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Yerba mate

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Yerba mate, erva mate, mate, or maté
Ilex paraguariensis
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Asterids
Order:
Aquifoliales
Family:
Aquifoliaceae
Genus:
Ilex
Species:
I. paraguariensis
Binomial name
Ilex paraguariensis

Mate plant, or Yerba mate (Spanish: [ˈʝeɾβa ˈmate]; also spelled in English as maté, from the Spanish: yerba mate, Portuguese: erva-mate [ˈɛʁvɐ ˈmatʃi]), binomial name Ilex paraguariensis, is a species of holly (family Aquifoliaceae), well known as the source of the mate beverage. Though the plant is called yerba in Spanish ("herb" in English), it is a tree and not a herbaceous plant. It is native to subtropical South America in northeastern Argentina, Bolivia, southern Brazil, Uruguay and Paraguay.[1] It was first used and cultivated by the Guaraní people, and also in some Tupí communities in southern Brazil, prior to the European colonization. It was scientifically classified by the Swiss botanist Moses Bertoni, who settled in Paraguay in 1895.

The mate plant, Ilex paraguariensis, is a shrub when young and a tree when adult, growing up to 15 meters tall. The leaves are evergreen, 7–11 cm long and 3–5.5 cm wide, with a serrated margin. The flowers are small, greenish-white, with four petals. The fruit is a red drupe 4–6 mm in diameter. The leaves are often called yerba (Spanish) or erva (Portuguese), both of which mean "herb". They contain caffeine and related compounds and are harvested commercially.

Cultivation

Plantation in Misiones, Argentina.
new growth evident on young yerba mate plant

The plant is grown and processed mainly in South America, more specifically in northern Argentina (Corrientes, Misiones), Paraguay, Uruguay and southern Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Paraná and Mato Grosso do Sul). Cultivators are known as yerbateros (Spanish) or ervamateiros (Brazilian Portuguese).

When the mate is harvested, the branches are dried sometimes with a wood fire, imparting a smoky flavor. Then the leaves and sometimes the twigs are broken up.[citation needed]

The plant Ilex paraguariensis can vary in strength of the flavor, caffeine levels and other nutrients depending on whether it is a male or female plant. Female plants tend to be milder in flavor, and lower in caffeine. They are also relatively scarce in the areas where mate is planted and cultivated, not wild-harvested, compared to the male plants.[2]

According to FAO, Brazil is the biggest producer of mate in the world with 434,727 MT (53%), followed by Argentina with 300,000 MT (37%) and Paraguay with 76,663 MT (10%).[3]

Use as a beverage

Main article: Mate (beverage)
Steaming mate infusion in its customary gourd

The infusion, called mate in Spanish-speaking countries or chimarrão in south Brazil, is prepared by steeping dry leaves (and twigs) of the mate plant in hot water, rather than in boiling water. Drinking mate with friends from a shared hollow gourd (also called a guampa, porongo or mate in Spanish, or cabaça or cuia in Portuguese, or zucca in Italian) with a metal straw (a bombilla in Spanish, bomba in Portuguese) is a common social practice in Uruguay, Argentina and southern Brazil among people of all ages; the beverage is most popular in Uruguay, where people are seen walking on the street carrying the "mate" and "termo" in their arms and where you can find hot water stations to refill the "termo" while on the road, Paraguay, Peru and Chile, eastern Bolivia and other states of Brazil, and has been cultivated in Syria, Lebanon and Jordan.[citation needed] Uruguay is the largest consumer of mate per capita. [citation needed]

The flavor of brewed mate is strongly vegetal, herbal, and grassy, reminiscent of some varieties of green tea. Some consider the flavor to be very agreeable, but it is generally bitter if steeped in boiling water. Flavored mate is also sold, in which the mate leaves are blended with another herb (such as peppermint) or citrus rind.[citation needed]

In Paraguay, Brazil and Argentina, a toasted version of mate, known as mate cocido (Paraguay), chá mate (Brazil) or just mate, is sold in teabag and loose form, and served, sweetened, in specialized shops or on the street, either hot or iced with fruit juice or milk. The same is sold in Uruguay, Argentina and Paraguay in tea bags to be drunk as a tea. In Argentina and southern Brazil, this is commonly drunk for breakfast or in the café for afternoon tea, often with a selection of sweet pastries. It is made by heating mate in water and straining it as it cools.[4]

An iced, sweetened version of toasted mate is sold as an uncarbonated soft drink, with or without fruit flavoring.[5]In Brazil, this cold version of chá mate is specially popular in South and Southeast regions, and can easily be found in retail stores in the same fridge as soft-drinks.[4] The toasted variety of mate has less of a bitter flavor and more of a spicy fragrance. When shaken, it becomes creamy (since the foam formed becomes well mixed throughout the beverage and lasts for some time), known as mate batido. It is more popular in the coastal cities of Brazil, as opposed to the far southern states, where it is consumed in the traditional way (green, drunk with a silver straw from a shared gourd), and called chimarrão. In Argentina, this is called cimarrón.[citation needed]

In Paraguay, western Brazil (Mato Grosso do Sul, west of São Paulo) and the Litoral Argentino, a mate infusion is also drunk as a cold or iced beverage and called tereré or tererê (in Spanish and Portuguese, respectively), usually sucked out of a horn cup called guampa with a bombilla. It could be prepared using cold or iced water (the most common way in Paraguay) or using cold or iced fruit juice (the most common way in Argentina). The "only water" version may be too bitter, but the one prepared using fruit juice is sweetened by the juice itself. Medicinal herbs, known as yuyos, are mixed in a mortar and pestle and added to the water for taste or medicinal reasons. Tereré is consumed in Paraguay and the Litoral (northeast Argentina).[citation needed]

In the Rio de la Plata region, people often consume daily servings of mate. It is common for friends to convene to matear several times a week. In cold weather, the beverage is served hot and in warm weather the hot water is often substituted with lemonade, but not in Uruguay. Children often take mate with lemonade or milk, as well.[citation needed]

As Europeans often meet at a coffee shop, drinking mate is the impetus for gathering with friends in Argentina, southern Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay. Sharing mate is ritualistic and has its own set of rules. Usually, one person, the host or whoever brought the mate, prepares the drink and refills the gourd with water. In these three countries, the hot water can be contained in a vacuum flask, termo (appropriate for drinking mate in the outside) or garrafa térmica (Brazil), or in a pava (kettle), which only can be done at home.[citation needed]

The gourd is passed around, often in a circle, and each person finishes the gourd before giving it back to the brewer. The gourd (also called a mate) is passed in a clockwise order. Since mate can be rebrewed many times, the gourd is passed until the water runs out. When persons no longer want to take mate, they say gracias (thank you) to the brewer when returning the gourd to signify they do not want any more.[citation needed]

During the month of August, Paraguayans have a tradition of mixing mate with crushed leaves, stems, and flowers of the plant known as flor de Agosto[6] (the flower of August, groundsels or ragworts of the Senecio genus), which contain pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Modifying mate in this fashion is potentially toxic, as these alkaloids can cause a rare condition of the liver, veno-occlusive disease, which produces liver failure due to progressive occlusion of the small venous channels in the liver.[7]

In South Africa, mate is not well known, but has been introduced to Stellenbosch by a student who sells it nationally. In the tiny hamlet of Groot Marico in the northwest province, mate was introduced to the local tourism office by the returning descendants of the Boers, who in 1902 had emigrated to Patagonia in Argentina after losing the Anglo Boer War. It is also commonly consumed in Syria and other parts of the Middle East.[citation needed]

Chemical composition and properties

Xanthines

Mate contains three xanthines: caffeine, theobromine and theophylline, the main one being caffeine. Caffeine content varies between 0.7% and 1.7% of dry weight[8] (compared with 0.4– 9.3% for tea leaves, 2.5–7.6% in guarana, and up to 3.2% for ground coffee);[9] theobromine content varies from 0.3% to 0.9%; theophylline is present in small quantities, or can be completely absent.[10] A substance previously called "mateine" is a synonym for caffeine (like theine and guaranine).

Preliminary limited studies of mate have shown that the mate xanthine cocktail is different from other plants containing caffeine, most significantly in its effects on muscle tissue, as opposed to those on the central nervous system, which are similar to those of other natural stimulants.[citation needed] The three xanthines present in mate have been shown to have a relaxing effect on smooth muscle tissue, and a stimulating effect on myocardial (heart) tissue.[citation needed]

Mineral content

Mate also contains elements such as potassium, magnesium and manganese.[11]

Health effects

As of 2011 there has not been any double-blind, randomized prospective clinical trial of mate drinking with respect to chronic disease.[12] Some non-blinded studies have found mate consumption to be effective in lipid lowering.[12]

Lipid metabolism

Studies in animals and humans have observed hypocholesterolemic effects of Ilex paraguariensis aqueous extracts. A single-blind controlled trial of 102 volunteers found that after 40 days of drinking 330 mL / day of mate tea (concentration 50g dry leaves / L water), people with already-healthy cholesterol levels experienced an 8.7% reduction in LDL, and hyperlipidemic individuals experienced an 8.6% reduction in LDL and a 4.4% increase in HDL, on average. Participants already on statin therapy saw a 13.1% reduction in LDL and a 6.2% increase in HDL. The authors thus concluded that drinking yerba mate infusions may reduce the risk for cardiovascular diseases.[13]

Cancer

Mate consumption is associated with oral cancer[14] esophagus cancer, cancer of the larynx,[15] and squamous cell of the head and neck.[16][17] The mechanism is believed to be due to the effect of temperature and the evidence to support this association is strong.[15]

A study by the International Agency for Research on Cancer showed a limited correlation between oral cancer and the drinking of large quantities of hot mate.[clarification needed] Smaller quantities (less than 1 liter daily) and warm rather than hot mate consumption were found to increase risk only slightly; alcohol and tobacco consumption had a synergistic effect on increasing oral, throat, and esophageal cancer. The increased risk, rather than stemming from the mate itself, could be credited to the high temperatures in which the mate is consumed in its most traditional way, the chimarrão. The cellular damage caused by thermal stress could lead the esophagus and gastric epithelium to be metaplasic, adapting to the chronic injury. Then, mutations would lead to cellular dysplasia and to cancer.[18] Given the influence of the temperature of water, as well as the lack of complete adjustment for age, alcohol consumption and smoking, the study concludes that there is limited evidence, but hot mate drinking is "probably carcinogenic to humans".[19]

Obesity

Few data are available on the effects of yerba mate on weight in humans and further study may be warranted.[20]

Mechanism of action

E-NTPDase activity

Research also shows that mate preparations can alter the concentration of members of the ecto-nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase (E-NTPDase) family, resulting in an elevated level of extracellular ATP, ADP, and AMP. This was found with chronic ingestion (15 days) of an aqueous mate extract, and may lead to a novel mechanism for manipulation of vascular regenerative factors, i.e., treating heart disease.[21]

Antioxidants

In an investigation of mate antioxidant activity, there was a correlation found between content of caffeoyl-derivatives and antioxidant capacity (AOC).[22][23] Amongst a group of Ilex species, Ilex paraguariensis antioxidant activity was the highest.[22]

History

Main article: History of yerba mate
Yerba mate growing in the wild

Mate was first consumed by the indigenous Guaraní and also spread in the Tupí people that lived in southern Brazil and Paraguay, and became widespread with the European colonization. In the Spanish colony of Paraguay in the late 16th century, both Spanish settlers and indigenous Guaranís, who had, to some extent, before the Spanish arrival, consumed it. Mate consumption spread in the 17th century to the River Plate and from there to Argentina, Chile, Bolivia and Peru. This widespread consumption turned it into Paraguay's main commodity above other wares, such as tobacco, and Indian labour was used to harvest wild stands.

In the mid 17th century, Jesuits managed to domesticate the plant and establish plantations in their Indian reductions in Misiones, Argentina, sparking severe competition with the Paraguayan harvesters of wild stands. After their expulsion in the 1770s, their plantations fell into decay, as did their domestication secrets. The industry continued to be of prime importance for the Paraguayan economy after independence, but development in benefit of the Paraguayan state halted after the War of the Triple Alliance (1864–1870) that devastated the country both economically and demographically. Some regions with mate plantations in Paraguay became Argentinean territory.

Lithograph of José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia, a 19th century ruler of Paraguay, with a mate and its respective bombilla

Brazil then became the largest producer of mate. In Brazilian and Argentine projects in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the plant was domesticated once again, opening the way for plantation systems. When Brazilian entrepreneurs turned their attention to coffee in the 1930s, Argentina, which had long been the prime consumer,[24] took over as the largest producer, resurrecting the economy in Misiones Province, where the Jesuits had once had most of their plantations. For years, the status of largest producer shifted between Brazil and Argentina.[24]

Now, Brazil is the largest producer, with 53%, followed by Argentina, 37% and Paraguay, 10%.[3]

There is a Parque Historico do Mate, funded by the State of Parana, Brazil, to educate people on the sustainable harvesting methods needed to maintain the integrity and vitality of the oldest wild forests of mate in the world.[2]

Nomenclature

The name given to the plant in Guaraní, language of the indigenous people who first cultivated and enjoyed mate, is ka'a, which has the same meaning as "herb". Congonha, in Portuguese, is derived from the Tupi expression, meaning something like "what keeps us alive", but a term rarely used nowadays. Mate is from the Quechua mati, meaning "gourd" or the cup made from a gourd.[citation needed] The word Mate is used in both, Portuguese and Spanish languages.

The pronunciation of yerba mate in Spanish is [ˈʝe̞rβ̞ä ˈmäte̞]. The accent on the word is on the first syllable, not the second as might be implied by the variant spelling "maté". The word hierba is Spanish for "herb"; yerba is a variant spelling of it which was quite common in Argentina. (Nowadays in Argentina "yerba" refers exclusively to the "yerba mate" plant) Yerba mate, therefore, originally translated literally as the "gourd herb", i.e. the herb one drinks from a gourd.

The (Brazilian) Portuguese name is either erva-mate [ˈɛʁvɐ ˈmätʃi] (also pronounced [ˈɛrvɐ ˈmäte] or [ˈɛɾvɐ ˈmätɪ] in some regions), the most used term, or rarely "congonha" [kõˈgõ ȷ̃ɐ], from Old Tupi kõ'gõi, which means "what sustains the being".[25] It is also used to prepare the drinks chimarrão (hot), tereré (cold) or chá mate (hot or cold). While the chá mate (tea) is made with the toasted leaves, the other drinks are made with green leaves, and are very popular in the south of the country. Most people colloquially address both the plant and the beverage simply by the word mate.[26]

Both the spellings "mate" and "maté" are used in English, but the latter spelling is never used in Spanish where it means "I killed" as opposed to "gourd". There is no variation of spellings in Spanish. The addition of the acute accent over the final "e" was likely added as a hypercorrection, indicating that the word and its pronunciation are distinct from the common English word "mate". [27][28][29][30][31]

The Argentine market

Yerba mate worker

In Argentina, there are more than 200 brands in the market, many very local. There are approximately 10 companies with some national presence, accounting for 80% of the market. The market leader is Las Marias, with slightly more than 30% of the Argentine mate market. Taragüí is the leading brand of Las Marias.[32]

In Argentina, mate is present in 95% of households and 79% of the population drinks the beverage. The vast majority drink it in the traditional way. The act of consuming mate is also a social occasion. The beverage is also available in tea bags, representing roughly 5% of the market.

Mate harvested at different times and from different areas have different characteristics. For instance, north Misiones Province has a heavier taste than Corrientes Province, and mate harvested in summer is higher in caffeine than that of spring and fall.

Since mate dominates the beverage market in Argentina, it dominates the grocery shelves. In a leading supermarket in Buenos Aires, shelf space dedicated to mate is eight times the size of that of coffee and tea combined. Mate is also sold in most neighborhood markets and many street kiosks. It is as ubiquitous as soft drinks are in many other markets.

Curative properties

Colon cancer cells die when exposed to mate's bioactive ingredients. This has been indicated in a study performed at the University of Illinois and published in Molecular Nutrition & Food Research. Researchers in the study isolated and purified human colon cancer cells in vitro and treated them with caffeoylquinic acid (CQA), a derivative of yerba mate.[33] As scientists increased the concentration of CQA—up to an amount equivalent to that in a single cup of tea—the cancer cells suffered apoptosis, or cellular death. This discovery is promising news in terms of therapeutic interventions for all types of cancer.

"The derivatives of caffeine in yerba mate not only induce death in human colon cancer cells; they also reduce important indicators of inflammation", assured Elvira de Mejía, associate professor of Food Chemistry and Toxicology at the University of Illinois. "This is important, since inflammation can unleash the spread of cancer. Briefly, the cancer cell destroys itself due to harm to its DNA", she said.

For this study, researchers were able to identify the mechanism that caused cellular death. In more detail, certain derivatives of CQA drastically reduced various indicators of inflammation (NF-kappa-B). “If we can reduce the activity of this inflammation indicator, we will be in a better position to control the transformation of normal cells into cancer cells,” de Mejía added.

Results of this study suggest that the caffeine derivatives in yerba mate are potential anti-cancer agents and could also be useful in other diseases associated with inflammation. Nevertheless, since the colon and its microflora play an important role in the absorption and metabolizing of caffeine-related compounds, the anti-inflammatory and cancer-fighting effects of yerba mate may be more beneficial with regards to the colon. Researchers involved in the study said that they will soon [when?] publish the results of another study which compares the development of colon cancer in rats which drank mate as their only liquid to that of rats which drank only water.

A medicinal drink

Studies conducted in the United States and published in specialized media mention that mate has been consumed for several years in South America for medicinal purposes, and they refer to mate tea, such as Taragüí Vitality. They don’t take into account the practice of sharing mate with a bombilla, a ritual that in Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay has existed since ancient times.

Scientific studies mention the possibility that ample evidence exists which supports the consumption of mate tea for its bioactive benefits, especially for people who have reason to be concerned with colon cancer. Packages of yerba mate are available in health food stores and are more and more frequently stocked in the large supermarkets of Europe, Australia and the United States.

Ways of enjoying mate, besides the traditional way, as well as varieties of yerba mate, have diversified in every corner of the globe. This is true in Poland, for example, where Taragüí Yerba Mate has become as well known as in Argentina. Australia is another major consumer, and new ways of enjoying mate are constantly coming up: combining it with fruits, drinking it from various kinds of containers, preparing mate tea in various ways, and so on.

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ilex paraguariensis.

References

Footnotes

  1. ^ Template:IUCN2006
  2. ^ a b "Nativa Yerba Mate". http://www.nativayerbamate.com/harvest.html. Retrieved 2011-07-18. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)
  3. ^ a b "FAOSTAT". http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx. Retrieved 2011-07-18. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)
  4. ^ a b "Mate: o chá da hora". Retrieved 2012-09-04. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  5. ^ "Iced Mate Drinks". http://guayaki.com/category/7/Bottled-Yerba-Mate.html. Retrieved 2011-12-21. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)
  6. ^ "Flor de agosto".
  7. ^ McGee, J; Patrick, R S; Wood, C B; Blumgart, L H (1976). "A case of veno-occlusive disease of the liver in Britain associated with herbal tea consumption". Journal of Clinical Pathology. 29 (9): 788–94. doi:10.1136/jcp.29.9.788. PMC 476180. PMID 977780.
  8. ^ Dellacassa, Cesio et al. Departamento de Farmacognosia, Facultad de Química, Universidad de la República, Uruguay, Noviembre: 2007[page needed]
  9. ^ "Activities of a Specific Chemical Query". Ars-grin.gov. Retrieved 2011-06-05.
  10. ^ Vázquez, A; Moyna, P (1986). "Studies on mate drinking". Journal of ethnopharmacology. 18 (3): 267–72. PMID 3821141.
  11. ^ Valduga, Eunice; de Freitas, Renato João Sossela; Reissmann, Carlos B.; Nakashima, Tomoe (1997). "Caracterização química da folha de Ilex paraguariensis St. Hil. (erva-mate) e de outras espécies utilizadas na adulteração do mate". Boletim do Centro de Pesquisa de Processamento de Alimentos (in Portuguese). 15 (1): 25–36.
  12. ^ a b Bracesco, N.; Sanchez, A.G.; Contreras, V.; Menini, T.; Gugliucci, A. (2011). "Recent advances on Ilex paraguariensis research: Minireview". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 136 (3): 378–84. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2010.06.032. PMID 20599603.
  13. ^ De Morais, Elayne C.; Stefanuto, Aliny; Klein, Graziela A.; Boaventura, Brunna C. B.; De Andrade, Fernanda; Wazlawik, Elisabeth; Di Pietro, Patrícia F.; Maraschin, Marcelo; Da Silva, Edson L. (2009). "Consumption of Yerba Mate (Ilex paraguariensis) Improves Serum Lipid Parameters in Healthy Dyslipidemic Subjects and Provides an Additional LDL-Cholesterol Reduction in Individuals on Statin Therapy". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 57 (18): 8316–24. doi:10.1021/jf901660g. PMID 19694438.
  14. ^ Dasanayake, Ananda P.; Silverman, Amanda J.; Warnakulasuriya, Saman (2010). "Maté drinking and oral and oro-pharyngeal cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Oral Oncology. 46 (2): 82–6. doi:10.1016/j.oraloncology.2009.07.006. PMID 20036605.
  15. ^ a b Loria, Dora; Barrios, Enrique; Zanetti, Roberto (2009). "Cancer and yerba mate consumption: A review of possible associations". Revista Panamericana de Salud Pública. 25 (6): 530. doi:10.1590/S1020-49892009000600010.
  16. ^ Goldenberg, D; Lee, J; Koch, W; Kim, M; Trink, B; Sidransky, D; Moon, C (2004). "Habitual risk factors for head and neck cancer". Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery. 131 (6): 986–93. doi:10.1016/j.otohns.2004.02.035. PMID 15577802.
  17. ^ Goldenberg, David; Golz, Avishay; Joachims, Henry Zvi (2003). "The beverage maté: A risk factor for cancer of the head and neck". Head & Neck. 25 (7): 595–601. doi:10.1002/hed.10288.
  18. ^ Sewram, Vikash; De Stefani, Eduardo; Brennan, Paul; Boffetta, Paolo (2003). "Maté Consumption and the Risk of Squamous Cell Esophageal Cancer in Uruguay". Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 12 (6): 508–13. PMID 12814995.
  19. ^ International Agency for Research on Cancer (1991). "Summary of Final Evaluations". Coffee, Tea, Mate, Methylxanthines and Methylglyoxal. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. World Health Organization. p. 461. ISBN 978-92-832-1251-5. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
  20. ^ Pittler, M. H.; Schmidt, K.; Ernst, E. (2005). "Adverse events of herbal food supplements for body weight reduction: Systematic review". Obesity Reviews. 6 (2): 93–111. doi:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2005.00169.x. PMID 15836459.
  21. ^ Görgen, Milena; Turatti, Kátia; Medeiros, Afonso R.; Buffon, Andréia; Bonan, Carla D.; Sarkis, João J.F.; Pereira, Grace S. (2005). "Aqueous extract of Ilex paraguariensis decreases nucleotide hydrolysis in rat blood serum". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 97 (1): 73–7. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2004.10.015. PMID 15652278.
  22. ^ a b Filip, Rosana; Lotito, Silvina B.; Ferraro, Graciela; Fraga, Cesar G. (2000). "Antioxidant activity of Ilex paraguariensis and related species". Nutrition Research. 20 (10): 1437–46. doi:10.1016/S0271-5317(00)80024-X.
  23. ^ Xu, Guang-Hua; Kim, Young-Hee; Choo, Soo-Jin; Ryoo, In-Ja; Yoo, Jae-Kuk; Ahn, Jong-Seog; Yoo, Ick-Dong (2009). "Chemical constituents from the leaves of Ilex paraguariensis inhibit human neutrophil elastase". Archives of Pharmacal Research. 32 (9): 1215–20. doi:10.1007/s12272-009-1905-7. PMID 19784576.
  24. ^ a b "History of Mate". Establecimiento Las Marías. Retrieved 8 November 2011.
  25. ^ FERREIRA, A. B. H. Novo Dicionário da Língua Portuguesa. Segunda edição. Rio de Janeiro: Nova Fronteira, 1986. p.453
  26. ^ "Mate: o chá da hora". Retrieved 2012-09-04. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  27. ^ Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged, 2002, shows the main entry for the word as ma·té or ma·te. The explanatory material for main entries on page 14a, headed 1.71, says "When a main entry is followed by the word or and another spelling or form, the two spellings or forms are equal variants. Their order is usually alphabetical, and the first is no more to be preferred than the second..."
  28. ^ The New Oxford American Dictionary
  29. ^ The Oxford English Dictionary
  30. ^ "American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language". Dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved 2011-06-05.
  31. ^ "Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary". M-w.com. 2010-08-13. Retrieved 2011-06-05.
  32. ^ "Yerba Mate Suppliers of Herbal Infusions". Yerba Mate Limited. Retrieved 3 November 2004.
  33. ^ Puangpraphant, Sirima; Berhow, Mark A.; Vermillion, Karl; Potts, Greg; Gonzalez De Mejia, Elvira (2011). "Dicaffeoylquinic acids in Yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis St. Hilaire) inhibit NF-κB nucleus translocation in macrophages and induce apoptosis by activating caspases-8 and -3 in human colon cancer cells". Molecular Nutrition & Food Research. 55 (10): 1509–22. doi:10.1002/mnfr.201100128. PMID 21656672.

Bibliography

  • López, Adalberto. The Economics of Yerba Mate in Seventeenth-Century South America in Agricultural History. Agricultural History Society 1974.
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