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Hurricane Gert

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Hurricane Gert
Category 2 hurricane (SSHWS/NWS)
Hurricane Gert approaching the Mexican coastline
FormedSeptember 14, 1993
DissipatedSeptember 21, 1993
Highest winds1-minute sustained: 100 mph (165 km/h)
Lowest pressure970 mbar (hPa); 28.64 inHg
Fatalities92 confirmed
Damage$170 million (1993 USD)
Areas affectedNicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Mexico
Part of the 1993 Atlantic hurricane season
1993 Pacific hurricane season

Hurricane Gert was a large tropical cyclone that caused heavy flood damage and many deaths along its path through Central America and Mexico in September 1993. The seventh named storm and third hurricane of the annual hurricane season, Gert originated along a tropical wave over the southwestern Caribbean Sea on September 14. By the following day, the cyclone briefly attained tropical storm strength until it moved ashore in Nicaragua; it proceeded through Central America, and once again reorganized into a tropical storm over the Gulf of Honduras before entering Belize on September 18. After crossing the Yucatán Peninsula, Gert re-emerged over warm waters in the Bay of Campeche, and steadily strengthened to a Category 2 hurricane by September 20. Sustaining winds of 100 mph (165 km/h), the hurricane made a final landfall on the Gulf Coast of Mexico near Tuxpan, Veracruz that same day. The high terrain quickly disrupted its organization, and Gert entered the Pacific as a tropical depression by September 21. There, it briefly redeveloped a few strong thunderstorms before dissipating over open water five days later.

Due to Gert's broad circulation, heavy rains fell over large areas along its path through Central America. The rainfall, combined with saturated soil due to previous tropical systems, caused heavy flooding of property and crop. Although the highest winds from the storm occurred upon landfall in Mexico, the worst effects in the country were also due to its rains. Following the overflow of several major rivers, deep flood waters submerged extensive parts of Veracruz and Tamaulipas, forcing thousands to evacuate. The heaviest rains occurred further inland over the mountainous region of San Luis Potosí, however, where a record 31.41 in (798 mm) of precipitation was measured. In the wake of the disaster, road networking across the affected region was severely disrupted, and thousands of people were left homeless. Monetary losses surmounted $170 million (1993 USD), and at least 92 deaths were blamed on the storm.

Meteorological history

Map plotting the storm's track and intensity, according to the Saffir–Simpson scale
Map key
Saffir–Simpson scale
  Tropical depression (≤38 mph, ≤62 km/h)
  Tropical storm (39–73 mph, 63–118 km/h)
  Category 1 (74–95 mph, 119–153 km/h)
  Category 2 (96–110 mph, 154–177 km/h)
  Category 3 (111–129 mph, 178–208 km/h)
  Category 4 (130–156 mph, 209–251 km/h)
  Category 5 (≥157 mph, ≥252 km/h)
  Unknown
Storm type
triangle Extratropical cyclone, remnant low, tropical disturbance, or monsoon depression

A tropical wave, or a trough of low pressure oriented north to south, moved off the African coast well south of Dakar on September 5 and tracked rapidly westward across the tropical Atlantic. Due to its position at a relatively low latitude, interaction with the Intertropical Convergence Zone allowed for some enhancement of convection along the wave. By September 11, a weak surface low associated with the wave passed directly over Trinidad. A large portion of the system subsequently moved inland along the northern coast of South America for several hours, though it maintained its identity and emerged over the southwestern Caribbean Sea on September 13.[1] Owing to favorable tropospheric conditions aloft, the system began showing signs of development, with the deep convection organizing into well-defined curved rainbands. Based on this and the presence of a surface circulation, it was reanalyzed as a tropical depression at 1800 UTC on September 14, about 105 mi (165 km) north of Panama.[1][2]

The depression retained a large circulation during its formative stages, indicated by both satellite observations and data from rawinsondes in the region.[1] Since its cloud pattern continued to organize, it was upgraded to a tropical storm on September 15 and received the name Gert.[3] After tracking west-northwestward, the center of the storm moved ashore near Bluefields, Nicaragua. Interaction with land impeded further development, and Gert later weakened back to a tropical depression. Despite the center being inland for nearly two days, a part of the large circulation remained over the adjacent Caribbean and Pacific waters. This allowed Gert to retain its status while trekking northwestward through Nicaragua and Honduras.[1]

Satellite image of Tropical Depression Fourteen-E

Gert moved into the Gulf of Honduras on September 17, and subsequently restrengthened into a tropical storm. By that time, it had retraced toward the north-northwest under the influence of a mid- to upper-level trough over the eastern Gulf of Mexico. The storm's duration over water was short-lived; it moved back inland by the next day near Belize City, allowing minimal opportunity for development. Inland, a ridge of high pressure forced a weakening Gert to turn back to the west-northwest. After crossing the Yucatán Peninsula, it entered the Bay of Campeche as a tropical depression late on September 18.[4] The deepening convection consolidated over open waters, and by 0600 UTC the next day Gert regained tropical storm intensity.[5] On September 20, data from an air force aircraft indicated the storm had evolved into a hurricane with winds of 75 mph (120 km/h).[6] Its forward motion had slowed slightly, allowing the hurricane more time to organize over favorable warm sea surface temperatures. Gert accordingly attained its peak intensity as a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson scale, reaching winds of near 100 mph (155 km/h).[4]

Around 2100 UTC, Gert made a final landfall on the coast of Mexico at peak intensity, with its eye moving westward just north of Tuxpan, Veracruz. Once inland, the storm accelerated and rapidly weakened over the mountainous region; it had diminished to a tropical depression by September 21. Despite the degeneration, the large circulation remained intact as it crossed the country. Gert entered the Pacific Ocean later that day, where it was reclassified as Tropical Depression Fourteen-E.[4] Although deep convection waxed and waned in intensity, satellite observations indicated the depression could have briefly been a tropical storm on September 22. It continued a west to west-northwestward motion for a couple of days, though low-level flow subsequently steered it toward the southwest after the convection diminished. No redevelopment occurred due to cold waters, and the system was declassified as a tropical cyclone on September 26.[7]

Preparations

After confirming the development of a tropical depression, authorities in Costa Rica issued a green alert for coastal regions on September 14,[8] although it was upgraded to a tropical storm warning along the Atlantic coast by the following day.[9] National television and radio stations broadcast warning messages to aware the public, while emergency crews were dispatched in case conditions would warrant. This helped with the effective and timely clearing of hospitals, as well as the evacuation of residents in risk zones.[8] A warning was also posted for the Atlantic coast of Nicaragua on September 15, extending south from Puerto Cabezas and including the adjacent islands.[9] In Honduras, early warnings allowed several hundred residents to evacuate well ahead of the storm.[10] Once it became evident that Gert would strike the Yucatán Peninsula, coastal areas from Belize northward to Cozumel, Mexico were placed under a tropical storm warning on September 17 until its landfall the next day.[9]

When Gert was still located over the peninsula, the government of Mexico issued a tropical storm watch for the Gulf Coast from the city of Veracruz northward to Soto la Marina, Tamaulipas. By September 18, it was extended southward to Minatitlán and upgraded to a tropical storm warning, though the initial watch area was later placed under a hurricane watch after Gert showed signs of intensification. The next day, the watch for the area from Soto La Marina to Nautla was upgraded to hurricane warning as it became clearer where Gert would make landfall.[9] Prior to impact, several ports along the Gulf Coast halted their operations, and people living in risk zones were evacuated.[11] All warnings and watches were discontinued after the hurricane moved inland.[9]

Impact

Death tolls by country
Country Deaths
Honduras 27
Nicaragua 13
El Salvador 5
Costa Rica 1
Guatemala 1
Mexico 45
Total 92

Gert was a large and tenacious tropical cyclone for most of its duration, dropping heavy rainfall throughout its path. It always remained close enough to the coast to quickly re-strengthen and redevelop thunderstorms. A total of 92 people were killed from Central America through Mexico, mainly due to flooding and mudslides. Furthermore, the storm caused heavy damage to roads, crop, property and vegetation.

The Manuel Antonio National Park, located in the Central Pacific Conservation Area, suffered great destruction from the storm.

Costa Rica

Although Gert's center remained offshore, its large circulation produced brisk winds and heavy precipitation across Costa Rica. A local weather station recorded up to 13 in (332 mm) of rain during the passage of the storm.[12] Geologically, the hardest-hit regions consist of sedimentary layers with poor hydraulic conductivity, and are therefore prone to soil saturation.[13] The initial rains caused a significant water rise in many rivers, further exacerbating the flood threat. The imminent overflow of the Tempisque River prompted a wide-scale evacuation of residents from adjacent areas; however, it crested gradually without major consequences. Following hours of prolonged downpours, many Pacific regions such as Quepos, Pérez Zeledón and Osa experienced extensive flooding and localized landslides, inflicting heavy damage to roads and some bridges.[8] The floods destroyed about 500 acres (2.0 km2) of banana plantain and caused moderate damage to oil palm plantations. Small-scale crop farmers of reed, maize, beans and rice were also greatly affected.[14] In addition, the Manuel Antonio National Park suffered great destruction from high winds, which vastly impacted the tourism-driven economy in Quepos.[13]

Gert left significant property damage in its wake; it demolished at least 27 homes and damaged 659, mostly due to flooding. In all, monetary losses surmounted ₡451 million ($3.1 million), of which over ₡250 million ($1.7 million) was incurred by damage to the infrastructure.[15] Roughly 1,000 people sought shelter during the storm, but owing to timely preparations only one cardiac arrest fatality was attributable to Gert when a landslide buried a home.[8][16]

Nicaragua

The storm struck Nicaragua a month after Tropical Storm Bret had affected the country, and caused excessive rainfall that continued for days in its wake.[17] In spite of striking the Atlantic coast, Gert produced the largest amounts of precipitation over northern and Pacific coastal areas. A maximum of 17.8 in (452 mm) fell at Corinto; other high totals include 17.6 in (447 mm) at Chinandega and 17.5 in (444 mm) at León. The capital of Managua recorded 9.8 in (249 mm) of rain during the event.[18] Sustained winds from the storm reached no more than 40 mph (65 km/h) upon landfall near Bluefields,[19] but they generated high waves of up to 12 ft (3.7 m) offshore. After weakening to a depression inland, Gert continued to produce moderate gales along its path through the country.[20]

Off the coast near Big Corn Island, rough surf and winds destroyed nine fishing boats; two canoes with an unknown number of occupants disappeared at sea. Gert produced significant coastal flooding in Bluefields and Tasbapauni upon moving ashore, prompting about 1,000 residents and hundreds of indigenous Miskito villagers to evacuate.[20] Further inland, prolonged heavy rains caused numerous rivers to overflow, which in turn led to destructive freshwater flooding. A river adjacent to Rama crested at as much as 32 ft (10 m) above its normal stage, leaving about 80 percent of the town submerged and displacing 3,900 people. Throughout the Boaco Department, similar flooding affected another 6,000 residents.[21] The rains triggered scattered landslides across bridges and roads, causing additional damage and disrupting transport.[17] At least 252 houses were destroyed and more than 293 experienced damage across 14 of the country's departments.[17] In addition, Gert was responsible for considerable damage to infrastructure and economic losses.[21] It affected 10,408 households to varying degree, and there were 13 confirmed fatalities.[17]

Honduras

Surface weather analysis map of Gert as a tropical depression, located inland near the Honduras–Nicaragua border

Despite its weakening to a depression, Gert produced heavy precipitation during its trek across Honduras. In Tegucigalpa, up to 6.77 inches (172 mm) of rain was recorded, and many other parts of the country received similar amounts.[22] Destructive floods swept through much of northern Honduras, affecting up to 12 municipalities and worsening the impact from Tropical Storm Bret in the Mosquitia Region one month prior. There, the flooding victimized 24,000 people and made communication with surrounding areas nearly impossible due to limited road networking.[10] Several major rivers such as the Ulúa River overflowed due to excess rainfall;[23] rivers across Sula Valley sustained heavy damage to their banks, magnifying the already severe extent of flooding. San Pedro Sula, the country's second-largest city, as well as adjacent municipalities were largely inundated. This prompted the evacuation of many residents, and the Ramón Villeda Morales International Airport halted all of its operations at the height of the flooding.[10]

The storm greatly devastated Puerto Cortés, one of the most important port cities in Central America. Following the destruction of its sole water reservoir, much of the city suffered potable water shortages for months in its wake.[24] Elsewhere in Cortés, the overflow of a river in Choloma triggered widespread floods;[23] landslides in that area alone claimed the lives of six people.[25] The country's agricultural sector sustained heavy flood damage to about 5,700 acres (23 km2) of plantations across low-lying areas, including banana, sugar and citrus.[10][26] In all, Gert inflicted $10 million worth of damage to roads, bridges and structures.[22] The disaster directly affected up to 67,447 people, of which roughly 60 percent had to evacuate from their homes. In its final release, the Government of Honduras reported at least 27 fatalities,[10] although unofficial sources put the death toll for the country as high as over 100 deaths.[27][28]

Elsewhere in Central America

While passing through Central America, Gert generated an increase in cloudiness and showers across El Salvador.[29] High winds uprooted several trees or snapped their branches, damaging power lines and subsequently causing power outages. In one community, heavy downpours triggered damaging mudslides along a major highway.[30] The Río Grande de San Miguel rapidly crested due to the rains, causing an excess of water discharge just southwest of Usulután.[29] As a consequence, up to 2,500 acres (10 km2) of crop from adjacent plantains sustained flood damage. Several other areas reported significant losses due to flooding, including San Marcos and San Vicente; some property and road damage also occurred in San Miguel.[30] Fishing operations were suspended during the storm, but four fishermen disappeared at sea.[29] Overall, the weather system affected nearly 8,000 residents;[30] officials reported up to 12 destroyed homes and five deaths in its wake.[29]

Torrential rains from Gert affected up to 20,000 people in Guatemala, and one girl was killed as a direct result of the storm. It further caused significant agricultural losses across the country, though there were no other specific reports of damage.[30] Gert moved ashore near Belize City as a minimal tropical storm, dropping heavy rainfall in Belize. Just offshore, a weather station on Hunting Caye recorded up to 9.5 in (241 mm) of precipitation during the event.[31] Despite the rains, only scattered minor flooding occurred in Belize City, and there were no fatalities.[32]

Rainfall caused by Gert over Mexico

Mexico

Upon crossing the Yucatán Peninsula as a minimal storm, Gert dropped considerable rainfall in Quintana Roo; a 24-hour accumulation of 7.4 in (188 mm) was recorded at Chetumal, although much higher localized totals of around 15 in (380 mm) fell elsewhere in the state.[22][33] Gusty winds briefly buffeted the coast during the storm's landfall, with a maximum wind speed of 44 mph (70 km/h) recorded in Chetumal.[4] Damage was limited to localized floods, however, cutting off at least one road to traffic. In addition, the flooding forced the inhabitants of some low-lying areas in Chetumal and Felipe Carrillo Puerto to evacuate to higher ground.[34] Scattered showers and some flooding also occurred in parts of the state of Campeche, such as Ciudad del Carmen.[35]

Quickly picking up Category 2-force winds over the warm gulf waters, Gert made landfall along the northeastern coast of Mexico as a large and powerful hurricane. High gales and large waves battered wide stretches of coastline in Tamaulipas and Veracruz, although hurricane-force winds were largely confined to the southern eyewall.[22][36] Tuxpan, very close to where the eye moved ashore,[4] recorded wind velocities of over 100 mph (160 km/h), while 80 mph (130 km/h) gusts occurred further south in Poza Rica. To the north, winds reached 55 mph (90 km/h) in Tampico, Tamaulipas. Despite the severity of the winds, the worst of Gert occurred due to orographic lift when its broad circulation made contact with the eastern slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental highlands.[22] This caused extreme precipitation over large parts of the Huasteca Region, with a record 31.41 in (798 mm) of rain falling in Aquismón, San Luis Potosí.[33] In addition, a maximum 24-hour total of 13.35 inches (339 mm) was recorded in Tempoal, Veracruz.[22]

Following Gert's extreme rains, catastrophic flooding washed over extensive areas in eastern Mexico. The Pánuco River rose to its highest water level in 40 years, causing massive flooding that forced thousands of people out of their homes.[37] Heavy rains in the wake of the storm aggravated the situation, and ultimately submerged about 2,000,000 acres (8,100 km2) of land near Pánuco and Tampico. Half of Tampico was inundated by flood waters and mud, demolishing structures and roads and forcing 200,000 residents to evacuate.[38] Urban areas of Madero and Altamira were also hard hit by the flooding.[39] Massive crop damage occurred along much of the Pánuco River basin, mainly to coffee, corn, bean, soy, and other vegetables, and increased as the flooding persisted in the following weeks.[38] The agricultural sector in San Luis Potosí also suffered greatly; flooding rains washed away roughly 80 percent of the crop and large amounts of livestock. Water damage to schools, bridges, and roads was particularly widespread, and 25 people lost their lives in the state.[40]

Gert's trail of devastation extended as far inland as Hidalgo, where up to 35 rivers burst their banks. The flooding washed away bridges and roads, leaving 361 communities isolated from the rest of the world. It furthermore disrupted the state's power, telephone, and water services, which increased the lack of communication. The storm left fairly significant structural damage in its wake; at least 4,425 homes, 121 schools, and 49 public buildings were affected. Fifteen deaths occurred in the state alone, and eight people suffered injuries.[40] In all, flooding from Gert damaged or destroyed 29,075 houses and 145,000 acres (590 km2) of crop across Mexico; monetary losses amounted to $156 million, and the death toll stood at 45.[22][38]

Aftermath

Central America

Due to the effects of Gert, the government of Costa Rica declared a national emergency for the country on September 16, 1993.[13] Emergency crews were accordingly dispatched to assess the damage and distribute life supplies to the affected population; this included 41,250 kilograms of food, 1,422 mattresses, and 1,350 blankets.[8] In its wake, the disrupted road network across the affected regions impacted the local agriculture, tourism, and commerce. The obstruction of a major highway connecting the central region to the south of the country exacerbated the economic losses. Following extensive flood damage to farmland, many independent crop producers suffered from being unable to partake in subsequent sowings.[13]

Prior to the arrival of Gert, a state of emergency was in effect for Nicaragua as a result of Tropical Storm Bret. National and regional relief agencies, including the Red Cross, consequently extended their relief efforts. Although the government did not specifically reappeal for international assistance, several monetary contributions were made by organizations overseas, and a transfer channel for cash donations was opened at the Swiss Bank Corporation. The United Nations Development Programme provided $50,000 for the local purchase of fuel, while UNICEF distributed $25,000 worth of household supplies and medicine. The World Food Programme donated 72 tons of food supply and offered services of expert in response to the disaster. Over $300,000 in aid was donated by the federal governments of Japan, Canada, Switzerland, Norway, Germany, and Spain combined.[17]

On September 18, the president of Honduras surveyed the affected region by helicopter; two days later, a local emergency was declared for various municipalities. Although most of the affected population was aided within days, limited road networking caused a large delay in relief efforts to the hard-hit Mosquitia Region. By September 28, about 27,000 residents unable to reenter their flooded homes remained in government-owned shelters. Seven weeks later, a temporary housing project was implemented for the 120 families most in need. Nationwide, sewage systems, water works, and latrines were severely disrupted and in need of rehabilitation. Public health concerns quickly rose in the wake of Gert, with the cost of the required medicines totaling $208,000. The governments of Japan, Canada, Germany, and the United Kingdom provided $310,300 for the purchase of relief items. Due to the severity of the disaster, approximately 5,900 families lost their source of income.[10]

Mexico

In response to the flood disaster, Red Cross officials immediately began distributing aid to victims. After the President of Mexico assessed the situation by helicopter, the Panuco River basin was declared an emergency zone. The government appealed for international aid, seeking nutritional and medical supplies, as well as weather-permitting clothing. Many homes sustained irreparable damage to their roofs, leaving many residents homeless. By two weeks later, over 65,000 people were accommodated in shelters, with most of them remaining as such for weeks until flood water levels receded. The amount of respiratory disease and skin infection cases rose slightly in Gert's wake, although the overall health situation for the country remained well-under control.[38]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d Pasch, Richard J. (1993-11-10). "Preliminary Report Hurricane Gert - 14-21 September 1993". National Hurricane Center. Retrieved 2011-10-03.
  2. ^ Pasch, Richard J. (1993-09-14). "Tropical Depression Eight Discussion One". National Hurricane Center. Retrieved 2011-10-03.
  3. ^ Pasch, Richard J. (1993-09-15). "Tropical Storm Gert Discussion Three". National Hurricane Center. Retrieved 2011-10-03.
  4. ^ a b c d e Pasch, Richard J. (1993-11-10). "Preliminary Report Hurricane Gert - 14-21 September 1993 (Page 2)". National Hurricane Center. Retrieved 2011-10-03.
  5. ^ Mayfield, Max (1993-09-19). "Tropical Storm Gert Discussion Nineteen". National Hurricane Center. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
  6. ^ Mayfield, Max (1993-09-20). "Tropical Storm Gert Discussion Twenty-Three". National Hurricane Center. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
  7. ^ Rappaport, Edward N. (1993-09-29). "Preliminary Report Tropical Depression Fourteen-E - 21-26 September 1993". National Hurricane Center. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
  8. ^ a b c d e Template:Es icon "Informe de operaciónes Tormenta Gert" (PDF). Comisión Nacional de Emergencias. 1993-09-18. p. 3, 4, 8, 10, 16. Retrieved 2011-10-07.
  9. ^ a b c d e Pasch, Richard J. (1993-11-19). "Watch and warning summary, Hurricane Gert". National Hurricane Center. Retrieved 2011-10-16.
  10. ^ a b c d e f UN Department of Humanitarian Affairs (September 1993). "Honduras Floods Sep 1993 UN DHA Situation Reports 1 - 4". ReliefWeb. Retrieved 2011-10-10.
  11. ^ Template:Es icon "Las inundaciones causadas por el Huracan "Gert" sus efectos en Hidalgo, San Luis Potosí, Tamaulipas y Veracruz" (PDF). El Sistema Nacional de Protección Civil. p. 1. Retrieved 2011-10-26.
  12. ^ Template:Es icon Fallas, Jorge; Valverde, Carmen (2005). "Evidence-based Policy for Integrated Control of Forested River Catchments in Extreme Rainfall and Snowmelt" (PDF). Epic-Force. p. 20. Retrieved 2011-10-08.
  13. ^ a b c d Template:Es icon "Plan regular para la reconstrucción de las zonas afectadas por la Tormenta Tropical Gert" (PDF). Comisión Nacional de Emergencias. September 1993. p. 4, 7. Retrieved 2011-10-07.
  14. ^ Template:Es icon "Tormenta Tropical Gert - Resumen Ejecutivo" (PDF). Comisión Nacional de Emergencias. 1993. p. 6. Retrieved 2011-10-10.
  15. ^ Template:Es icon "Informe final de operaciónes Tormenta Gert" (PDF). Comisión Nacional de Emergencias. 1993-09-25. p. 5, 14. Retrieved 2011-10-07.
  16. ^ "Storm hits two nations". Sun-Sentinel. 1993-09-17. Retrieved 2011-10-07.
  17. ^ a b c d e UN Department of Humanitarian Affairs (1993-09-17). "Tropical Storms Bret and Gert - Nicaragua: DHA-Geneva situation report no. 4". ReliefWeb. Retrieved 2011-10-06.
  18. ^ Template:Es icon "Nicaragua: Evaluación de los daños ocasionados por el Huracán Mitch, 1998" (PDF). United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean. 1999-03-25. p. 13. Retrieved 2011-10-06.
  19. ^ Pasch, Richard J. (1993-11-10). "Preliminary best track, Hurricane Gert, 14-21 September 1993". National Hurricane Center. Retrieved 2011-10-06.
  20. ^ a b Otis, John (1993-09-16). "Weaker but blustery Gert inundates Nicaragua coast". The Miami Herald. Retrieved 2011-10-06.
  21. ^ a b Template:Es icon "Revisión de eventos históricos importantes" (PDF). Evaluación de Riesgos Naturales - América Latina. p. 52–53. Retrieved 2011-10-06.
  22. ^ a b c d e f g Pasch, Richard J. (1993-11-10). "Preliminary Report Hurricane Gert - 14-21 September 1993: Casualty and damage statistics". National Hurricane Center. Retrieved 2011-10-03.
  23. ^ a b Template:Es icon Lavell, Allan; Franco, Eduardo. "Estado, sociedad y gestión de los desastres en América latina" (PDF). Red de Estudios Sociales en Prevención de Desastres en América Latina. p. 18, 19. Retrieved 2011-10-10.
  24. ^ Template:Es icon "Puerto Cortés, Honduras: Después de la tempestad... vino la reforma" (PDF). Iniciativa de agua y saneamiento. p. 3. Retrieved 2011-10-10.
  25. ^ Template:Es icon "Diagnostico ambiental de Choloma" (PDF). Cámara de Comercio e Industrias de Cortés. p. 3. Retrieved 2011-10-10.
  26. ^ Economist Intelligence Unit (1999). Country report: Nicaragua, Honduras. The Unit, 1994. Retrieved 2011-10-10.
  27. ^ Template:Es icon "Conferencia Internacional sobre Mitigación de Desastres en Instalaciones de Salud". Organización Panamericana de la Salud. 1996. Retrieved 2011-10-10.
  28. ^ Template:Es icon "Condiciónes de riesgo en Américana latina y el Caribe - Capitulo 3" (PDF). Pan American Health Organization. p. 3. Retrieved 2011-10-10.
  29. ^ a b c d Template:Es icon Lungo, Mario; Baires, Sonia (2006). "De terremotos, derrumbes, e inundados" (PDF). Red de Estudios Sociales en Prevención de Desastres en América Latina. p. 36. Retrieved 2011-10-10. {{cite web}}: line feed character in |publisher= at position 42 (help)
  30. ^ a b c d Template:Es icon "Actualidades sobre desastres" (PDF). Centro de Protección para Desastres. 1993-10-12. p. 8. Retrieved 2011-10-10.
  31. ^ Hunting Caye Automatic Weather Station (1993). "Hourly Data during passage of Tropical Storm Gert". National Hurricane Center. Retrieved 2008-12-21.
  32. ^ World Meteorological Organization (2005). WMO bulletin. Vol. 44. World Meteorological Organization, 1995. p. 369. Retrieved 2011-10-08.
  33. ^ a b Roth, David M. "Hurricane Gert/T.D. #14E - September 14-28, 1993". Hydrometeorological Prediction Center. Retrieved 2011-10-14.
  34. ^ Template:Es icon "Capitulo II. Los Entornos" (.doc). Universidad de Quintana Roo. p. 16. Retrieved 2011-10-14.
  35. ^ Template:Es icon Morales, Héctor E.; Ramírez, Lucía G. M.; Espinosa, Martín J.; Mariles, Óscar A. F.; Estrada, David R. M. (December 2008). "Aplicación de la metodología para la elaboración de mapas de riesgo por inundaciones costeras por marea de tormenta" (PDF). p. 9.
  36. ^ Staff writer (1993-09-22). "Storm kills 3". Sarasota Herald-Tribune. Retrieved 2011-10-15.
  37. ^ "1993 Global Register of Extreme Flood Events". Dartmouth College. July 2003. Retrieved 2011-10-27.
  38. ^ a b c d UN Department of Humanitarian Affairs (1993-10-01). "Mexico Tropical Storm Oct 1993 UN DHA Situation Reports 1 - 3". ReliefWeb. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
  39. ^ Template:Es icon Gutiérrez, Prisciliano H.; Jiménez, Elias M.; de la Fuente, Rigoberto M.; Mendiola, Rubén Dario S. (1993). "Las inundaciones causadas por el huracán "Gert" sus efectos en Hidalgo, San Luis Potosi, Tamaulipas y Veracruz: Parte B" (PDF). Centro Nacional de Prevención de Desastres. Retrieved 2011-10-30.
  40. ^ a b Template:Es icon Gutiérrez, Prisciliano H.; Jiménez, Elias M.; de la Fuente, Rigoberto M.; Mendiola, Rubén Dario S. (1993). "Las inundaciones causadas por el huracán "Gert" sus efectos en Hidalgo, San Luis Potosi, Tamaulipas y Veracruz: Parte A" (PDF). Centro Nacional de Prevención de Desastres. Retrieved 2011-10-30.
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