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Hurricane Gert

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Hurricane Gert
Category 2 hurricane (SSHWS/NWS)
Hurricane Gert approaching the Mexican coastline
FormedSeptember 14, 1993
DissipatedSeptember 26, 1993
Highest winds1-minute sustained: 100 mph (165 km/h)
Lowest pressure970 mbar (hPa); 28.64 inHg
Fatalities92 confirmed
Damage$170 million (1993 USD)
Areas affectedCosta Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador, Guatemala, Belize, Mexico
Part of the 1993 Atlantic hurricane season,
1993 Pacific hurricane season

Hurricane Gert was a large tropical cyclone that caused heavy flood damage and many deaths throughout Central America and Mexico in September 1993. The seventh named storm and third hurricane of the annual hurricane season, Gert originated from a tropical wave over the southwestern Caribbean Sea on September 14. The following day, the cyclone briefly attained tropical storm strength before it moved ashore in Nicaragua. It proceeded into Honduras, and reorganized into a tropical storm over the Gulf of Honduras before entering Belize on September 18. After crossing the Yucatán Peninsula, Gert emerged over warm water in the Bay of Campeche, and strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane by September 20. With sustained winds of 100 mph (165 km/h), the hurricane made a final landfall on the Gulf Coast of Mexico near Tuxpan, Veracruz that same day. The high terrain quickly disrupted its structure, and Gert entered the Pacific Ocean as a tropical depression near the state of Nayarit on September 21. There, it briefly redeveloped a few strong thunderstorms before dissipating over open water five days later.

Gert's broad wind circulation produced widespread and heavy rainfall across Central America. The rain, combined with previously saturated soil from Tropical Storm Bret, caused significant flooding of property and crops. Although the highest winds from the storm occurred upon landfall in Mexico, the worst effects in the country came from its rains. Following the overflow of several major rivers, deep flood waters submerged extensive parts of Veracruz and Tamaulipas and forced thousands to evacuate. The heaviest rains occurred further inland over the mountainous region of San Luis Potosí, where as much as 31.41 inches (798 mm) of precipitation were measured. In the wake of the disaster, the road networks across the affected countries were severely disrupted, and thousands of people became homeless. The storm caused at least 92 deaths and over $170 million (1993 USD) in damage.

Meteorological history

Map plotting the storm's track and intensity, according to the Saffir–Simpson scale
Map key
Saffir–Simpson scale
  Tropical depression (≤38 mph, ≤62 km/h)
  Tropical storm (39–73 mph, 63–118 km/h)
  Category 1 (74–95 mph, 119–153 km/h)
  Category 2 (96–110 mph, 154–177 km/h)
  Category 3 (111–129 mph, 178–208 km/h)
  Category 4 (130–156 mph, 209–251 km/h)
  Category 5 (≥157 mph, ≥252 km/h)
  Unknown
Storm type
triangle Extratropical cyclone, remnant low, tropical disturbance, or monsoon depression

A tropical wave—or an area of low pressure oriented north to south—moved off the African coast well south of Dakar on September 5 and tracked rapidly westward across the tropical Atlantic. The wave interacted with the Intertropical Convergence Zone while positioned at a relatively low latitude, which allowed for the enhancement of convection in its vicinity. By September 11, a weak surface low had formed along the wave and passed directly over Trinidad. The majority of the system subsequently moved inland along the northern coast of South America, though it maintained its identity and emerged over the southwestern Caribbean Sea on September 13.[1] Owing to favorable tropospheric conditions aloft, the system began showing signs of development, as the deep convection organized into well-defined curved rainbands. Based on the increase in organization and the presence of a surface circulation, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) classified it as a tropical depression at 1800 UTC on September 14, about 105 mi (165 km) north of the northern coast of Panama.[1][2]

The depression retained a large circulation during its formative stages, indicated by both satellite observations and data from rawinsondes in the region.[1] Its cloud pattern continued to coalesce, and the NHC upgraded it to Tropical Storm Gert at 0900 UTC on September 15.[3] After tracking west-northwestward, the center of the storm moved ashore near Bluefields, Nicaragua around 1800 UTC that day, with winds of 40 mph (65 km/h).[1][4] Interaction with land impeded further development, and Gert weakened back to a tropical depression six hours later. Despite the center being inland for nearly two days, a part of the large circulation stayed over the adjacent Caribbean and Pacific waters. This allowed Gert to remain a tropical cyclone while trekking northwestward through Central America,[1] defying the NHC's repeated forecasts of dissipation over land.[5][6]

Satellite image of Tropical Depression Fourteen-E

The cyclone moved into the Gulf of Honduras on September 17 and subsequently restrengthened into a tropical storm. By that time, it had retraced toward the north-northwest in response to a mid- to upper-level trough over the eastern Gulf of Mexico. Gert's duration over water was short-lived; the storm moved back inland near Belize City the next day, allowing minimal opportunity for additional strengthening. Once inland, Gert began to feel the effects of a ridge of high pressure and turned back to the west-northwest. After crossing the Yucatán Peninsula and decreasing in organization,[7] it entered the Bay of Campeche as a tropical depression late on September 18.[8] Gert restrengthened over open waters as light wind shear allowed its deep convection to consolidate; by 0600 UTC the next day, it once again became a tropical storm.[9] On September 20, data from a United States Air Force aircraft indicated that the storm had become a hurricane with winds of 75 mph (120 km/h). Its forward motion had slowed slightly due to a shortwave trough to its north,[10] giving the hurricane more time to organize over water.[8] Upon curving toward the west,[11] Gert attained its peak intensity as a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson scale, reaching winds of 100 mph (165 km/h).[8]

Around 2100 UTC on September 20, Gert made a final landfall on the coast of Mexico at peak intensity, just north of Tuxpan, Veracruz. Inland, the hurricane accelerated and rapidly weakened over the mountainous region of the Sierra Madre Oriental; it had diminished to a tropical depression by September 21. Despite the degeneration, the large circulation remained intact as it crossed the country. Gert entered the Pacific Ocean near the coast of Nayarit later that day, where the NHC reclassified it as Tropical Depression Fourteen-E.[8][4] The remaining deep convection waxed and waned in intensity, and satellite observations indicated the depression could have briefly been a tropical storm on September 22. It continued a west to west-northwestward motion for two days, though low-level flow steered it toward the southwest after the convection diminished. No redevelopment occurred due to cold waters, and the system dissipated on September 26.[12][13]

Preparations

After confirming the development of a tropical depression, authorities in Costa Rica issued a green alert[nb 1] for coastal regions on September 14.[15] The following day, a tropical storm warning was issued for the Atlantic coast of the country.[16] National television and radio stations broadcast warning messages to alert the public, while emergency crews were dispatched in case conditions warranted. This helped with the effective and timely clearing of hospitals, as well as the evacuation of residents in risk zones.[15] A tropical storm warning was also posted for the Atlantic coast of Nicaragua on September 15, extending south from Puerto Cabezas and including the adjacent islands.[16] In Honduras, early warnings allowed several hundred residents to evacuate well ahead of the storm.[17] Once it became evident that Gert would strike the Yucatán Peninsula, coastal areas from Belize northward to Cozumel, Mexico were placed under a tropical storm warning on September 17 until its landfall the next day.[16][4]

When Gert was still located over the peninsula, the government of Mexico issued a tropical storm watch for the Gulf Coast from the city of Veracruz northward to Soto la Marina, Tamaulipas. By September 18, it was extended southward to Minatitlán and upgraded to a tropical storm warning, though the initial watch area was placed under a hurricane watch after Gert showed signs of strenghtening. The next day, the watch for the area from Soto La Marina to Nautla was upgraded to hurricane warning as it became clearer where Gert would make landfall.[16][4] Prior to impact, several ports along the Gulf Coast halted their operations, and people living in risk zones were evacuated.[18] All warnings and watches were discontinued after the hurricane moved inland.[16]

Impact

Death tolls by country
Country Deaths
Honduras 27
Nicaragua 13
El Salvador 5
Costa Rica 1
Guatemala 1
Mexico 45
Total 92

Gert was a large tropical cyclone for most of its lifespan, always remaining close enough to the coast to restrengthen and redevelop strong thunderstorms. As a result, the storm produced heavy rains, as well as flooding and mudslides that killed 92 people from Central America through Mexico. Damage to roads, crop, property, and vegetation surmounted $170 million.[nb 2]

The Manuel Antonio National Park, located in the Central Pacific Conservation Area, suffered great destruction from the storm.

Costa Rica

Although Gert's center remained off the coast of Costa Rica, its large circulation produced brisk winds and heavy rainfall across the country. A local weather station recorded 13.1 in (332 mm) of rain during the passage of the storm.[19] Geologically, the hardest-hit regions consist of sedimentary layers with poor hydraulic conductivity, and are therefore prone to soil saturation.[20] The initial rains caused a significant water rise in many rivers, further exacerbating the flood threat. The imminent overflow of the Tempisque River prompted a wide-scale evacuation of residents from adjacent areas; however, the river crested gradually without major consequences. Following hours of prolonged downpours, many Pacific regions such as Quepos, Pérez Zeledón and Osa experienced extensive flooding and localized landslides, inflicting heavy damage to roads and some bridges.[15] The floods destroyed about 500 acres (2.0 km2) of banana crop and caused moderate damage to oil palm plantations. Small-scale crop farmers of reed, maize, beans and rice were also greatly affected. The storm disrupted local fishing, and several small boats in Quepos sustained damage.[21] In addition, high winds caused great destruction to the Manuel Antonio National Park, which vastly impacted the tourism-driven economy in Quepos.[20]

Gert left moderate property damage in its wake; it demolished 27 homes and damaged 659, mostly due to flooding. In all, monetary losses surmounted $3.1 million, of which over $1.7 million was incurred by damage to the infrastructure.[22] Roughly 1,000 people sought shelter during the storm, but owing to the timely preparations for the country, only one cardiac arrest fatality was attributable to Gert when a landslide buried a home.[15][23]

Nicaragua

The storm moved ashore in Nicaragua a month after Tropical Storm Bret had struck the country, and caused excessive rainfall that continued for days in its wake.[24] In spite of striking the Atlantic coast, Gert produced the largest amounts of precipitation over northern and Pacific coastal areas. A maximum of 17.8 in (452 mm) fell at Corinto; other high totals include 17.6 in (447 mm) at Chinandega and 17.5 in (444 mm) at León. The capital of Managua recorded 9.8 in (249 mm) of rain during the event.[25] Sustained winds from the storm reached no more than 40 mph (65 km/h) upon landfall near Bluefields,[4] but they generated high waves of up to 12 ft (3.7 m) offshore. After weakening to a depression inland, Gert continued to produce moderate gales along its path through the country.[26]

Off the coast near Big Corn Island, rough surf and winds destroyed nine fishing boats; two canoes with an unknown number of occupants disappeared at sea. Gert produced significant coastal flooding in Bluefields and Tasbapauni upon moving ashore, prompting about 1,000 residents and hundreds of indigenous Miskito villagers to evacuate.[26] Further inland, prolonged heavy rains caused numerous rivers to overflow, which in turn led to destructive freshwater flooding. A river near Rama rose to 32 ft (10 m) above its normal stage, leaving about 80 percent of the town submerged and displacing 3,900 people. Throughout the Boaco Department, similar flooding affected 6,000 residents.[27] Landslides caused additional damage to bridges and roads, disrupting local transportation.[24] At least 252 houses were destroyed, and more than 293 experienced damage across 14 of the country's departments.[24] In addition, Gert was responsible for considerable economic losses and damage to infrastructure.[27] It affected 10,408 households to varying degree, and there were 13 confirmed fatalities.[24] Since flood damage from Tropical Storm Bret occurred just a month prior, an exclusive damage total for Gert is unavailable. The two storms inflicted about $10.7 million in damage, primarily to private property.[28]

Honduras

Surface weather analysis map of Gert as a tropical depression, located inland near the Honduras–Nicaragua border

Although it had weakened to a depression, Gert continued to produce significant rainfall while tracking across Honduras. In Tegucigalpa, at least 6.77 in (172 mm) of rain was recorded.[29] Destructive floods swept through much of northern Honduras, affecting 13 of the country's departments and worsening the impact from Tropical Storm Bret in the Mosquitia Region one month prior. There, the flooding affected 24,000 people and made communication with surrounding areas nearly impossible.[17] Several major rivers such as the Ulúa River overflowed due to excessive rains;[30] rivers across Sula Valley sustained heavy damage to their banks, increasing the flood extent. San Pedro Sula, the country's second-largest city, as well as adjacent municipalities were largely inundated. The rising water prompted the evacuation of many residents, and the Ramón Villeda Morales International Airport halted all of its operations at the height of the flooding.[17]

The storm greatly devastated Puerto Cortés, one of the most important port cities in Central America.[31] Elsewhere in Cortés, the overflow of a river in Choloma triggered widespread floods;[30] landslides in that area alone claimed the lives of six people.[32] The country's agricultural sector sustained heavy flood damage to about 5,700 acres (23 km2) of plantations across low-lying areas, including banana, sugar and citrus.[17][33] In all, Gert inflicted $10 million worth of damage to roads, bridges and property.[29] The disaster directly affected 67,447 people, of which roughly 60 percent had to evacuate their homes. In its final public statement, the government of Honduras confirmed 27 fatalities,[17] although another source puts the death toll for the country as high as 103 deaths.[34]

Elsewhere in Central America

While passing through Central America, Gert generated an increase in cloudiness and showers across El Salvador.[35] High winds uprooted several trees or snapped their limbs, damaging power lines and subsequently causing power outages. In one community, heavy downpours triggered damaging mudslides along a major highway.[36] The Río Grande de San Miguel rapidly crested due to the rains, causing an excess of water discharge just southwest of Usulután.[35] As a consequence, about 2,500 acres (10 km2) of crop from adjacent plantations sustained flood damage. Several other areas reported significant losses due to flooding, including San Marcos and San Vicente; some property and road damage also occurred in San Miguel.[36] Fishing operations were suspended during the storm, but four fishermen disappeared at sea.[35] Overall, the weather system affected nearly 8,000 residents;[36] officials reported at least twelve destroyed homes and five deaths in its wake.[35]

Torrential rains from Gert affected around 20,000 people and killed one girl in Guatemala. The storm caused considerable agricultural losses for the country, though there were no other specific reports of damage.[36] Gert moved ashore near Belize City as a minimal tropical storm, dropping heavy rainfall in Belize. Just offshore, a weather station on Hunting Caye recorded 9.5 in (241 mm) of precipitation during the event.[37] Despite the rains, only minor flooding occurred in Belize City.[38]

Rainfall totals from Gert across Mexico

Mexico

While crossing the Yucatán Peninsula as a minimal storm, Gert dropped considerable rainfall in Quintana Roo; a 24-hour accumulation of 7.4 in (188 mm) was recorded at Chetumal, although much higher localized totals of around 15 in (380 mm) fell elsewhere in the state.[29][13] Gusty winds briefly buffeted the coast during the storm's landfall, with a maximum wind speed of 44 mph (70 km/h) recorded in Chetumal.[8] Damage was limited to localized floods, however, cutting off one road to traffic. In addition, the flooding forced the inhabitants of some low-lying areas in Chetumal and Felipe Carrillo Puerto to evacuate to higher ground.[39] Scattered showers caused light flooding in parts of the state of Campeche, such as Ciudad del Carmen.[40]

High gales and large waves battered wide stretches of coastline in Tamaulipas and Veracruz upon Gert's landfall, although hurricane-force winds were largely confined to the southern eyewall.[29][41] Tuxpan, just south of where the eye moved ashore,[8] recorded wind velocities of over 100 mph (160 km/h), while 80 mph (130 km/h) gusts occurred further south in Poza Rica. To the north, winds reached 55 mph (90 km/h) in Tampico, Tamaulipas. Despite the severity of the winds, the worst of Gert occurred due to orographic lift when its broad circulation made contact with the eastern slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental highlands.[29] This caused extreme precipitation over large parts of the Huasteca Region, with 31.41 in (798 mm) of rain recorded in Aquismón, San Luis Potosí.[13] In addition, Tempoal in Veracruz recorded a maximum 24-hour total of 13.35 in (339 mm).[29]

The first reports of impact were from high winds, which uprooted trees and ripped off the roofs of homes in Tuxpan, Naranjos, Cerro Azul, and Poza Rica.[42] Following Gert's extreme rains, catastrophic flooding struck many northeastern regions. The Pánuco River rose to its highest level in 40 years and overflowed, forcing thousands of people out of their homes.[43] Continued heavy rain in the wake of the storm aggravated the situation; the flooding ultimately submerged about 2,000,000 acres (8,100 km2) of land around Pánuco and Tampico. Deep waters and thick mud inundated half of Tampico, demolishing structures and roads and forcing 200,000 residents to evacuate.[44] Urban areas of Madero and Altamira were also hit hard by the flooding.[45] The Pánuco River basin sustained massive damage to its crops (mainly to coffee, corn, bean, and soy), which increased as the flooding persisted in the following weeks.[44] The agricultural sector in San Luis Potosí also suffered great losses after roughly 80 percent of the crop and large amounts of livestock were washed away. Water damage to schools, bridges, and roads was particularly widespread, and 25 people lost their lives in the state.[46]

Gert's trail of devastation extended as far inland as Hidalgo, where 35 rivers burst their banks. The flooding washed away bridges and roads, isolating 361 communities. It furthermore disrupted the state's power, telephone, and water services, which increased the lack of communication. The storm left fairly significant structural damage in its wake; at least 4,425 homes, 121 schools, and 49 public buildings were affected. Fifteen deaths occurred in the state alone, and eight people suffered injuries.[46] In all, Gert became the worst natural disaster to strike the region in 40 years,[47] with 29,075 houses and 145,000 acres (590 km2) of crop damaged or destroyed across Mexico. The associated monetary losses totaled $156 million, and the death toll stood at 45.[29][44]

Aftermath

Central America

Due to the effects of Gert, the government of Costa Rica declared a national emergency for the country on September 16, 1993.[20] Emergency crews were accordingly dispatched to assess damage and distribute life supplies to the affected population; this included 90,940 lbs (41,250 kg) of food, 1,422 mattresses, and 1,350 blankets.[15] In its wake, the disrupted road network across the affected regions impacted the local agriculture, tourism, and commerce.[21] The obstruction of the major Pan-American Highway, which connects the central region to the south of the country, exacerbated the economic losses. Following the extensive flood damage to farmland, many independent crop producers suffered from being unable to partake in subsequent sowings.[21]

Prior to the arrival of Gert, a state of emergency was in effect for Nicaragua as a result of Tropical Storm Bret. National and regional relief agencies, including the Red Cross, consequently extended their relief efforts. Although the government did not specifically reappeal for international assistance, several monetary contributions were made by organizations overseas, and a transfer channel for cash donations was opened at the Swiss Bank Corporation. The United Nations Development Programme provided $50,000 for the local purchase of fuel, while UNICEF distributed $25,000 worth of household supplies and medicine. The World Food Programme donated approximately 160,000 lbs (72 tonnes) of food supply and offered services of expert in response to the disaster. The federal governments of Japan, Canada, Switzerland, Norway, Germany, and Spain donated a combined $300,000 in aid.[24]

On September 18, the President of Honduras surveyed the affected regions by helicopter; two days later, a local emergency was declared for various municipalities. Although most of the affected population received aid within days, the limited road network caused a large delay in relief efforts to the hard-hit Mosquitia Region. By September 28, about 27,000 residents unable to reenter their flooded homes remained in government-owned shelters. Seven weeks later, a temporary housing project was implemented for the 120 families most in need. Nationwide, sewage systems, water works, and latrines were severely disrupted and in need of rehabilitation. Public health concerns quickly rose in the wake of Gert, with the cost of required medicines totaling $208,000. The governments of Japan, Canada, Germany, and the United Kingdom provided a combined $310,300 for the purchase of relief items. Due to the severity of the disaster, approximately 5,900 families lost their source of income.[17] Following the destruction of its sole water reservoir, much of the Puerto Cortés suffered potable water shortages for months in Gert's wake.[31]

Mexico

In response to the flood disaster, Red Cross officials immediately began distributing aid to victims. After the President of Mexico assessed the situation by helicopter, the Pánuco River basin was declared an emergency zone,[44] and ground and air-sea search and rescue missions were activated.[45] The government appealed for international aid, seeking nutritional and medical supplies, as well as weather-permitting clothing.[44] Five storage centers across Hidalgo provided over 93 million lbs (42,000 tonnes) of food supply; 142,000 lbs (64 tonnes) of chicken, 45,000 pantries, and 76,000 disposable plates were distributed across San Luis Potosí, as well as 50,440 blankets and 6,081 airbeds. Several schools served as shelters for the homeless;[46] sheltered children, elderly, and pregnant or lactating women received milk powder donations. The cost of the donations totaled $27,000.[44]

Many homes sustained irreparable damage to their roofs, leaving thousands of residents homeless. By three weeks after the storm, over 65,000 people had been accommodated in shelters; most of them remained as such until flood water levels receded weeks later. A grant of $22,000 was made available to purchase roofing sheets for those in urgent need of home repair. The president assigned $37.4 million for the reconstruction of roads and housing, as well as the assistance of affected farmers. In Gert's wake, the amount of respiratory disease and skin infection cases rose slightly, although the overall health situation for the country remained well under control.[44]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The Latin American hurricane alert system uses the colors blue, green, yellow, orange, and red to denote the scale of danger, with blue indicating the lowest threat and red the greatest.[14]
  2. ^ All damage figures in the article are in 1993 United States dollars (USD).

References

  1. ^ a b c d e Pasch, Richard J. (1993-11-10). Preliminary Report Hurricane Gert: 14-21 September 1993 (Report). Hurricane Gert, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. p. 1. Retrieved 2011-10-03.
  2. ^ Pasch, Richard J. (1993-09-14). Tropical Depression Eight Discussion One (Report). Hurricane Gert, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Retrieved 2011-10-03.
  3. ^ Pasch, Richard J. (1993-09-15). Tropical Storm Gert Discussion Three (Report). Hurricane Gert, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Retrieved 2011-10-03.
  4. ^ a b c d e Pasch, Richard J. (1993-11-10). Preliminary Report Hurricane Gert: 14-21 September 1993 (Report). Hurricane Gert, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Table 1: Preliminary best track, Hurricane Gert, 14-21 September 1993. {{cite report}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  5. ^ Pasch, Richard J. (1993-10-15). Tropical Depression Gert Discussion Five (Report). Hurricane Gert, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Retrieved 2011-11-01.
  6. ^ Pasch, Richard J. (1993-10-16). Tropical Depression Gert Discussion Nine (Report). Hurricane Gert, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Retrieved 2011-11-01.
  7. ^ Lawrence, Miles B. (1993-10-18). Tropical Depression Gert Discussion Sixteen (Report). Hurricane Gert, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Retrieved 2011-11-01.
  8. ^ a b c d e f Pasch, Richard J. (1993-11-10). Preliminary Report Hurricane Gert: 14-21 September 1993 (Report). Hurricane Gert, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. p. 2. Retrieved 2011-10-03.
  9. ^ Mayfield, Max (1993-09-19). Tropical Storm Gert Discussion Nineteen (Report). Hurricane Gert, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
  10. ^ Mayfield, Max (1993-09-23). Hurricane Gert Discussion Twenty-Three (Report). Hurricane Gert, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Retrieved 2011-11-01.
  11. ^ Rappaport, Edward N.; Wright, Bill (1993-09-19). Hurricane Gert Discussion Twenty-Four (Report). Hurricane Gert, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Retrieved 2011-11-19.
  12. ^ Rappaport, Edward N. (1993-09-29). Preliminary Report Tropical Depression Fourteen-E: 21-26 September 1993 (Report). Tropical Depression Fourteen-E, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Retrieved 2011-10-04.
  13. ^ a b c Roth, David M. (2010-05-10). Tropical Cyclone Rainfall Data. Camp Springs, Maryland: Hydrometeorological Prediction Center. p. Hurricane Gert/T.D. #14E - September 14-28, 1993. Retrieved 2011-10-14.
  14. ^ Template:Es icon "Sistema de Alerta Temprana para Ciclones Tropicales" (PDF). Mexico City, Mexico: Secretaría de Gobernación. p. 21. Retrieved 2011-11-14.
  15. ^ a b c d e Template:Es icon "Part A: Informe de operaciónes Tormenta Gert". Plan regulador para la reconstrucción de las zonas afectadas por la Tormenta Tropical Gert (PDF). San José, Costa Rica: Comisión Nacional de Emergencias. 1993-09-18. section 3, part A, pp. 2, 3, 7, [9], [15]. Retrieved 2011-10-07.
  16. ^ a b c d e Pasch, Richard J. (1993-11-19). Preliminary Report Hurricane Gert: 14-21 September 1993 (Report). Hurricane Gert, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. Table 3: Watch and warning summary, Hurricane Gert. {{cite report}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  17. ^ a b c d e f United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs (September 1993). Honduras Floods Sep 1993 UN DHA Situation Reports 1 - 4 (Report). Geneva, Switzerland: ReliefWeb. Retrieved 2011-10-10.
  18. ^ Template:Es icon Gutiérrez, Prisciliano H.; Jiménez, Elias M.; de la Fuente, Rigoberto M.; Mendiola, Rubén Dario S. (December 1993). Las inundaciones causadas por el huracán "Gert" sus efectos en Hidalgo, San Luis Potosi, Tamaulipas y Veracruz (PDF) (Pamphlet). Mexico City, Mexico: El Sistema Nacional de Proteccion Civil, Secretaria de Gobernation; archived by CENAPRED. p. 12.
  19. ^ Template:Es icon Fallas, Jorge; Valverde, Carmen (2007). Aplicación de ENOS como indicador de cambios en la precipitación máxima diaria en la cuenca del río Pejibaye y su impacto en inundaciones (PDF). III Congreso Iberoamericano Sobre Desarrollo Y Ambiente 5–9 de noviembre 2007. Heredia, Costa Rica: Universidad Nacional. p. [20]. Retrieved 2011-10-08. {{cite conference}}: External link in |conferenceurl= (help); Unknown parameter |conferenceurl= ignored (|conference-url= suggested) (help)
  20. ^ a b c Template:Es icon Plan regular para la reconstrucción de las zonas afectadas por la Tormenta Tropical Gert (PDF) (Report). San José, Costa Rica: Comisión Nacional de Emergencias. September 1993. pp. 2–5. Retrieved 2011-10-07.
  21. ^ a b c Template:Es icon "Tormenta Tropical Gert Resumen Ejecutivo". Plan regulador para la reconstrucción de las zonas afectadas por la Tormenta Tropical Gert (PDF). San José, Costa Rica: Comisión Nacional de Emergencias. 1993. section 2, p. [5]. Retrieved 2011-10-10.
  22. ^ Template:Es icon "Informe final de operaciónes Tormenta Gert". Plan regulador para la reconstrucción de las zonas afectadas por la tormenta tropical Gert (PDF). San José, Costa Rica: Comisión Nacional de Emergencias. 1993-09-25. section e, pp. 4, 13. Retrieved 2011-10-07.
  23. ^ "Storm hits two nations". Sun-Sentinel. Fort Lauderdale, Florida. 1993-09-17. Retrieved 2011-10-07.
  24. ^ a b c d e United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs (1993-09-17). Nicaragua Tropical Storm Aug 1993 UN DHA Situation Reports 1 - 8 (Report). Geneva, Switzerland: ReliefWeb. Retrieved 2011-10-06.
  25. ^ Nicaragua: Assessment of the damage caused by Hurricane Mitch, 1998: Implications for economic and social development and for the environment (PDF) (Report). Santiago, Chile: United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean. 1999-04-19. p. 12. LC/MEX/L.372. Retrieved 2011-10-06.
  26. ^ a b Otis, John (1993-09-16). "Weaker but blustery Gert inundates Nicaragua coast". The Miami Herald. Hurricane Gert, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. Miami, Florida. Retrieved 2011-10-06. {{cite web}}: External link in |series= (help)
  27. ^ a b Template:Es icon "Estadísticas Específicas por Evento". Nicaragua (PDF). Revisión de eventos históricos importantes: Informe técnico ERN-CAPRA-T2-1. Vol. Análisis probabilista de amenazas y riesgos naturales. Bogotá, Colombia: Evaluación de Riesgos Naturales - América Latina - Consultores en Riesgos y Desastres. pp. 42, 43. Retrieved 2011-10-06. Hosted by ecapra.org.
  28. ^ Template:Es icon Osorio, José L. (1994). "Impactos de los desastres naturales en Nicaragua" (PDF). Sistema Nacional de prevencion y manejo de desastres naturales. Managua, Nicaragua: Biblioteca Virtual en Salud y Desastres. p. 33. Retrieved 2011-10-31. {{cite conference}}: Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (|book-title= suggested) (help)
  29. ^ a b c d e f g Pasch, Richard J. (1993-11-10). Preliminary Report Hurricane Gert: 14-21 September 1993 (Report). Hurricane Gert, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. p. 3. Retrieved 2011-10-03.
  30. ^ a b Template:Es icon Lavell, Allan; Franco, Eduardo. Estado, sociedad y gestión de los desastres en América latina (PDF). Panama City, Panama: Red de Estudios Sociales en Prevención de Desastres en América Latina. pp. 19, 20. Retrieved 2011-10-10.
  31. ^ a b Template:Es icon Iniciativa de Agua y Saneamiento. Puerto Cortés, Honduras: Después de la tempestad... vino la reforma (PDF) (Report). Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank. p. 3. Retrieved 2011-10-10.
  32. ^ Template:Es icon Diagnostico ambiental de Choloma (PDF) (Report). San Pedro Sula, Honduras: Cámara de Comercio e Industrias de Cortés. p. 2. Retrieved 2011-10-10.
  33. ^ Economist Intelligence Unit (1994). Country report: Nicaragua, Honduras. London, United Kingdom: The Unit. p. 31.
  34. ^ Template:Es icon "Condiciones de riesgo en América Latina y el Caribe". Hacia un Mundo más Seguro Frente a los Desastres Naturales: La Trayectoria de América Latina y el Caribe (PDF). Washington, DC: Organización Panamericana de la Salud. 1994. chapter 3, p. 3. Retrieved 2011-10-10.
  35. ^ a b c d Template:Es icon Lungo, Mario; Pohl, Lina (2006). "Las acciones de prevención y mitigación de desastres en El Salvador: Un sistema en construcción". In Lungo, Mario; Baires, Sonia (eds.). De terremotos, derrumbes, e inundados (PDF). Panama City, Panama: Red de Estudios Sociales en Prevención de Desastres en América Latina. p. 34. Retrieved 2011-10-10. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  36. ^ a b c d Template:Es icon "[Various short articles]" (PDF). Actualidades sobre desastres: Boletin de extensión cultural de CEPRODE: Centro de Protección para Desastres. 1 (1). San Salvador, El Salvador: CEPRODE: Centro de Protección para Desastres. [1993, "1933" is printed on the document]. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help) as archived in El Salvador. Comité Técnico Interinstitucional de Desastres (COTIDE), ed. (1993-10-12). "Actividades de las comunidades: la Coquera, los Coquitos, las Atarrayas. Concurso de Pintura Infantil 12 de Octubre 1993" (PDF). Memoria de actividades realizadas en conmemoración al Día Internacional para la Reducción de los Desastres Naturales - DIRDN : 8 al 15 de octubre 1993. San Salvador, El Salvador: Biblioteca Virtual en Salud y Desastres. section 3 "Actividades de las comunidades", p. [8]. Retrieved 2011-10-10.
  37. ^ Hourly data from Hunting Caye (Report). Hurricane Gert, Hurricane Wallet Digital Archives. Miami, Florida: National Hurricane Center. 1993. Retrieved 2008-12-21.
  38. ^ WMO bulletin. Vol. 44. Geneva, Switzerland: World Meteorological Organization. 2005. p. 369.
  39. ^ Template:Es icon "Capitulo II: Los Entornos". Plan Estratégico de Desarrollo Integral Del Estado de Quintana Roo 2000 - 2025 (PDF) (Report). Vol. Tomo I: Entornos, Problemática y Estructura Económica de Quintana Roo. Chetumal, Mexico: Centro de Estudios Estratégicos, Universidad de Quintana Roo. volume 1, chapter 2, p. 16. Retrieved 2011-10-14.
  40. ^ Template:Es icon Morales, Héctor E.; Ramírez, Lucía G. M.; Espinosa, Martín J.; Mariles, Óscar A. F.; Estrada, David R. M. (December 2008). Aplicación de la metodología para la elaboración de mapas de riesgo por inundaciones costeras por marea de tormenta (PDF). Atlas Nacional de Riesgos. Mexico City, Mexico: Secretaría de Gobernación. p. 9. ISSN 978-607-7558-15-6. Retrieved 2011-11-06. {{cite book}}: Check |issn= value (help)
  41. ^ "Storm kills 3". Sarasota Herald-Tribune. Sarasota, Florida. 1993-09-22. Retrieved 2011-10-15.
  42. ^ Template:Es icon Ramírez, Mario G. (2006-08-01). "Trayectorias históricas de los ciclones tropicales que impactaron el estado de Veracruz de 1930 al 2005". Scripta Nova: Revista Electrónica de Geografía y Ciencias Sociales. 10 (218(15)). Barcelona, Spain: University of Barcelona. ISSN 1138-9788. Retrieved 2011-11-06.
  43. ^ "1993 Global Register of Extreme Flood Events". Global Active Archive of Large Flood Events. Hanover, New Hampshire: Dartmouth Flood Observatory. July 2003. Retrieved 2011-10-27.
  44. ^ a b c d e f g United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs (1993-10-01). Mexico Tropical Storm Oct 1993 UN DHA Situation Reports 1 - 3 (Report). Geneva, Switzerland: ReliefWeb. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
  45. ^ a b Template:Es icon Gutiérrez, Prisciliano H.; Jiménez, Elias M.; de la Fuente, Rigoberto M.; Mendiola, Rubén Dario S. (December 1993). Las inundaciones causadas por el huracán "Gert" sus efectos en Hidalgo, San Luis Potosi, Tamaulipas y Veracruz (PDF) (Pamphlet). Mexico City, Mexico: El Sistema Nacional de Proteccion Civil, Secretaria de Gobernation; archived by CENAPRED. pp. 16, 17.
  46. ^ a b c Template:Es icon Gutiérrez, Prisciliano H.; Jiménez, Elias M.; de la Fuente, Rigoberto M.; Mendiola, Rubén Dario S. (December 1993). Las inundaciones causadas por el huracán "Gert" sus efectos en Hidalgo, San Luis Potosi, Tamaulipas y Veracruz (PDF) (Pamphlet). Mexico City, Mexico: El Sistema Nacional de Proteccion Civil, Secretaria de Gobernation; archived by CENAPRED. pp. 14, 15.
  47. ^ Template:Es icon Mansilla, Elizabeth (1994). "La cuenca baja del Pánuco: Un desastre crónico" (PDF). Desastres y Sociedad. 3 (2). Panama City, Panama: Red de Estudios Sociales en Prevención de Desastres en América Latina: 90. Retrieved 2011-11-04.
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