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Mount Merapi

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This article is about Mount Merapi in Central Java. For Mount Merapi in West Sumatra, see Mount Marapi.
Mount Merapi
Gunung Merapi
Merapi, July 2005
Highest point
Elevation2,968 m (9,738 ft)[1]
Prominence1,392 m (4,567 ft)[citation needed]
ListingRibu
Naming
English translationMountain of Fire
Language of nameIndonesian
Geography
Mount Merapi is located in Indonesia
Mount Merapi
Mount Merapi
Geology
Age of rock400,000 years
Mountain typeActive Stratovolcano
Last eruption5 November 2010[2]

Mount Merapi, Gunung Merapi (literally Mountain of Fire in Indonesian/Javanese), is an active stratovolcano located on the border between Central Java and Yogyakarta, Indonesia. It is the most active volcano in Indonesia and has erupted regularly since 1548. It is very close to the city of Yogyakarta, and thousands of people live on the flanks of the volcano, with villages as high as 1700 m above sea level.

The name Merapi could be loosely translated as 'Mountain of Fire' from the Javanese combined words; Meru means "mountain" and api means "fire". Smoke can be seen emerging from the mountaintop at least 300 days a year, and several eruptions have caused fatalities. Hot gas from a large explosion killed 27 people on November 22 in 1994, mostly in the town of Muntilan, west of the volcano.[3] Another large eruption occurred in 2006, shortly before the Yogyakarta earthquake. In light of the hazards that Merapi poses to populated areas, it has been designated as one of the Decade Volcanoes.

On 25 October 2010 the Indonesian government raised the alert for Mount Merapi to its highest level and warned villagers in threatened areas to move to safer ground. People living within a 20 km (12.5 mile) zone were told to evacuate. Officials said about 500 volcanic earthquakes had been recorded on the mountain over the weekend of 23–24 October, and that the magma had risen to about a kilometre below the surface due to the seismic activity.[4] On the afternoon of 25 October 2010 Mount Merapi erupted lava from its southern and southeastern slopes.[5]

Geological history

Merapi before 2007 eruption.

Merapi is the youngest in a group of volcanoes in southern Java. It is situated at a subduction zone, where the Indo-Australian Plate is sliding beneath the Eurasian Plate. It is one of at least 129 active volcanoes in Indonesia, part of the Pacific Ring of Fire – a section of fault lines stretching from the Western Hemisphere through Japan and South East Asia.[6] Stratigraphic analysis reveals that eruptions in the Merapi area began about 400,000 years ago, and from then until about 10,073 years ago, eruptions were typically effusive, and the outflowing lava emitted was basaltic. Since then, eruptions have become more explosive, with viscous andesitic lavas often generating lava domes. Dome collapse has often generated pyroclastic flows, and larger explosions, which have resulted in eruption columns, have also generated pyroclastic flows through column collapse.

Merapi in 1930

There has been no late eruption. Typically, small eruptions occur every two to three years, and larger ones every 10–15 years or so. Notable eruptions, often causing many deaths, have occurred in 1006, 1786, 1822, 1872, and 1930—when thirteen villages were destroyed and 1400 people killed by pyroclastic flows.

A very large eruption in 1006 is claimed to have covered all of central Java with ash. The volcanic devastation is claimed to have led to the collapse of the Hindu Kingdom of Mataram, however there is insufficient evidence from that era for this to be substantiated.

2006 eruption

Pyroclastic flows (2006)

In April 2006, increased seismicity at more regular intervals and a detected bulge in the volcano's cone indicated that fresh eruptions were imminent. Authorities put the volcano's neighboring villages on high alert and local residents prepared for a likely evacuation. On April 19 smoke from the crater reached a height of 400 meters, compared to 75 metres the previous day. On April 23, after nine surface tremors and some 156 multifaced quakes signalled movements of magma, some 600 elderly and infant residents of the slopes were evacuated.[7]

By early May, active lava flows had begun. On May 11, with lava flow beginning to be constant, some 17,000 people were ordered to be evacuated from the area[8] and on May 13, Indonesian authorities raised the alert status to the highest level, ordering the immediate evacuation of all residents on the mountain.[9] Many villagers defied the dangers posed by the volcano and returned to their villages, fearing that their livestock and crops would be vulnerable to theft.[6] Activity calmed by the middle of May.[10]

On May 27, a 5.6 magnitude earthquake struck roughly 50 km (30 miles) southwest of Merapi, killing at least 5,000 and leaving at least 200,000 people homeless in the Yogyakarta region, heightening fears that Merapi would "blow".[11] The quake did not appear to be a long-period oscillation, a seismic disturbance class that is increasingly associated with major volcanic eruptions. A further 11,000 villagers were evacuated on June 6 as lava and superheated clouds of gas poured repeatedly down its upper slopes towards Kaliadem, a location that was located southeast of Mt. Merapi.[12] The pyroclastic flows are known locally as "wedhus gembel" (Javanese for "shaggy goat"). There were two fatalities as the result of the eruption.

2010 eruption

Main article: 2010 eruption of Mount Merapi

Eruptive background

In late October 2010 the Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, Geological Agency (CVGHM), (Indonesian language—Pusat Vulkanologi & Mitigasi Bencana Geologi, Badan Geologi-PVMBG), reported that a pattern of increasing seismicity from Merapi had begun to emerge in early September. Observers at Babadan 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) west and Kaliurang 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) south of the mountain reported hearing an avalanche on 12 September 2010. On 13 September 2010 white plumes were observed rising 800 metres (2,600 ft) above the crater. Lava dome inflation, detected since March, increased from background levels of 0.1 millimetres (0.0039 in) to 0.3 millimetres (0.012 in) per day to a rate of 11 millimetres (0.43 in) per day on 16 September. On 19 September 2010 earthquakes continued to be numerous, and the next day CVGHM raised the Alert Level to 2 (on a scale of 1–4).[13] Lava from Mount Merapi in Central Java began flowing down the Gendol River on 23–24 October signalling the likelihood of an imminent eruption.[14]

On 25 October 2010 the Indonesian government raised the alert for Mount Merapi to its highest level (4) and warned villagers in threatened areas to move to safer ground. People living within a 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) zone were told to evacuate. The evacuation orders affected at least 19,000 people however the number that complied at the time remained unclear to authorities.[15] Officials said about 500 volcanic earthquakes had been recorded on the mountain over the weekend of 23–24 October, and that the magma had risen to about a 1 kilometre (3,300 ft) below the surface due to the seismic activity[16]

Eruptive events

On Monday afternoon 25 October 2010 Merapi erupted three times, spewing lava down its southern and southeastern slopes. Three major eruptions were recorded at 14:04, 14:24 and 15:15.[5] On 25 October 222 volcanic seismic events and 454 avalanche seismic events were recorded by Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation monitoring staff at Merapi.[17]

The eruptions on 26 October started at 17:02. By 18:54 pyroclastic activity had begun to subside following 12 eruption associated events being recorded by CVGHM monitors. In the 24 hours of 26 October 232 volcanic seismic events, 269 avalanche seismic events, 4 lava flow seismic events and 6 heat clouds were recorded by Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation monitoring staff at Merapi. The eruptive events of 26 October were classified as an explosive event with volcanic bursts of ejected material, visible flame and pyroclastic hot air flows. A column of smoke rose from the top to a vertical distance of 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) from the summit of the Mount Merapi.[17]

On Friday 29 October activity including lava ejection and hot ash clouds were reported to be increasing again.[18]

By early on the morning of Saturday 30 October the volcano was erupting again. Sri Sumarti, head of the Merapi section at the Volcano Investigation and Technology Development Board (BPPTK), reported the eruptions were louder and stronger than the eruptions of the 26 October. Those earlier eruptions on the previous Tuesday killed 34 people. Ash from the eruptions on 30 October fell more than 30 kilometres (19 mi) away and now included ash falls upon the city of Yogyakarta. The morning eruptions lasted for 22 minutes and heat clouds flowed into the Krasak and Boyong Rivers also rising 3.5 kilometres (2.2 mi) into the air, westward toward Magelang. Yogyakarta’s Adisucipto Airport was temporarily closed from 5AM. to 7AM. On 30 October, Subandrio, head of the Volcano Investigation and Technology Development Institution (BPPTK) suggested there would be further eruptions as lava continued to push its way up into the volcano's lava dome. The eruption caused a temporary panic on the ash covered streets of Sleman district in Yogyakarta early on the morning of 30 October. The district was however well outside the immediate disaster zone.[19][20]

On 3 November heat clouds travelled up to 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) away from the eruption forcing the government to evacuate people from within the refugee camps set up to accommodate those already dislocated by the volcano. Eruptions on the afternoon of Wednesday 3 November followed a morning eruption that sent hot gas clouds down the volcano's slopes. The volcano spewed clouds of ash and gas 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) into the sky for more than an hour on Wednesday 3 November. The eruptions of that day were reported as being the largest since the eruptions commenced.[21]

"This is the first time that the eruption has continued for more than an hour, so I decided to move the shelters to 15 km away from the summit", Surono, head of Indonesia's vulcanology agency, told Indonesia's Metro TV network on 3 November. The shelters had previously been set up 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) away. Surono added that the energy from the eruption on 3 November was three times greater than that of the first eruption in the previous week.[22] Bambang Ervan, a spokesman from the Transportation Ministry, said an official warning had been issued to all airlines to “use alternative routes for safety reasons due to the volcanic ash.” From 2 November several airlines including Garuda, AirAsia and Silkair international flights to both Yogyakarta and Solo were either suspended or re-routed due to the eruptive activity.[23]

Casualties

On 26 October at least 18 people, including one 2-month old baby, were found dead due to burns and respiratory failure caused by hot ashes from the eruption.[24] Thousands were evacuated within a radius of 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) around the slopes of the volcano.[25]

By Wednesday 27 October the death toll had risen to at least 25. The death toll included an elder, Mbah Maridjan (grandfather Marijan), known as the volcano's spiritual guardian who was found dead at his home approximately 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) from the peak. The Yogyakarta Palace subsequently confirmed his death.[15][26] The 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) exclusion zone remained in place at the volcano with evacuation and ongoing search and rescue activities continuing at the site in an attempt to locate further victims of the previous days eruptions.[27]

Later reports on the 27 October revised the toll upward to 30 persons recorded at Yogyakarta's Dr. Sardjito Hospital with 17 hospitalized, mostly with burns, respiratory problems and other injuries. Earlier on 27 October two of the 28 bodies at the hospital had been identified. Yuniawan Nugroho, an editor with the vivanews.com news portal, was reported to have been killed while conducting reportage on the night of Tuesday 26 October, the other was later identified as Tutur Priyanto Indonesian, a 36 year man working for the Red Cross as a volunteer on the mountain. Tutur Priyanto had been retrieving and escorting residents from the slopes of the mountain. After making many trips he returned for a further ascent at 3:00PM to assist others to come off the mountain and died during one of the subsequent eruptive events. [28][29][30] As of 1 November, 2010, the death toll from Mount Merapi's blasts had climbed to 38.[31] As of 5 November, 2010, the death toll had climbed over 120. [32]

Lava Dome deformation

During the 4th week of October 2010 deformation measurements were performed by Electric Distance Measurement (EDM), utilising reflectors mounted around the summit of Mount Merapi. The measurement results Indicated a rapidly increasing rate of growth of the lava dome in the build up to the eruptive events of 25–26 October 2010.

At the end of September 2010, the peak inflation rate of the lava dome at Mount Merapi was measured by EDM at an average growth rate of 6 millimetres (0.24 in). The subsequent rate of inflation up until October 21, 2010 reached 105 millimetres (4.1 in) per day. The inflation rate then increased very sharply, reaching 420 millimetres (17 in) per day by 24 October 2010.[17] By the 25 October the average grow rate, measured from 6 EDM points over 24–25 October had risen to 500 millimetres (20 in) per day.[17]

The information gathered at the site indicated that the distension of the mountain’s slopes was much more rapid this during the current event than that observed during the 2006 event.

On 26 October the head of the Indonesian Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, Surono, repeated his earlier statements that the greatest concern was the pressure building behind a massive lava dome that has formed near the tip of the crater. "The energy is building up. ... We hope it will release slowly," he said. "Otherwise we're looking at a potentially huge eruption, bigger than anything we've seen in years".[33] Surono also said that said the distension of the mountain’s slopes was much more rapid this time around, indicating a higher-pressure build-up of gas and hence a much more explosive eruption and speculated that Merapi may erupt explosively, as it did in 1930, and not just eject gas as in 2006 eruptions.[14]

Monitoring

Merapi Volcano January 27, 2007.
Merapi next to Merbabu January 9, 2008.

Mount Merapi is the site of a very active volcano monitoring program. Seismic monitoring began in 1924, with some of the volcano monitoring stations lasting until the present. The Babadan (northwest location), Selo (in the saddle between Merbabu and Merapi), and Plawangan monitoring stations have been updated with equipment over the decades since establishment. During the 1950s and early 1960s some of the stations were starved of equipment and funds, but after the 1970s considerable improvement occurred with the supply of new equipment. Some of the pre-1930 observation posts were destroyed by the 1930 eruption, and newer posts were re-located. Similarly after the 1994 eruption, the Plawangan post and equipment were moved into Kaliurang as a response to the threat of danger to the volcanological personnel at the higher point.

The eruption of 1930 was found to have been preceded by a large earthquake swarm. The network of 8 seismographs currently around the volcano allow volcanologists to accurately pinpoint the hypocentres of tremors and quakes.

A zone in which no quakes originate is found about 1.5 km below the summit, and is thought to be the location of the magma reservoir which feeds the eruptions.

Other measurements taken on the volcano include magnetic measurements and tilt measurements. Small changes in the local magnetic field have been found to coincide with eruptions, and tilt measurements reveal the inflation of the volcano caused when the magma chambers beneath it is filling up.

Lahars (a type of mudflow of pyroclastic material and water) are an important hazard on the mountain, and are caused by rain remobilizing pyroclastic flow deposits. Lahars can be detected seismically, as they cause a high-frequency seismic signal. Observations have found that about 50 mm of rain per hour is the threshold above which lahars are often generated.

Culture

Merapi continues to hold particular significance for the Javanese beliefs: it is one of four places where officials from the royal palaces of Yogyakarta and Solo make annual offerings to placate the ancient Javanese spirits.[34]

To keep the volcano quiet and to appease the spirits of the mountain, the Javanese regularly bring offerings on the anniversary of the sultan of Yogyakarta's coronation.[35] For Yogyakarta Sultanate, Merapi holds significant cosmological symbolism, because it is forming a sacred north-south axis line between Merapi peak and Southern Ocean (Indian Ocean). The sacred axis is signified by Merapi peak in the north, the Tugu monument near Yogyakarta main train station, the axis runs along Malioboro street to Northern Alun-alun (square) across Keraton Yogyakarta (sultan palace), Southern Alun-alun, all the way to Bantul and finally reach Samas and Parangkusumo beach on the estuary of Opak river and Southern Ocean. This sacred axis connected the hyangs or spirits of mountain revered since ancient times—often identified as "Mbah Petruk" by Javanese people—The Sultan of Yogyakarta as the leader of the Javanese kingdom, and Nyi Roro Kidul as the queen of the Southern Ocean, the female ocean deity revered by Javanese people and also mythical consort of Javanese kings.[36]

National park

In 2004 an area of 6,410 hectares around Mount Merapi was established as a national park. The decision of the Ministry of Forestry to declare the park has been subsequently challenged in court by The Indonesian Forum for Environment, on grounds of lack of consultation with local residents.[37] During the 2006 eruption of the volcano it was reported that many residents were reluctant to leave because they feared their residences would be confiscated for expanding the national park.[38]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Merapi". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
  2. ^ Weaver, Matthew (5 November 2010). "Mount Merapi death toll rises". The Guardian. Retrieved 5 November 2010. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  3. ^ Template:Id Kompas (Yogyakarta) President Soeharto Really Concern. Saturday, November 26, 1994.
  4. ^ "Highest alert issued for Indonesia's Merapi volcano". bbc.co.uk. BBC. 2010-10-25. Retrieved 2010-10-27.
  5. ^ a b "Merapi spews lava". TheJakartaPost.com. Jakarta Post. 2010-10-25. Retrieved 2010-10-27.
  6. ^ a b Merapi villagers defy orders to leave homes: The Straits Times
  7. ^ "Mail & Guardian online". mg.co.za. 2006-04-23. Retrieved 2010-10-27.
  8. ^ Harvey, Rachel (2006-05-04). "Lava flows from Indonesia volcano". bbc.co.uk. BBC. Retrieved 2010-10-27.
  9. ^ "Red alert for Indonesia volcano". bbc.co.uk. BBC. 2006-05-13. Retrieved 2010-10-27.
  10. ^ "Java volcano activity quietens". bbc.co.uk. BBC. 2006-05-16. Retrieved 2010-10-27.
  11. ^ Earthquake Leaves Thousands Dead in Indonesia, NY Times, 27 May 2006 URL Accessed 2006-05-27
  12. ^ [1], BreakingNews.ie, 6 June 2006 URL Accessed 2006-06-06
  13. ^ http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=0603-25=&volpage=weekly#Sep2010 Global Volcanism Program, SI/USGS Weekly Volcanic Activity Reports Merapi, 22–28 September 2010, accessed 26 Oct 2010
  14. ^ a b Malik, Candra (2010-10-24). "Mount Merapi's Swelling Signals Huge Eruption, Scientists Warn". TheJakartaGlobe.com. The Jakarta Globe. Retrieved 2010-10-27.
  15. ^ a b "Indonesia volcano death toll rises to 25: officials". TheNews.com.pk. The News. 2010-10-27. Retrieved 2010-10-27.
  16. ^ "Highest alert issued for Indonesia's Merapi volcano". bbc.co.uk. BBC News. 2010-10-25. Retrieved 2010-10-27.
  17. ^ a b c d http://portal.vsi.esdm.go.id/ Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, Geological Agency, Current status of Merapi, Level 4 (CAUTION). (Translated from the Indonesian language). Retrieved 26 October 2010. Cite error: The named reference "esdm" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  18. ^ "Indonesia's Mount Merapi Volcano Erupts Again: Witnesses". Jakarta Globe -Agence France-Presse. 2010-10-30. Retrieved 2010-10-30.
  19. ^ "Indonesia's Mount Merapi Volcano Erupts Again: Witnesses". Jakarta Globe -Agence France-Presse. 2010-10-30. Retrieved 2010-10-30.
  20. ^ "Eruption of Indonesia's Merapi on Saturday Biggest Yet; More Predicted". Jakarta Globe - by Candra Malik. 2010-10-30. Retrieved 2010-10-30.
  21. ^ "Indonesia's Mt. Merapi has Biggest Eruption Yet - Massive Blast Sends Gas Clouds Up to 6 Miles Away; Forces Evacuation of Refugees Already Displaced by Volcano". CBS News (US). 2010-11-03. Retrieved 2010-11-03.
  22. ^ "Indonesia's Merapi erupts again". Reuters (UK), Reported by Telly Nathalia. 2010-11-03. Retrieved 2010-11-03.
  23. ^ "Merapi's Ash Blows Airlines in Indonesia Off Course". Jakarta Globe Dessy Sagita, Candra Malik & AFP. 2010-11-03. Retrieved 2010-11-03.
  24. ^ "Merapi dust killed baby". TheJakartaPost.com. Jakarta Post. 2010-10-26. Retrieved 2010-10-27.
  25. ^ "ABC News: Indonesia Hit by Deadly Tsunami, Volcanic Eruption". Abcnews.go.com. Retrieved 2010-10-27.
  26. ^ Malik, Candra (2010-10-27). "Yogyakarta Palace Claims Premonition of Mbah Maridjan's Death". TheJakartaGlobe.com. The Jakarta Globe. Retrieved 2010-10-28.
  27. ^ Lang, Olivia (2010-10-27). "Spiritual guardian of Indonesian volcano dies". bbc.co.uk. BBC. Retrieved 2010-10-27.
  28. ^ "Merapi Meletus, Jusuf Kalla Kunjungi Rumah Istri Tutur (reporting a visit to the victims home)". Kompas.com. 2010-10-27. Retrieved 2010-11-1. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  29. ^ Wahyuni, Sri (2010-10-27). "Merapi's volcanic eruption death toll reach 28". TheJakartaPost.com. Jakarta Post. Retrieved 2010-10-27.
  30. ^ Niniek Karmini, Irwan Firdaus and Ali Kotarumalos in Jakarta (2010-10-28). "Indonesia volcano kills 30 including spirit keeper". Google.com. Associated Press. Retrieved 2010-10-28.
  31. ^ "Mount Merapi Eruption: 38 Dead". politiktimes. 2010-11-1. Retrieved 2010-11-1. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
  32. ^ "Mount Merapi: More than 80,000 flee eruptions". cnn. 2010-11-5. Retrieved 2010-11-5. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
  33. ^ Riyadi, Slamet (2010-10-26). "Indonesia warns volcano could erupt at any time". Associated Press. Retrieved 2010-10-27.
  34. ^ Radio New Zealand news report, 23 April 2006[dead link]
  35. ^ Mount Tourism – Mount Merapi. Ministry of Culture and Tourism. 2008.
  36. ^ Triyoga, Lucas Sasongko (1991) Manusia Jawa dan gunung merapi : persepsi dan kepercayaannya Yogyakarta : Gadjah Mada University Press. ISBN 9794202118, see also Khairuddin, H. (1995) Filsafat Kota Yogyakarta ISBN 979-499-180-5 page 58 (in Indonesian) – Gunung Merapi sebagai terminal akhir dalam proses Sumbu Imajiner diyakini pula sebagai Surga pangratunan, yang berasal dari kata antu, yang artinya menanti, yakni menanti sevelum roh diinjinkan masuk surga, yaitu kembali kepada Sang Pencipta.
  37. ^ P.C. Naommy:Walhi sues Cabinet minister over Merapi National Park in The Jakarta Post 7 October 2004. Retrieved 28 October 2010.
  38. ^ Slamet Susanto:Many still reluctant to leave Merapi in The Jakarta Post 5 April 2006. Retrieved 28 October 2010.

Further reading

  • Camus G, Gourgaud A, Mossand-Berthommier P-C, Vincent P-M, 2000. Merapi (central Java, Indonesia): an outline of the structural and magmatological evolution, with a special emphasis to the major pyroclastic events. J Volc Geotherm Res, 100: 139–163
  • Charbonnier S J, Gertisser R, 2008. Field observations and surface characteristics of pristine block-and-ash flow deposits from the 2006 eruption of Merapi volcano, Java, Indonesia. J Volc Geotherm Res, 177: 971–982
  • Gertisser R, Keller J, 2003. Temporal variations in magma composition at Merapi volcano (Central Java, Indonesia): magmatic cycles during the past 2000 years of explosive activity. J Volc Geotherm Res, 123: 1–23
  • Lavigne F, Thouret J C, Voight B, Suwa H, Sumaryono A, 2000. Lahars at Merapi volcano, central Java: an overview. J Volc Geotherm Res, 100: 423–456
  • Newhall C G, Bronto S, Alloway B, Banks N G, Bahar I, del Marmol M A, Hadisantono R D, Holcomb R T, McGeehin J, Miksic J N, Rubin M, Sayudi S D, Sukhyar R, Andreastuti S, Tilling R I, Torley R, Trimble D, Wirakusumah A D, 2000. 10,000 years of explosive eruptions of Merapi volcano, central Java: archaeological and modern implications. J Volc Geotherm Res, 100: 9–50
  • Siswowidjoyo S, Suryo I, Yokoyama I, 1995. Magma eruption rates of Merapi volcano, Central Java, Indonesia during one century (1890–1992). Bull Volc, 57: 111–116
  • Thouret J-C, Lavigne F, Kelfoun K, Bronto S, 2000. Toward a revised hazard assessment at Merapi volcano, central Java. J Volc Geotherm Res, 100: 479–502
  • Triyoga, Lucas Sasongko. 1991 Manusia Jawa dan Gunung Merapi – Persepsi dan Sistem Kepercayaannya Yogyakarta, Gadjah Mada Universsity Press. ISBN 979-420-211-8
  • US Army, Corps of Engineers Army Geospatial Center webpage on the crisis of Mount Merapi, with data, citations, photographs and maps.
  • Voight B, Constantine E K, Siswowidjoyo S, Torley R, 2000. Historical eruptions of Merapi volcano, central Java, Indonesia, 1768–1998. J Volc Geotherm Res, 100: 69–138
  • Wirakusumah A D, Juwarna H, Loebis H, 1989. Geologic map of Merapi volcano, Central Java. Volc Surv Indonesia, 1:50,000 geol map

Museums

  • Merapi Museum Center, Kaliurang Street Kilometer 25.7
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