Uralvagonzavod) the production started in 1950 and until the end of the year it produced 423 tanks). It replaced the T-34 in production at the Omsk Factory No. 183 in 1950. In 1951 over 800 T-54-2 tanks were produced. T-54-2 remained in production until 1952. T-54A was produced between 1955 and 1957. T-54B was produced between 1957 and April 1959. T-55 was produced by Uralvagonzavod between 1958 and 1962. T-55K commands tank was produced since 1959. The TO-55 (Ob'yekt 482) flamethrower tank was produced until 1962.

Overall 35,000 T-54-1, T-54-2, T-54 (T-54-3), T-54A, T-54B, T-54AK1, T-54AK2, T-54BK1 and T-54BK2 were produced between 1946 and 1958 and 27,500 T-55, T-55A, T-55K1, T-55K2, T-55K3, T-55AK1, T-55AK2 and T-55AK3 were produced between 1955 and 1981.

Poland

Poland produced 3,000 T-54, T-54A, T-54AD and T-54AM between 1956 and 1964 and 5,000 T-55 (between 1958 and 1964), T-55L, T-55AD-1 and T-55AD-2 (between 1964 and 1979).

Czechoslovakia

Czechoslovakia produced 2,700 T-54A, T-54AM, T-54AK, T-54AMK between 1957 and 1966 and 8,300 T-55 and T-55A between 1958 and 1983 (T-55A was probably produced since 1964) (most of them for export).

Service history

Soviet Union to Russian Federation

The T-54/55 and the T-62 were the two most common tanks in Soviet inventory—in the mid-1970s the two types together comprised approximately 85% of the Soviet Army's tanks.

T-54 tanks served in the 1956 invasion of Hungary, and a few were knocked out by Molotov cocktails and Hungarian antitank guns. The T-62 and T-55 are now mostly in reserve status; Russian active-duty units mainly use the T-80 and T-72, with a smaller number of T-90 tanks in service (the T-90 in a few units only).

Middle East

File:T55insouthleb.JPG

An abandoned T-55 in South Lebanon

An Iraqi T-55 disabled by coalition forces during Operation Iraqi Freedom.

T-55L on the streets during Martial law in Poland.

During the 1967 Six-Day War, U.S. M48 Patton tanks, Centurion tanks, and even upgraded World War II era Sherman tanks, were faced against T-55s. This mix of Israeli tanks, combined with superior planning of operations and superior airpower, proved to be more than capable of dealing with the T-54/T-55 series.

By the 1973 Yom Kippur War, the T-54A and T-55's gun was starting to lose its competitive effectiveness over to the 105 mm Royal Ordnance L7 gun mounted in Israeli Centurion Mk V and M60A1 tanks. Israel captured many T-55s from Syria and mostly Egypt in 1967, and kept some of them in service. They were upgraded with a 105 mm NATO-standard L7 or M68 main gun replacing the old Soviet 100 mm D-10, and a General Motors diesel replacing the original Soviet diesel engine. The Israelis designated these Tiran-5 medium tanks, and they were used by reserve units until the early 1990s. Most of them were then sold to assorted Third World countries, some of them in Latin America, and the rest were heavily modified, converted into heavy armoured personnel carriers designated the IDF Achzarit.

Other conflicts

File:Jna t-55 slovenia.jpg

Column of Yugoslav T-55 tanks in Slovenia.

File:Vrs t-55a.jpg

T-55 tank of Army of Republika Srpska

During the Vietnam War, the T-54 was employed by North Vietnam, notably in the 1972 Easter Offensive and the 1975 Ho Chi Minh Offensive. After being driven back by overwhelming American air power in the first campaign the Vietnam People's Army recovered to decisively defeat the ARVN and its armoured forces (largely composed of American M48s and M41s) in part due to improved training in combined arms tactics.

T-54 tanks were also used during the Cambodian civil war

During the 1971 Indo-Pakistani War, India operated T-55s in Chaamb against Pakistan's M48 Patton, M24 Chaffee, and Chinese Type 59 tanks. The Indians benefited from infrared night vision and better AP rounds, but according to one account the "honours were roughly even".

During the Ugandan-Tanzanian War of 1978-79, Libya sent an expeditionary force to aid Uganda dictator Idi Amin which included a few dozen T-54/55 tanks. Some of these tanks saw action against Tanzanian forces.

Polish T-55L tanks were also deployed during Martial law in Poland to intimidate the population and suppress overt displays against the Communist government.

The T-55 was the most numerous tank of the Yugoslavian Army (JNA). It was the mainstay of armoured combat units during the Yugoslav Wars, where it proved vulnerable to infantry equipped with anti-tank rockets, and to misemployment in urban areas and unfriendly terrain. But there were too many of them in service for them to be replaced. During the battle of Vukovar, where the JNA grouped most of its tank force, many were destroyed, almost exclusively by infantry-carried anti-tank weapons. The T-55 tank remained the most common tank in the armies of the Yugoslavian successor states until recently. T-55s were also used by all sides in Kosovo and 2001 Macedonia war.

China sold thousands of Type 69 tanks to both Iran and Iraq during the Iran–Iraq War of 1980-1988. Some saw action in the 1991 Gulf War and the US invasion of Iraq in 2003.

The T-55 has also been used by Ethiopia in the current conflict with the Islamic Courts in Somalia.

Operators, models and variants

For a more comprehensive list, see T-54/T-55 Operators and variants.

The T-55 has been used worldwide by as many as 50 countries and quasi-armies. They have been subject to numerous improvements throughout their production history and afterwards and many are still in service today. In addition the tank has been modified in many different ways to serve other roles such as air defense and combat engineering vehicles among others.

T-54, T-55 operators in light red and Type 59 operators in dark red.

Models

T-54

• T-54-1 (Ob'yekt 137) or T-54 Model 1946 – Produced 1946–1948. With streamlined turret and wide gun mantlet, similar to T-44, new V-54 engine, unstabilized D-10T 100 mm main gun, and two SG-43 machine guns in bins on the fenders. Only a small number was build for trials that were a fiasco; as a result, the production of the T-54 series was halted until the implementation of modifications.
• T-54-2 (Ob'yekt 137R) or T-54 Model 1949 – Produced 1949–1952. It incorporated a number of improvements to the turret as well a wider track. It had a new dome-shaped turret with flat sides inspired by the IS-3 heavy tanks, similar to later T-54's but with a distinctive overhang at the rear and hull machine gun replacing the fender bins. It also had a shorter bustle.
• T-54-3 (Ob'yekt 137Sh) or T-54 Model 1951 – Produced 1952–1954, in Poland 1956–1964. Adopted the familiar, fully egg-shaped turret and new TSh-2-22 telescopic gunner's sight instead of the TSh-20.Also early T-54 lacked a snorkel. The tank is also able to use its engine exhaust smoke system to create smokescreen by injecting vaporized diesel fuel onto the exhaust system. This feature was continued throughout the entire T-54/T-55 series.
• T-54A (Ob'yekt 137G) - Produced 1955–1957, in Poland 1956–1964, in Czechoslovakia 1957–1966, and in China as the Type 59. Added STP-1 "Gorizont" vertical-plane gun stabilizer to D-10TG gun. Originally had a small muzzle counter-weight, which was later replaced with a fume extractor. Also introduced OPVT wading snorkel, TSh-2A-22 telescopic sight, TVN-1 infrared driver's periscope and IR headlight, new R-113 radio, multi-stage engine air filter and radiator controls for improved engine performance, an electrical oil pump, bilge pump, automatic fire extinguisher and extra fuel tanks.
• T-54B (Ob'yekt 137G2) - Produced from 1957 to 1958. With improved D-10T2S gun and STP-2 "Tsyklon" 2-plane stabilization. From 1959, infrared night-fighting equipment was added: L-2 "Luna" infrared searchlight and TPN-1-22-11 IR gunner's sight, OU-3 IR commander's searchlight. NATO code: T-54(M).

T-55A. This Polish or Czech-built tank can be recognized by the more oval-shaped gunner's sight aperture, and zip storage box on the turret side

• T-54M (Ob'yekt 139) - Not to be confused with the T-54M modernization program. This was a testbed for new D-54T and D-54TS 100 mm smoothbore guns, "Raduga" and "Molniya" stabilization systems, which were later used in the T-62. These were not completely successful, so further T-55 development continued to use the D-10 series guns.
• Ob'yekt 137ML - Prototype of the T-54 with 9M14 "Malyutka" (NATO code: AT-3 Sagger) ATGM.
• T-54K1, T-54K2, T-54AK1, T-54AK2, T-54BK1, T-54BK2, T-54MK1, T-54MK2 were command tanks corresponding to the main production models, with extra communications equipment at the expense of 5 tank rounds. K1 version had a second R-113 (or R-123) radio for company commanders, K2 version had 10m semi-telescoping antenna mast, for battalion and regimental commanders, and regimental chiefs-of-staff.

T-55

• T-55 (Ob'yekt 155) - Produced 1958–1963, in Poland 1958–1964, in Czechoslovakia from 1958 to 1983. New turret with floor, PAZ nuclear-blast protection and over-pressure NBC system, gamma ray detector, improved V-55 engine and power-assisted clutch, greater fuel and ammunition load, TDA exhaust smoke generator, deleted the DShK 1938/46 antiaircraft heavy machine gun from loader's hatch. T-55 also lacks a turret dome ventilator. Early units had flush loader's hatch. "Starfish" road wheels replaced earlier "spider" style. Also a snorkel can be placed on T-55 (unlike its predecessors) to allow it to cross 5.5 m depths at a speed of 2 km/h (without preparation T-55 can cross 1.4 m depths). This equipment takes about 30 minutes' preparation, but can be jettisoned immediately on leaving the water.
• T-55A (Ob'yekt 155A) - Produced 1963–1981, in Poland 1964–1979. The T-55A MBT was primarily developed to incorporate a new antiradiation lining and full PAZ/FVU chemical filtration system. One of the major internal additions was the use of a plasticized lead sheeting for antiradiation protection. This was evident externally due to use of an enlarged driver's hatch and enlarged combings over the commander's and loader's hatch to accommodate the new material. Improved POV anti-radiation protection (leading to visibly protruding turret hatches) and NBC filtration, dispensed with bow machine gun. SGMT coaxial machine gun was replaced with PKT coaxial machine gun. Hull machine gun has been removed which gave place for 6 more 100 mm gun rounds Since 1970, T-55A tanks began to receive a new turret fitting for the 12.7mm DShK 1938/46 antiaircraft heavy machine gun.
• T-55K1 (Ob'yekt 155K1), T-55K2 (Ob'yekt 155K2), T-55K3 (Ob'yekt 155K3), T-55AK1 (Ob'yekt 155AK1), T-55AK2 (Ob'yekt 155AK2), T-55AK3 (Ob'yekt 155AK3), T-55MK1 (Ob'yekt 155MK1), T-55MK2 (Ob'yekt 155MK2), T-55MK3 (Ob'yekt 155MK3) - Command tanks, fitted with additional radio sets. Sub-versions are the K1 and K2 models with two R-123 (or R-123M) and used at company and battalion level respectively. They carry 5 tank rounds less than the standard tanks. The regiment commander's K3 is equipped with an R-130M, an R-123M, a 10-metre antenna mast and a generator AB-1-P/30 at the expense of 12 100mm rounds. Early models had the R-113 and R-112 sets instead of the R-123 and R-130, the upgraded M series is fitted with R-173 and R-143T2 sets respectively.
• Ob'yekt 155ML - Prototype of the T-55 with launcher for three 9M14 "Malyutka" (NATO code: AT-3 Sagger) ATGM mounted on the turret rear.

Modernization

T-55AM2B (left) and T-55A (right)
The T-55AM2B has turret brow armour, laser rangefinder over the main gun, rubber side skirts, and thicker front hull armour than the T-55A. Panzermuseum Munster

• T-54-2 fitted with the ZET-1 vehicle protection system. It has net structure centered on vehicles main armament and flipper-type side plates.
• T-54M (Ob'yekt 137M) (mid-1960s) – Upgrade program to bring T-54s up to T-55 standard.
• T-54M (Ob'yekt 137M) (1977) – Additional upgrades, including OPVT snorkel and KTD-1 laser rangefinder.
• T-54AM (Ob'yekt 137M) (mid-1960s) – Further upgrades, including increased ammunition, new radios, new V-55 engine. Some received new RMSh track and drive sprocket developed for T-72 tank in late 1970s and early 1980s. Similar programs were carried out in other countries (T-54Z, T-54AZ, T-54AMZ for Zusatzausrüstung, 'additional equipment' in East Germany, T-54AR Rieka, 'river', with fording snorkel in Czechoslovakia).

DShK 1938/46 antiaircraft heavy machine gun on T-55 MBT.

T-55 tanks received 12.7 mm DShK 1938/46 loader's anti-aircraft machine guns starting in (Model 1970, or sometimes T-55AM), and older tanks were retrofitted starting in 1972. Laser rangefinders KTD-1 or -2 were added to older tanks starting 1974 (Model 1974).

Serbian modification of T-55

• T-55 fitted with the ZET-1 vehicle protection system. It has net structure centred on vehicles main armament and flipper-type side plates.

• T-55M (Ob'yekt 155M)/T-55AM (Ob'yekt 155AM) - Modernization of respectively T-55 and T-55A with new "Volna" fire control system, 9K116-1 "Bastion" ATGM system with new 1K13 BOM guidance device/sight, improved gun stabilization system "Tsiklon-M1" and sights TShSM-32PV, V-55U engine , improved suspension and RMSh track, increased armour, anti-mine, anti-napalm and improved anti-radiation protection and new radio set R-173/173P. Visual differences include laser range-finder in an armoured box fitted over the main armament, side skirts, 81mm "Tucha" smoke grenade launchers, turret brow armour BDD and glacis appliqué, and rear RPG screens (only used rarely in Afghanistan).
  • T-55M-1 (Ob'yekt 155M-1)/T-55AM-1 (Ob'yekt 155AM-1) – The "-1" suffix was applied to later modified tanks which are powered by the 691 hp (515 kW) engine V-46-5M which was derived from the T-72's 780 hp (582 kW) V-46-6.
• T-55AD "Drozd" (Ob'yekt 155AD) - T-55A fitted with Drozd ('thrush') active protection system (KAZ - kompleks aktivnoj zashchity). Soviet Naval Infantry saved money by installing "Drozd" on a small number of tanks instead of opting for appliqué armour, or acquiring newer T-72s. About 250 were kept in stores for secrecy, but later switched to simpler reactive armour. T-55AD is also fitted with the radio set R-173, sight TShSM-32PV, "Tsiklon-M1" stabilizer etc. of the T-55AM.
  • T-55AD-1 (Ob'yekt 155AD-1) - Version powered by the 691 hp (515 kW) engine V-46-5M which was derived from the T-72's 780 hp (582 kW) V-46-6.
• T-55MV (Ob'yekt 155MV)/T-55AMV (Ob'yekt 155AMV) - "V" for vzryvnoj ('explosive') designated tanks which carried explosive reactive armour (ERA) "Kontakt-1" instead of the passive BDD armour. The ERA bricks (EDZ or elementi dinamicheskoj zashchity) are normally mounted on the turret front, hull front and the hull sides. This was adopted by Soviet Naval Infantry first, and by the Russian Army after the collapse of the Soviet Union. T-55MV is a modernized T-55M and T-55AMV is a modernized T-55AM.
  • T-55MV-1 (Ob'yekt 155MV-1)/T-55AMV-1 (Ob'yekt 155AMV-1) - Versions powered by the 691 hp (515 kW) engine V-46-5M.
• T-55M5 (Ob'yekt 155M5) - This modernization kit adds convex explosive reactive armour "Kontakt-5" panels around turret front, armour panel on glacis plate, a longer hull, a new style fire control equipment with stabilized TVK-3 and TKN-1SM sights for the gunner and commander, an improved V-55U engine (or V-46-5M) and a main gun stabilization system. The original 100 mm D-10T2S gun is maintained. Combat weight is less than 40 tonnes.
  • T-55M6 (Ob'yekt 155M6) - More radical upgrade with longer chassis with 6 road wheels each side, a 690 hp diesel engine V-46-5M and with the complete turret with automatic loader and 2A46M 125mm main gun of the T-72B. Also the protection was increased to T-80U level. Optionally the tank can be equipped with the fire control system 1A40-1 with ATGM system 9K120 "Svir" (as T-72B) or with the 1A42 and 9K119 "Refleks" systems (as T-80U). Combat weight is 43 tonnes.

Conflicts

• 1956 Hungarian Revolution (by the Soviet army)
• 1957 – 1975 Vietnam War (by the North Vietnamese Army)
• 1961 – 1975 The Kurdish-Iraqi War (by the Iraqi Army and Kurdish Peshmerga)
• 1964 - 1979 Rhodesian Bush War (by the Rhodesian Army)
• 1967 Six-Day War (by Syria and Egypt)
• 1968 Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia (by Warsaw Pact forces)
• 1971 Indo-Pakistani War (by India)
• 1973 Yom Kippur War (by Syria and Egypt)
• 1974 – 2002 Angolan Civil War (by the Angolan and Cuban Army)
• 1975 - 1990 Lebanese Civil War (by the Syrian Army)
• 1977 - 1978 Ogaden War (First used by Somalian armed forces, later on by Ethopia)
• 1978 - 1979 Ugandan-Tanzanian War (by the Libyan expeditionary force supporting Uganda)
• 1979 – 1989 Soviet war in Afghanistan (by the Afghan army and Soviet Army)
• 1980 – 1988 Iran–Iraq War (by both Iran and Iraq)
• 1981 - 1983 Martial law in Poland (by Ludowe Wojsko Polskie)
• 1983 - Sri Lankan civil war (by the Sri Lankan army)
• 1988 – 1994 Nagorno-Karabakh War (by all sides)
• 1990 – 1991 First Persian Gulf War (by the Iraqi army)
• 1991 – 2001 Yugoslav wars
  • 1991 Ten-Day War (both sides)
  • 1991 - 1995 Croatian War of Independence (both sides)
  • 1992 - 1995 Bosnian War (all sides)
  • 1996 - 1999 Kosovo War (by Yugoslav Army)
• 1994 – 1996 First Chechen War (by the Russian Army)
• 1996 - 1997 First Congo War (by the DR Congo army)
• 1998 - 2000 Ethiopian-Eritrean War (by both sides)
• 1998 – 2003 Second Congo War (by all sides)
• 1999 – 2005 Second Chechen War (by the Russian Army)
• 2001 Macedonia conflict (by all sides)
• 2001 - War in Afghanistan (by the Northern Alliance)
• 2003 - Second Persian Gulf War (by the Iraqi Regular Army until May 1, 2003 and the New Iraqi Army since 2004)
  • 2003 invasion of Iraq
• 2006 - War in Somalia (by the Ethiopian Army)
• 2008 - War in South Ossetia

Gallery of T-54/55 photographs

• 
  TR-85 M1 at BSDA 2007, Bucharest-Romania.
• 
  Two Croatian Defense Council (HVO) Army T-55's pull into firing position during a three day exercise held at the Barbara Range in Glamoc.
• 
  Members of the Croatian Defense Council (HVO) Army, 2nd Guard Brigade, fire the 12.7mm machine gun.
• T-55 of 1st Iraqi Mechanized Brigade Taking up a position while conducting route security patrol near Taji, Iraq.
  T-55 of 1st Iraqi Mechanized Brigade Taking up a position while conducting route security patrol near Taji, Iraq.
• Iraqi T-55 destroyed during the Gulf War.
  Iraqi T-55 destroyed during the Gulf War.
• 

See also

• Ramses II
• M60 Patton
• Type 59
• Al-Zarar

Additional resources

• Cockburn, Andrew The Threat: Inside the Soviet Military Machine. New York: Random House. 1983-05-03 ISBN 0-394-52402-0.
• Foss, Christopher F., ed (2005). Jane's Armour and Artillery 2005–2006, 26th edition. 2005-08-15 ISBN 0-7106-2686-X.
• Gelbart, Marsh (1996). Tanks: Main Battle and Light Tanks. London: Brassey's. ISBN 1-85753-168-X.

External links

• T-54-1, T-54-2, T-55AM, T-55AM2 Additional photos
• Cuban T-55
• Technical data sheet and pictures T-55 from ArmyRecognition.com
• T-55 Variant walk arounds and photos on Prime Portal