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This is an overview of the Devil. For more specific versions, see Devil in Christianity, Iblis (Islam) and Satan (Judaism).
For other uses, see Devil (disambiguation).
Satan frozen at the center of Cocytus, the ninth circle of Hell in Dante's Inferno.

The Devil is the title given to the supernatural being, who, in mainstream Christianity, Islam, and some other religions, is believed to be a powerful, evil entity and the tempter of humankind. The Devil is commonly associated with heretics, infidels, and other unbelievers.

The name "Devil" derives from the Greek word diabolos, which means "slanderer" or "accuser".[1] In mainstream Christianity, God and the Devil are usually portrayed as fighting over the souls of humans, with the Devil seeking to lure people away from God and into Sheol. The Devil commands a force of evil angels, commonly known as demons. The Hebrew Bible (or Old Testament) describes the Adversary (Ha-satan) as a servant of God whose job it is to test humankind.

This entity is commonly referred to by a variety of names, including Abbadon, Angra Mainyu, Satan, Asmodai, Beelzebub, Lucifer, Belial, and Iblis. Many other religions have a trickster or tempter figure that is similar to the Devil. Modern conceptions of the Devil include the concept that it symbolizes humans' own lower nature or sinfulness.

People put the concept of the Devil to use in social and political conflicts, claiming that their opponents are influenced by the Devil or even willingly supporting the Devil. The Devil has also been used to explain why others hold beliefs that are considered to be false and ungodly.

The Devil in different religions

Judaism

Main article: Satan

In Judaism there is no concept of a devil like in mainstream Christianity or Islam. In Hebrew, the biblical word ha-satan (שָׂטָן) means "the adversary"[2] or the obstacle, or even "the prosecutor" (recognizing that God is viewed as the ultimate Judge).

In the book of Job (Iyov), ha-satan is the title, not the proper name, of an angel submitted to God; he is the divine court's chief prosecutor. In Judaism ha-satan does not make evil, rather points out to God the evil inclinations and actions of humankind. In essence ha-satan has no power unless humans do evil things. After God points out Job's piety, ha-satan asks for permission to test the faith of Job. The righteous man is afflicted with loss of family, property, and later, health, but he still stays faithful to God. At the conclusion of this book God appears as a whirlwind, explaining to all that divine justice is inscrutable. In the epilogue Job's possessions are restored and he has a second family to "replace" the one that died.

In the Torah, ha-satan is mentioned several times. The main time is during the incident of the golden calf. As the source of people's evil inclination, or yetser harah, he is responsible for the Israelites building the golden calf while Moses was on Mount Sinai receiving the Torah from God. In the book of 1 Chronicles 21:1, ha-satan incites David to an unlawful census.

In fact, the Book of Isaiah, Job, Ecclesiastes, and Deuteronomy all have passages in which God is credited for exercising sovereign control over both good and evil.

Christianity

Main article: Devil in Christianity
Saint Wolfgang and the Devil by Michael Pacher).

In mainstream Christianity the Devil is also known as Satan and sometimes as Lucifer, although some scholars recognize the reference in Isaiah 14:12 to Lucifer, or the Morning Star, to be a reference to the Babylonian king (see, for example, the entries in Nave's Topical Bible, the Holman Bible Dictionary and the Adam Clarke Commentary). Modern Christians consider the Devil to be an angel who, along with one-third of the angelic host (the demons) rebelled against God and has consequently been condemned to the Lake of Fire. He is described as hating all humanity, or more accurately creation, opposing God, spreading lies and wreaking havoc on the souls of mankind. Other Christians consider the devil in the Bible to refer figuratively to human sin and temptation and to any human system in opposition to God. In the Bible, the devil is identified with the serpent in the Garden of Eden, the dragon in the Book of Revelation (e.g. Rev. 12:9), and the tempter of the Gospels (e.g. Mat. 4:1).

Islam

Main article: Iblis

In Islam the Devil is referred to as Iblis (Arabic: Shaitan, a word referring to evil devil-like beings). According to the Qur'an, God created Iblis out of "smokeless fire" (along with all of the other jinn) and created man out of clay. The primary characteristic of the Devil, besides hubris, is that he has no power other than the power to cast evil suggestions into the heart of men and women.

According to Muslim theology, Iblis was expelled from the grace of God when he disobeyed God by choosing not to pay homage to Adam, the father of all mankind. He claimed to be superior to Adam, on the grounds that man was created of earth unlike himself. As for the angels, they prostrated before Adam to show their homage and obedience to God. However, Iblis, adamant in his view that man is inferior, and unlike angels was given the ability to choose, made a choice of not obeying God. This caused him to be expelled by God, a fact that Iblis blamed on humanity. Initially, the Devil was successful in deceiving Adam, but once his intentions became clear, Adam and Eve repented to God and were freed from their misdeeds and forgiven. God gave them a strong warning about Iblis and the fires of Hell and asked them and their children (humankind) to stay away from the deceptions of their senses caused by the Devil.

According to the verses of the Qur’an, the Devil's mission until the Qiyamah or Resurrection Day (yaum-ul-qiyama) is to deceive Adam's children (mankind). After that, he will be put into the fires of Hell along with those whom he has deceived. The Devil is also referred to as one of the jinns, as they are all created from the smokeless fire. The Qur'an does not depict Iblis as the enemy of God, as God is supreme over all his creations and Iblis is just one of his creations. Iblis's single enemy is humanity. He intends to discourage humans from obeying God. Thus, humankind is warned to struggle (jihad) against the mischiefs of the Satan and temptations he puts them in. The ones who succeed in this are rewarded with Paradise (jannath ul firdaus), attainable only by righteous conduct.

Zoroastrianism

Main article: Angra Mainyu

In the Gathas, the oldest texts of the Zoroastrian Avesta, believed to have been composed by Zoroaster himself, the poet does not mention a manifest adversary. Ahura Mazda's Creation is "truth", asha. The "lie" (druj) is manifest only as decay or chaos, not an entity.

Later, in Zurvanism (Zurvanite Zoroastrianism), Ahura Mazda and the principle of evil, Angra Mainyu, are the "twin" offspring of Zurvan, 'Time'. No trace of Zurvanism exists after the 10th century.

Today, the Parsis of India largely accept the 19th century interpretation that Angra Mainyu is the 'Destructive Emanation' of Ahura Mazda. Instead of struggling against Mazda himself, Angra Mainyu battles Spenta Mainyu, Mazda's 'Creative Emanation.'

Bahá'í Faith

In the Bahá'í Faith there is no existence of a malevolent superhuman entity such as the devil.[3] Human beings are seen to have free will, and thus are seen to be able to either turn towards God and develop spiritual qualities, or instead be immersed in their own desires and thus commit wrongs; if people are immersed in their own desires, the Bahá'í writings sometimes use a metaphorical usage of satanic to describe their actions.[3] The writings of Bahá'í Faith also state that the devil is also a metaphor for the "insistent self" or "lower self" which is a self-serving inclination within each individual. This tendency is often referred to in the Bahá'í writings as "the Evil One".[4][5]

Neopaganism

Christian tradition has frequently identified pagan religions and witchcraft with the influence of Satan. In the Early Modern Period, the Church accused alleged witches of consorting and conspiring with Satan. Several modern conservative Christian writers, such as Jack Chick and James Dobson, have depicted today's neopagan and witchcraft religions as explicitly Satanic.

Few neopagan reconstructionist traditions recognize Satan or the Devil outright. However, many neopagan groups worship some sort of Horned God, for example as a consort of the Great Goddess in Wicca. These gods usually reflect mythological figures such as Cernunnos or Pan, and any similarity they may have to the Christian Devil seems to date back only to the 19th century, when a Christian reaction to Pan's growing importance in literature and art resulted in his image being translated to that of the Devil.[6]

New Age movement

Participants in the New Age movement have widely varied views about Satan, the Devil, and so forth. In some forms of Esoteric Christianity Satan remains as a being of evil, or at least a metaphor for sin and materialism, but the most widespread tendency is to deny his existence altogether. Lucifer, on the other hand, in the original Roman sense of "light-bringer", occasionally appears in the literature of certain groups as a metaphorical figure quite distinct from Satan, and without any implications of evil. For example, Theosophy founder Madame Blavatsky named her journal Lucifer since she intended it to be a "bringer of light". Many New Age schools of thought follow a nondualistic philosophy that does not recognize a primal force for evil. Even when a dualistic model is followed, this is more often akin to the Chinese system of yin and yang, in which good and evil are explicitly not a complementary duality. Schools of thought that do stress a spiritual war between good and evil or light and darkness include the philosophy of Rudolf Steiner, Agni Yoga, and the Church Universal and Triumphant.

Satanism

Main articles: Satanism, LaVeyan Satanism, Setianism, and Theistic Satanism

Some religions worship the Devil. This can be in a polytheistic sense where "God", Satan, and others are all deities with Satan as the preferred patron; or it can be from a more monotheistic viewpoint, where God is regarded as a true god, but is nevertheless defied.

Some variants deny the existence of God and the Devil altogether, but still call themselves Satanists, such as Anton LaVey's Church Of Satan which sees Satan as a representation of the primal and natural state of mankind.

Similar concepts in other religions

Hinduism

In contrast to Christianity, Islam, and Zoroastrianism, Hinduism does not recognize any central evil force or entity such as the Devil opposing God. Hinduism does recognize that different beings (e.g., asuras) and entities can perform evil acts, under the temporary dominance of the guna of tamas, and cause wordly sufferings. The Rajasic and Tamasic Gunas of Maya are considered especially close to the Abrahamic concept , the hellish parts of the Ultimate Delusion called "Prakriti". An embodiment of this is the concept of Advaita (non-dualism) where there is no good or evil but simply different levels of realization.

On the other hand in Hinduism, which provides plenty of room for counterpoint, there is also the notion of dvaita (dualism) where there is interplay between good and evil tendencies.[7] A prominent asura is Rahu whose characteristics are similar to those of the Devil. However, Hindus, and Vaishnavites in particular, believe that an avatar of Vishnu incarnates to defeat evil when evil reaches its greatest strength. The concept of Guna and Karma also explain evil to a degree, rather than the influence of a devil.

To be more specific, Hindu philosophy defines that the only existing thing (Truth) is the Almighty God. So, all the asuric tendencies are inferior and mostly exist as illusions in the mind. Asuras are also different people in whom bad motivations and intentions (tamas) have temporarily outweighed the good ones (Sattva). Different beings like siddha, gandharva, yaksha etc. are considered beings unlike mankind, and in some ways superior to men.

In Ayyavazhi, officially an offshoot of Hinduism prominent in Tamil Nadu (a southern state in India with Dravidian heritage), followers, unlike most other branches of Hinduism, believes in a Satan-like figure, Kroni. Kroni, according to Ayyavazhi is the primordial manifestation of evil and manifests in various forms of evil, i.e., Ravana, Duryodhana, etc., in different ages or yugas. In response to such manifestation of evil, believers, in Ayya-Vazhi religion believe that God, as Vishnu manifests in His avatars such as Rama and Krishna to defeat evil. Eventually, the Ekam with the spirit (the spirit taken by Narayana only for incarnating in the world) of Narayana incarnates in the world as Ayya Vaikundar to destroy the final manifestaion of Kroni, Kaliyan.

Kroni, the spirit of Kali Yuga is said to be omnipresent in this age and that is one of the reasons why followers of Ayya Vazhi, like most Hindus, believe that the current yuga, Kali Yuga is so degraded.

Buddhism

A devil-like figure in Buddhism is Mara. He is a tempter, who also tempted Gautama Buddha by trying to seduce him with the vision of beautiful women who, in various legends, are often said to be Mara's daughters. Mara personifies unskillfulness, the "death" of the spiritual life. He tries to distract humans from practicing the spiritual life by making the mundane alluring or the negative seem positive. Another interpretation of Mara is that he is the desires that are present in ones own mind preventing the person from seeing the truth. So in a sense Mara is not an independent being but a part of one's own being that has to be defeated. In daily life of the Buddha the role of devil has been given to Devadatta.

Ancient Egypt

Main articles: Set (mythology) and Apep

In the Ausarian drama we find that Ausar (Greek: Osiris) is chopped into 13 pieces by Set. Auset (Isis) collects all of his pieces save his phallus. Horus, son of Ausar and Auset sets out to avenge the death and dismemberment of his father by confronting Set. Horus is victorious over Set and Ausar, being brought back from the dead becomes lord of the underworld. It is this drama that gives us the cosmic conflict between good and evil, evil being embodied by Set. This is not to say that Set was always seen as an evil character in Ancient Egyptian theology. There are many times in Ancient Egyptian history where conflicts between different "houses" lead to the depreciation of one god relative to another.

As in most polytheistic faiths, the characters involved differentiate themselves from the Western tradition of a devil in that all the gods are closely related. In this case, numerous historic texts suggest that Set is the Uncle or Brother of Horus and in the "defeat" of Set, we see another separation from the norm in the devouring/assimilation of Set into Horus with the result of Horus having depictions of both the falcon head and the (unknown animal) head of Set. This (like Buddhism) represents a dissolution of dichotomy.

The Devil in world folklore

In the Western Christian tradition, the Devil has entered popular folklore, particularly in his role as a trickster figure. As such, he is found as a character in a wide number of traditional folktales and legends from Ireland, Newfoundland, Italy and the United Kingdom, where he often attempts to trick or outwit other characters. In some of these tales, the Devil is portrayed as more of a folk villain than as the personification of evil. The Devil also features prominently in a number of hagiographical tales, or tales of the saints such as the popular tale of St. Dunstan, many of which may fall outside the authorized religious canon. The Devil is also a recurring feature in tales explaining the etymology of geographical names, lending his name to natural formations such as The Devil's Chimney.

Other names for the Devil

Demons

In some religions and traditions, these titles are separate demons; others identify these names as guises of The Devil. Even when thought of as individual demons, some are often thought of being under the Devil's direct control. This identifies only those thought of as the Devil; List of demons has a more general listing.

Titles

These are all titles that almost always refer to the Devil himself.

Other deities identified with The Devil

Mainstream Christianity and Islam often recognized the existence of other pagan deities, but considered them demons of hell. Some particularly major deities were considered analogues to The Devil himself in a different form. Deities considered as the Devil include:


Jehovah as the Devil

Several religious authors throughout history have advanced the notion that the god of the Abrahamic Bible, is consistent in character with the Devil. They make the case that Jehovah is a divine force that wreaks death and destruction and that tempts or commands humanity into committing mayhem and genocide. They do this using the different terminologies of "demiurgus" (Marcion), "evil angel" (Apelles), "devil god" (Mani), "source of all evil" (the Albigenses), "a demon" (Paine), "a cruel, wrathful, warlike tyrant" (Marczyk), "Satan" (Williams), "the devil" (Magdalene Foundation), and "the first beast of the book of Revelation" ("Son of Man").

Citations from theological literature

Marcion of Sinope, the first major heretic of Christianity in the first century AD, "[held that] the Old Testament was a scandal to the faithful … and … accounted for it by postulating [that Jehovah was] a secondary deity, a demiurgus, who was god, in a sense, but not the supreme God; he was just, rigidly just, he had his good qualities, but he was not the good god, who was Father of Our Lord Jesus Christ."[9]

Apelles, the second century AD Gnostic, "consider[ed] the Inspirer of Old-Testament prophecies to be not a god, but an evil angel."[10]

The Persian prophet Mani, founder of the Manichaean sect in the third century AD, identified Jehovah as "the devil god which created the world"[11] and said that "he who spoke with Moses, the Jews, and the priests … is the [king] of Darkness, … not the god of truth."[12]

The Albigenses were a Christian sect in 12th- and 13th-century France. Their doctrine held that "the creator … of the material world … is the source of all evil … He created the human body and is the author of sin … The Old Testament must be either partly or entirely ascribed to him; whereas the New Testament is the revelation of the beneficent God."[13]

The 18th-century American philosopher Thomas Paine wrote that "Whenever we read the obscene stories, the voluptuous debaucheries, the cruel and torturous executions, the unrelenting vindictiveness, with which more than half the Bible is filled, it would be more consistent that we called it the word of a demon, than the Word of God."[14]

In modern times, atheist Adam Marczyk writes that "The … view of God … held by most Judeo-Christian believers: the concept of deity as a loving, benevolent father figure, patient and kind, perfected in the attributes of compassion, peace, and mercy … can only derive from a highly selective reading of the Bible. In reality, God as depicted in scripture is a very different being. The verses extolling his love and mercy are far outnumbered by those that depict him as a cruel, wrathful, warlike tyrant, swift to exact terrible revenge for even minor acts of disobedience. The few verses in the Bible [that show a loving God] are islands in a sea of blood, death, and destruction - both commanded by God and committed by him directly."[15]

While the earlier cited authors identified the Old Testament Jehovah as evil in contrast to a loving God of the New Testament, Marczyk notes that "Though there are comparatively few deaths caused or commanded by God in the NT, there is something much worse. … As terrible as the cruelties of the Old Testament God were, they were finite in duration. By contrast, the Prince of Peace … taught that those who do not worship him as he demands will, upon death, be cast into a fiery pit of torture, to suffer in unimaginable agony for all eternity without rest or hope of escape."[16]

American anthropologist Walter L. Williams has written a revision of the story of Jesus which presents "God as Satan, the evil doer rejected by Jesus in the New Testament confrontation during Jesus' retreat in the desert."[17]

There are also at least two anonymous items on the Internet that carefully argue the case. Rotten Fruit - God is the Devil does so with a combination of historical references and personal experience.[18] The Old Serpent Chained is a book-length analysis of Biblical content which concludes that "The Lord and God of the Old Testament that says him alone doeth great wonders is the first beast of the book of Revelation who doeth great wonders so that he maketh fire to come down from heaven on the earth in the sight of men and deceives those that dwell upon the earth."[19]

Citations from the Bible

The authors cited above make many references to the Bible, including the Old and New Testaments and the Quran in their arguments for identifying the Biblical God with the Devil. The following are some of the primary examples that they cite most often.

Genocide: And, behold, I, even I, do bring a flood of waters upon the earth, to destroy all flesh, wherein is the breath of life, from under heaven; and every thing that is in the earth shall die.[20]

Temptation to child sacrifice: And it came to pass … that God did tempt Abraham, and said unto him, … Take now thy son, thine only son Isaac, whom thou lovest, and get thee into the land of Moriah; and offer him there for a burnt offering …[21] [Although the command was later rescinded, several authors cite this story as showing that Jehovah required obedience even to the point of child sacrifice.]

Child slaughter: And it came to pass, that at midnight the Lord smote all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from the firstborn of Pharaoh that sat on his throne unto the firstborn of the captive that was in the dungeon; and all the firstborn of cattle. And … there was not a house where there was not one dead.[22]

Mass killing for idolatry: Thus saith the Lord God of Israel, Put every man his sword by his side, and go in and out from gate to gate throughout the camp, and slay every man his brother [who worshipped the golden calf], and every man his companion, and every man his neighbour. And the children of Levi did according to the word of Moses: and there fell of the people that day about 3,000 men.[23]

Death by torture for violating the Sabbath: And while the children of Israel were in the wilderness, they found a man that gathered sticks upon the Sabbath day. … And the Lord said unto Moses, The man shall be surely put to death: all the congregation shall stone him with stones without the camp. And all the congregation brought him without the camp, and stoned him with stones, and he died; as the Lord commanded Moses.[24]

Mass killing for idolatry: And the Lord said unto Moses, Take all the heads of the people [who have intermarried and converted to other religions], and hang them up before the Lord against the sun … And Moses said unto the judges of Israel, Slay ye every one [of these] men that were joined unto Baalpeor. … And those that died in the plague were 24,000.[25]

Mass killing, mayhem, child slaughter (of boys), and child sexual slavery (of girls): And they warred against the Midianites, as the Lord commanded Moses; and they slew all the [adult] males … And … took all the women of Midian captives, and their little ones, and took the spoil of all their cattle, and all their flocks, and all their goods. And they burnt all their cities wherein they dwelt, and all their goodly castles, with fire. … And Moses said unto them, … Now therefore kill every male among the little ones, and kill every woman that hath known man by lying with him. But all the women children, that have not known a man by lying with him, keep alive for yourselves.[26]

Genocide: And when the Lord thy God shall deliver them before thee; thou shalt smite them, and utterly destroy them; thou shalt make no covenant with them, nor shew mercy unto them. … But of the cities of these people, which the Lord thy God doth give thee for an inheritance, thou shalt save alive nothing that breatheth. But thou shalt utterly destroy them … as the Lord thy God hath commanded thee.[27]

Eternal torture for idolatry: If any man worship the beast and his image, and receive his mark in his forehead, or in his hand, … he shall be tormented with fire and brimstone … And the smoke of their torment ascendeth up for ever and ever: and they have no rest day nor night.[28]

Eternal torture for not worshipping Jehovah: … then as for those who disbelieved, garments of fire will be cut out for them, boiling water will be poured down over their heads. With it will vanish away what is within their bellies, as well as their skins. And for them are hooked rods of iron (to punish them). Every time they seek to get away therefrom, from anguish, they will be driven back therein, and it will be said to them: "Taste the torment of burning!"[29]


See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ "devil", Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29 June 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9030155>.
  2. ^ For example in Numbers 22:22 and Samuel 29:4Template:Bibleverse with invalid book and other places, the word "adversary" appears in the translation, which in the original Hebrew is "ha-satan".
  3. ^ a b Smith, Peter (2000). "satan". A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. pp. p. 304. ISBN 1-85168-184-1. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  4. ^ Bahá'u'lláh (1994) [1873-92]. "Tablet of the World". Tablets of Bahá'u'lláh Revealed After the Kitáb-i-Aqdas. Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. pp. p.87. ISBN 0877431744. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  5. ^ Shoghi Effendi quoted in Compilations (1983). Hornby, Helen (Ed.) (ed.). Lights of Guidance: A Bahá'í Reference File. Bahá'í Publishing Trust, New Delhi, India. p. 513. ISBN 8185091463.
  6. ^ Hutton, Ronald (1999). Triumph of the Moon. Oxford: Oxford UniverUniversity Press. p. 46. ISBN.
  7. ^ Hindu Concept of God
  8. ^ Serbian and Slavic Folklore
  9. ^ Marcionites by John Arendzen in Catholic Encyclopedia, 1910
  10. ^ Gnosticism by John Arendzen in Catholic Encyclopedia, 1909
  11. ^ Manichaeism by Alan G. Hefner in The Mystica, undated
  12. ^ Acta Archelai of Hegemonius, Chapter XII, c. AD 350, quoted in Translated Texts of Manicheism, compiled by Prods Oktor Skjærvø, page 68. History of the Acta Archelai explained in the Introduction, page 11
  13. ^ Albigenses by Nicholas Weber in Catholic Encyclopedia, 1907
  14. ^ The Age of Reason by Thomas Paine, 1795, Part I, Chapter VII, Examination of the Old Testament
  15. ^ A Book of Blood: Biblical atrocities by Adam Marczyk in Ebon Musings, undated
  16. ^ ibid., referring also to Infinite Punishment for Finite Sins: The doctrine of Hell by Adam Marczyk in Ebon Musings, undated
  17. ^ Walter L. Williams, private correspondence (quoted here with permission), March 19, 2009, referring to The Essential Teachings of Jesus and Mary by Walter L. Williams, unpublished manuscript, December 24, 2008, excerpts available at The Community Of Jesus And Mary
  18. ^ Rotten Fruit - God is the Devil, The Magdalene Foundation, undated
  19. ^ The Old Serpent Chained by "Son of man", Author House, 2006. (Full text of book available by clicking "Free Preview", then "Download the free eBook".)
  20. ^ Genesis 6:17
  21. ^ Genesis 22:1-2
  22. ^ Exodus 12:29-30
  23. ^ Exodus 32:27-28
  24. ^ Numbers 15:32-36
  25. ^ Numbers 25:4-9
  26. ^ Numbers 31:7-18
  27. ^ Deuteronomy 7:1-2 and 20:16-17
  28. ^ Revelation 14:9-11
  29. ^ Quran, Sura 22, Al-Hajj, 19-22

References

  • The Origin of Satan, by Elaine Pagels (Vintage Books, New York 1995) explores the development, the "demonization" of the character of Satan against the background of the bitter struggle between the early Church and the Synagogue to be the legitimate heir of ancient Hebrew religious tradition. She discusses how Satan becomes a figure that reflects our own hatreds and prejudices, and the struggle between our loving selves and our fearful, combative selves.
  • The Old Enemy: Satan & the Combat Myth, by Neil Forsyth (Princeton, New Jersey, 1987) seeks to show how Satan emerged from ancient mythological traditions and is best understood not as a principle of evil, but as a narrative character in the context of "the Combat Myth". Forsyth tells the Devil's story from the Epic of Gilgamesh through to the writings of St. Augustine.
  • The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, by Jeffrey Burton Russell (Meridian, New York 1977) is "a history of the personification of evil" which, to make things clear, he calls "the Devil". Accessible and engaging, full of photographs illustrating the text, this is the first of a four volume series on the history of the concept of the Devil. The following volumes are, Satan: The Early Christian Tradition, Lucifer: The Devil in the Middle Ages, and Mephistopheles: The Devil in the Modern World.
  • The Devil in Legend and Literature, by Maximilian Rudwin (Open Court, La Salle, Illinois, 1931, 1959) is a compendium of "the secular and sacred adventures of Satan."
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