Vinegar
 | This article possibly contains original research. (February 2009) |
Vinegar is an acidic liquid processed from the fermentation of ethanol in a process that yields its key ingredient, acetic acid (also called ethanoic acid). It also may come in a diluted form. The acetic acid concentration typically ranges from 4 to 8 percent by volume for table vinegar[1] (typically 5%) and higher concentrations for pickling (up to 18%). Natural vinegars also contain small amounts of tartaric acid, citric acid, and other acids. Vinegar has been used since ancient times and is an important element in European, Asian, and other cuisines.
The word "vinegar" derives from the Old French vin aigre, meaning "sour wine".
History
Vinegar has been made and used by people for thousands of years. Traces of it have been found in Egyptian urns dating from around 3000 BC. According to Shennong's Herb Classic, vinegar was invented in China during the Xia Dynasty, around 2000 BC.
In the Bible, it is mentioned as something not very pleasant (Ps. 69:21, Prov. 25:20), but Boaz allows Ruth to "dip her piece of bread in the vinegar" (Ruth 2:14). Jesus was offered vinegar or sour wine while on the cross (Matthew 27:48; Mark 15:36). In Islamic traditions, vinegar is one of the four favored condiments of the Prophet Muhammad, who called it a "blessed seasoning".[2]
In 1864, Louis Pasteur showed that vinegar results from a natural fermentation process.
Production
Vinegar is made from the oxidation by acetic acid bacteria of ethanol in wine, cider, beer, fermented fruit juice, or nearly any other liquid containing alcohol.
Commercial vinegar is produced either by fast or slow fermentation processes. Slow methods generally are used with traditional vinegars and fermentation proceeds slowly over the course of weeks or months. The longer fermentation period allows for the accumulation of a nontoxic slime composed of acetic acid bacteria and soluble cellulose, known as the mother of vinegar.
Fast methods add mother of vinegar (i.e. bacterial culture) to the source liquid before adding air using a Venturi pump system or a turbine to promote oxygenation to obtain the fastest fermentation. In fast production processes, vinegar may be produced in a period ranging from 20 hours to three days.
Malt
Malt vinegar is made by malting barley, causing the starch in the grain to turn to maltose. Then an ale is brewed from the maltose and allowed to turn into vinegar, which is then aged. It typically is light brown in color.
Wine
Wine vinegar is made from red or white wine and is the most commonly used vinegar in Mediterranean countries and Central Europe. As with wine, there is a considerable range in quality. Better quality wine vinegars are matured in wood for up to two years and exhibit a complex, mellow flavor. Wine vinegar tends to have a lower acidity than that of white or cider vinegars. There are more expensive wine vinegars that are made from individual varieties of wine, such as Champagne, Sherry, or pinot grigio.
Apple cider
Apple cider vinegar, otherwise known simply as cider vinegar, is made from cider or apple must and has a brownish-yellow color. It often is sold unfiltered and unpasteurized with the mother of vinegar present, as a natural product. It is very popular, partly due to beneficial health and beauty properties[citation needed]. Due to its acidity, apple cider vinegar may be very harsh, even burning to the throat. If taken straight (as opposed to use in cooking), it can be diluted (e.g. with fruit juice or water) before drinking.[3] It is also sometimes sweetened with sugar or honey.[4]
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Fruit
Fruit vinegars are made from fruit wines, usually without any additional flavoring. Common flavors of fruit vinegar include apple, black currant, raspberry, quince, and tomato. Typically, the flavors of the original fruits remain in the final product.
Most fruit vinegars are produced in Europe, where there is a growing market for high-priced vinegars made solely from specific fruits (as opposed to non-fruit vinegars which are infused with fruits or fruit flavors). Several varieties, however, also are produced in Asia. Persimmon vinegar, called gam sikcho (감식초), is popular in South Korea. Jujube vinegar photo (called 枣醋 or 红枣醋 in Chinese) and wolfberry vinegar photo (called 枸杞醋 in Chinese) are produced in China.
Umezu (梅酢; often translated as "umeboshi vinegar" or "ume vinegar"), a salty, sour liquid that is a by-product of umeboshi (pickled ume) production, is produced in Japan, but technically is not a true vinegar.
Balsamic
Balsamic vinegar is an aromatic, aged type of vinegar traditionally crafted in the Modena, and Reggio Emilia provinces of Italy from the concentrated juice, or must, of white grapes (typically of the Trebbiano variety). It is very dark brown in color and its flavor is rich, sweet, and complex, with the finest grades being the product of years of aging in a successive number of casks made of various types of wood (including oak, mulberry, chestnut, cherry, juniper, ash, and acacia). Originally a product available only to the Italian upper classes, a cheaper form of balsamic vinegar became widely known and available around the world in the late twentieth century. True balsamic vinegar (which has Protected Designation of Origin) is aged for 12 to 25 years. Balsamic vinegars that have been aged for up to 100 years are available, though they are usually very expensive. The commercial balsamic sold in supermarkets is typically made with red wine vinegar or concentrated grape juice mixed with a strong vinegar, which is laced with caramel and sugar. Regardless of how it is produced, balsamic vinegar must be made from a grape product.
Balsamic vinegar has a high acidity level but the tart flavor is usually hidden by the sweetness of the other ingredients, making it very mellow.
Rice
Rice vinegar is most popular in the cuisines of East and Southeast Asia. It is available in "white" (light yellow), red, and black varieties. The Japanese prefer a light rice vinegar for the preparation of sushi rice and salad dressings. Red rice vinegar traditionally is colored with red yeast rice. Black rice vinegar (made with black glutinous rice) is most popular in China, and it is also widely used in other east Asian countries(see East Asian black, below).
Some varieties of rice vinegar are sweetened or otherwise seasoned with spices or other added flavorings.
Coconut
Coconut vinegar, made from fermented coconut water, is used extensively in Southeast Asian cuisine (particularly in the Philippines, a major producer, where it is called suka ng niyog), as well as in some cuisines of India. A cloudy white liquid, it has a particularly sharp, acidic taste with a slightly yeasty note.
Palm
Palm vinegar, made from the fermented sap from flower clusters of the nipa palm (also called attap palm), is used most often in the Philippines, where it is produced, and where it is called sukang paombong.
Cane
Cane vinegar, made from sugar cane juice, is most popular in the Philippines, in particular, the Ilocos Region of the northern Philippines (where it is called sukang iloko), although it also is produced in France and the United States. It ranges from dark yellow to golden brown in color and has a mellow flavor, similar in some respects, to rice vinegar, though with a somewhat "fresher" taste. Contrary to expectation, containing no residual sugar, it is not sweeter than other vinegars. In the Philippines, it often is labeled as sukang maasim, although this is simply a generic term meaning "sour vinegar."
A white variation has become quite popular in Brazil in recent years, where it is the cheapest type of vinegar sold. It is now common for other types of vinegar (made from wine, rice and apple cider) to be sold mixed with cane vinegar to lower the costs.
Raisin
Vinegar made from raisins, called khal 'anab (خل عنب) in Arabic (literally meaning "grape vinegar") is used in cuisines of the Middle East, and is produced therein. It is cloudy and medium brown in color, with a mild flavor.photo
Date
Vinegar made from dates is a traditional product of the Middle East.[2]
Beer
Vinegar made from beer is produced in Germany, Austria, and the Netherlands. Although its flavor depends on the particular type of beer from which it is made, it often is described as having a malty taste. That produced in Bavaria, is a light golden color with a very sharp and not-overly-complex flavor.
Honey
Vinegar made from honey is rare, although commercially available honey vinegars are produced in Italy and France.
East Asian black
Chinese black vinegar is an aged product made from rice, wheat, millet, sorghum, or a combination thereof. It has an inky black color and a complex, malty flavor. There is no fixed recipe and thus some Chinese black vinegars may contain added sugar, spices, or caramel color. The most popular variety, Chinkiang vinegar (鎮江香醋), originated in the city of Zhenjiang, in the eastern coastal province of Jiangsu, China[5] and also is produced in Tianjin and Hong Kong.
A somewhat lighter form of black vinegar, made from rice, also is produced in Japan, where it is called kurozu. Since 2004 it has been marketed as a healthful drink; its manufacturers claim that it contains high concentrations of amino acids.
Flavored vinegars
Popular fruit-flavored vinegars include those infused with whole raspberries, blueberries, or figs (or else from flavorings derived from these fruits). Some of the more exotic fruit-flavored vinegars include blood orange and pear.
Herb vinegars are flavored with herbs, most commonly Mediterranean herbs such as thyme or oregano. Such vinegars can be prepared at home by adding sprigs of fresh or dried herbs to vinegar purchased at a grocery store; generally a light-colored, mild tasting vinegar, such as that made from white wine, is used for this purpose.
Sweetened vinegar is of Cantonese origin and is made from rice wine, sugar and herbs including ginger, cloves, and other spices.
Spiced vinegar, from the Philippines (labeled as spiced sukang maasim), is flavored with chili peppers, onions, and garlic.
Job's Tears
In Japan, an aged vinegar also is made from Job's Tears; it is similar in flavor to rice vinegar.
Kombucha
Kombucha vinegar is made from kombucha, a symbiotic culture of yeast and bacteria. The bacteria produce a complex array of nutrients and populate the vinegar with bacteria which some claim promotes a healthy digestive tract, although no scientific studies have confirmed this. Kombucha vinegar primarily is used to make a vinaigrette and is flavored by adding strawberries, blackberries, mint, or blueberries at the beginning of fermentation.
Kiwifruit
A by-product of commercial kiwifruit growing is a large amount of waste in the form of firstly misshapen or otherwise rejected fruit that may constitute up to 30 per cent of the crop and secondly kiwifuit pomace which is the presscake residue left after kiwifruit juice manufacture. One of the uses for this waste is the production of kiwifruit vinegar. Produced commercially in New Zealand[6] since, at least, the early 1990s. Production of kiwifruit vinegar began for domestic sale in China in 2008[7].
Distilled vinegar
Any type of vinegar may be distilled to produce a colourless solution of about 5% to 8% acetic acid in water. This is variously known as distilled, spirit[8] or white vinegar, and is used for medicinal, laboratory and cleaning purposes as well as in cooking, including pickling[9]. The most common starting material, due to its low cost, is malt vinegar.
The term 'spirit vinegar' is sometimes reserved for the stronger variety (5% to 20% acetic acid) made from sugar cane[10] or from chemically produced acetic acid.[9]
Culinary uses
Vinegar is commonly used in food preparation, particularly in pickling processes, vinaigrettes, and other salad dressings. It is an ingredient in sauces such as mustard, ketchup, and mayonnaise. Vinegar is sometimes used while making chutneys. It is often used as a condiment. Marinades often contain vinegar.
- Condiment for fish and chips - People commonly use malt vinegar (or non-brewed condiment) on chips.
- Flavoring for potato chips - many American, Canadian and British manufacturers of packaged potato chips and crisps feature a variety flavored with vinegar and salt.
- Vinegar pie - is a North American dessert made with a vinegar to one's taste.
- Pickling - any vinegar can be used to pickle foods.
- Cider vinegar and sauces - cider vinegar usually is not suitable for use in delicate sauces.
- Substitute for fresh lemon juice - cider vinegar can usually be substituted for fresh lemon juice in recipes and obtain a pleasing effect although it lacks the vitamin C.
- Saucing roast lamb - pouring cider vinegar over the meat when roasting lamb, especially when combined with honey or when sliced onions have been added to the roasting pan, produces a sauce.
- Sweetened vinegar is used in the dish of Pork Knuckles and Ginger Stew which is made among Chinese people of Cantonese backgrounds to celebrate the arrival of a new child.[11]
- Sushi rice - Japanese use rice vinegar as an essential ingredient for sushi rice.
- Red vinegar - Sometimes used in Chinese soups
- Flavoring - used in the Southern U.S. to flavor collard greens, green beans, or cabbage to taste.
Medicinal uses
Many remedies and treatments have been ascribed to vinegar over millennia and in many different cultures, however, few have been verifiable using controlled medical trials and many that are effective to some degree have significant side effects and carry the possibility of serious health risks. [12]
Possible cholesterol and triacylglycerol effects
A 2006 study concluded that a test group of rats fed with acetic acid (the main component of vinegar) had "significantly lower values for serum total cholesterol and triacylglycerol", among other health benefits.[13] Rats fed vinegar or acetic acid have lower blood pressure than controls, although the effect has not been tested in humans. [12] Reduced risk of fatal ischemic heart disease was observed among participants in a trial who ate vinegar and oil salad dressings frequently.[12]
Blood glucose control and diabetic management
Prior to hypoglycemic agents, diabetics used vinegar teas to control their symptoms.[12] Small amounts of vinegar (approximately 20 ml or two tablespoons of domestic vinegar) added to food, or taken along with a meal, have been shown by a number of medical trials to reduce the glycemic index of carbohydrate food for people with and without diabetes.[14][15][16] This also has been expressed as lower glycemic index ratings in the region of 30%.[17][18]
Diet control
Multiple trials indicate that taking vinegar with food increases satiety (the feeling of fullness) and so, reduces the amount of food consumed.[19][20]
Infections
Vinegar has been used to fight infections since Hippocrates, who lived between 460-377 BC, prescribed it for curing persistent coughs. As a result, vinegar is popularly believed to be effective against infections. While vinegar can be an effective antibacterial cleaning agent on hard surfaces such as washroom tiles and countertops,[21] studies show that vinegar—whether taken internally or applied topically—is not effective against infections, lice, or fungus.[citation needed]
Other medicinal uses
Applying vinegar to common jellyfish stings deactivates the nematocysts; however, placing the affected areas in hot water is a more effective treatment because the venom is deactivated by heat. The latter requires immersion in 45°C (113°F) water for at least four minutes for the pain to be reduced to less than what would be accomplished using vinegar.[22] But vinegar should not be applied to Portuguese man o' war stings, however, since their venom is different from most jellyfish and vinegar can cause their nematocysts to discharge venom, making the pain worse.[23]
Contrary to myth, vinegar cannot be used as a detoxification agent to circumvent urinalysis testing for marijuana.[24][25]
Vinegar is often used as an old folk remedy for sunburns, helping to alleviate the pain associated with the injury.[citation needed]
Potential hazards
Esophageal injury by apple cider vinegar tablets has been reported, and because vinegar products sold for medicinal purposes are neither regulated nor standardized, they vary widely in content, pH, and other respects.[26] Long-term heavy vinegar ingestion may also cause Hypokalemia, Hyperreninemia, and Osteoporosis.[27]
Cleaning uses
White vinegar is often used as a household cleaning agent. Because it is acidic, it can dissolve mineral deposits from glass, coffee makers, and other smooth surfaces.[28] For most uses dilution with water is recommended for safety and to avoid damaging the surfaces being cleaned.
Vinegar is an excellent solvent for cleaning epoxy resin and hardener, even after the epoxy has begun to harden.
Malt vinegar sprinkled onto crumpled newspaper is a traditional, and still-popular, method of cleaning grease-smeared windows and mirrors in the UK.[29]
In the television show How Clean Is Your House?, British cleaning duo Kim Woodburn and Aggie MacKenzie often refer to vinegar as a "cheap and cheerful" non-toxic agent for cleaning surfaces, especially glass.
Agricultural and horticultural uses
Herbicide use
Vinegar can be used as an herbicide.[30] Acetic acid is not absorbed into root systems, so vinegar will kill top growth, but perennial plants will reshoot.[31] Vinegar made from natural products classifies as organic and so there is interest[who?] in its being used on farms, orchards, and gardens which are certified as organic.
Commercial vinegar, available to consumers for household use, does not exceed 5% and solutions above 10% need careful handling since they are corrosive and damaging to skin. Stronger solutions (i.e., greater than 5%) that are labeled for use as herbicides are available from some retailers.[32]
Miscellaneous
When a bottle of vinegar is opened, mother of vinegar may develop. It is considered harmless and can be removed by filtering.
Vinegar eels (Turbatrix aceti), a form of nematode that has cells that are air-borne, may occur in some forms of vinegar unless the vinegar is kept covered. These feed on the mother of vinegar and can occur in naturally fermenting vinegar.[1] This is the reason vinegar condiment jars have tightly-fitting stoppers. Most manufacturers filter and pasteurize their product before bottling to eliminate any potential adulteration, although they are harmless when ingested. [citation needed]
When vinegar is added to sodium bicarbonate (baking soda), it produces a volatile mixture of sodium acetate and carbonic acid. The carbonic acid rapidly decomposes into water and carbon dioxide, which makes the reaction fizz. It is often used to illustrate typical acid-base reactions in school science experiments.
Some countries prohibit the selling of vinegar over a certain percentage acidity. As an example, the government of Canada limits the acetic acid of vinegars to between 4.1% and 12.3%.[33]
Posca, a Roman legionaries' basic drink was vinegar mixed with water and optional honey.[34]
According to legend, in France during the Black Plague, four thieves were able to rob houses of plague victims without being infected themselves. When finally caught, the Judge offered to grant the men their freedom, on the condition that they revealed how they managed to stay healthy. They claimed that a medicine woman sold them a potion, made of garlic soaked in soured red wine (vinegar). Variants of the recipe, called Four Thieves Vinegar, have been passed down for hundreds of years and are a staple of New Orleans Voodoo practices.[35][36]
Vinegar can be mixed with heated milk to create a casein-based plastic.[37][38]
Diluted vinegar can be used as a homemade stop bath during photographic processing.[39]
The mixing of vinegar, fruit juice, and a touch of detergent makes a good trap for catching the common fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster. They are attracted to the pungent smell, and when they go for a drink they fall in due to the detergent breaking the Surface tension.[40]
See also
References
- ^ a b FDA: Sec. 525.825 Vinegar, Definitions - Adulteration with Vinegar Eels (CPG 7109.22)
- ^ Health Benefits of Prophetic Condiments: Part One of Five: IslamOnline
- ^ "Apple Cider Vinegar Cures".
- ^ "Apple Cider Vinegar and Honey".
- ^ AsianWeek.com
- ^ Biotechnology in New Zealand
- ^ The Vinegar Institute
- ^ Allgeier RJ et al., Newer Developments in Vinegar Manufacture, 1960 ("manufacture of white or spirit vinegar"), in Umbreit WW, Advances in Microbiology: Volume 2, Elsevier/Academic Press Inc., ISBN 0120026023, accessed at Google Books 2009-04-22
- ^ a b Sinclair C, International Dictionary of Food and Cooking, Peter Collin Publishing, 1998 ISBN 0948549874
- ^ Ellsey's, "Products", accessed 2009-04-22
- ^ New babies
- ^ a b c d Johnston CS, Gaas CA (2006). "Vinegar: medicinal uses and antiglycemic effect". MedGenMed. 8 (2): 61. PMC 1785201. PMID 16926800.
- ^ Fushimi, Takashi 1; et al. (May 2006). "Dietary acetic acid reduces serum cholesterol and triacylglycerols in rats fed a cholesterol-rich diet". British Journal of Nutrition. 95 (5): 916–924. doi:10.1079/BJN20061740.
{{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in:|first=(help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: year (link) - ^ Liljeberg H, Bjorck I. Delayed gastric emptying rate may explain improved glycemia in healthy subjects to a starchy meal with added vinegar. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1998;64:886-893
- ^ Leeman M, Ostman E, Bjorck I. Vinegar dressing and cold storage of potatoes lowers postprandial glycemic and insulinaemic responses in healthy subjects. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2005;59:1266-1271
- ^ Johnston CS, Kim CM, Buller AJ. Vinegar improves insulin sensitivity to a high carbohydrate meal in subjects with insulin resistance or type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2004;27:281-282
- ^ Sugiyama M, Tang AC, Wakaki Y, Koyama W. Glycemic index of single and mixed meal foods among common Japanese foods with white rice as a reference food. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2003;57:743-752
- ^ Ostman EM, Liljeberg Elmstahl HG, Bjorck IM. Inconsistency between glycemic and insulinemic responses to regular and fermented milk products. Am J Clin Nutr. 2001;74:96-100
- ^ Ostman E, Granfeldt Y, Persson L, Bjorck I. Vinegar supplementation lowers glucose and insulin responses and increases satiety after a bread meal in healthy subjects. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2005;59,983-988
- ^ [High-glycemic index foods, hunger, and obesity: is there a connection?Roberts SB. High-glycemic index foods, hunger, and obesity Is there a connection? Nutr Rev. 2000;58:163-169]
- ^ http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2000/12/26/48hours/main259812.shtml
- ^ comparison of treatments for acute jellyfish stings
- ^ Portuguese Man 'o Wars and their sting treatment
- ^ Schaffer Library of Drug Policy
- ^ Fooling the Bladder Cops
- ^ Esophageal injury by apple cider vinegar tablets and subsequent evaluation of products
- ^ Hypokalemia, Hyperreninemia and Osteoporosis in a Patient Ingesting Large Amounts of Cider Vinegar
- ^ "My Environment: Cleaning Products", Ontario Ministry of the Environment
- ^ "Trade Secrets: Betty's Tips", BBC/Lifestyle/Homes/Housekeeping, accessed 2009-04-22
- ^ Spray Weeds With Vinegar?
- ^ Vinegar as herbicide
- ^ Conquer Weeds with Vinegar?
- ^ "Departmental Consolidation of the Food and Drugs Act and the Food and Drug Regulations - Part B - Division 17-28" (PDF). Health Canada. 2003-03. Retrieved 2008-09-02.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Roman food and drink
- ^ Hunter, Robert (1894). The Encyclopaedic Dictionary.
- ^ Kacirk, Jeffery (2000). The Word Museum:The most remarkable English ever forgotten. Touchstone. ISBN 0-684-85761-8.
- ^ Homemade Plastic
- ^ http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/books/article2537936.ece
- ^ Vinegar stop bath
- ^ [1]