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Peer pressure

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For other uses, see Peer pressure (disambiguation).

Peer pressure is influence that a peer group, observers or individual exerts that encourages others to change their attitudes, values, or behaviors to conform to group norms. Social groups affected include membership groups, in which individuals are "formally" members (such as political parties and trade unions), or social cliques in which membership is not clearly defined. A person affected by peer pressure may or may not want to belong to these groups. They may also recognize dissociative groups with which they would not wish to associate, and thus they behave adversely concerning that group's behaviors.[citation needed]

In youth

Peers become an important influence on behavior during adolescence, and peer pressure has been called a hallmark of adolescent experience.[1][2] Peer conformity in young people is most pronounced with respect to style, taste, appearance, ideology, and values.[3] Peer pressure is commonly associated with episodes of adolescent risk taking (such as delinquency, drug abuse, sexual behaviors,[4] and reckless driving) because these activities commonly occur in the company of peers.[2] Affiliation with friends who engage in risk behaviors has been shown to be a strong predictor of an adolescent's own behavior.[5] Peer pressure can also have positive effects when youth are pressured by their peers toward positive behavior, such as volunteering for charity [6] or excelling in academics.[7] The importance of peers declines upon entering adulthood.[8]

While socially accepted kids often have the most opportunities and the most positive experiences, research shows that being in the popular crowd may also be a risk factor for mild to moderate deviant behavior.[citation needed] Popular adolescents are the most socialized into their peer groups and thus are vulnerable to peer pressures, such as behaviors usually reserved for those of a greater maturity and understanding. Socially accepted kids are often accepted for the sheer fact that they conform well to the norms of teen culture, good and bad aspects included. Popular adolescents are more strongly associated with their peer groups' likes such as alcohol, tobacco and drugs. Some studies also show that many popular students also make lower grades than less socially accepted kids. This is possibly due to the fact that popular students may spend more time worrying about their social life rather than studying. Although there are a few risk factors correlated with popularity, deviant behavior is often only mild to moderate. Regardless, social acceptance provides more overall protective factors than risk factors.[9]

Peer pressure and adolescents

Peer pressure is widely recognized as a major contributor to the initiation of substance use, particularly in adolescence.[10] This has been shown across substances, including nicotine,[11] drug use,[12] and alcohol.[13] While this link is well established, mediating factors do exist. For example, parental monitoring is negatively associated with substance use but when there is little monitoring adolescents are more likely to succumb to peer coercion during initiation to substance use but not during the transition from experimental to regular use.[14] Caldwell and colleagues extended this work by finding that peer pressure was a factor leading to heightened risk in the context of social gatherings, little parental monitoring, and if the individual reported themselves as vulnerable to peer pressure.[15] Conversely, some research has observed that peer pressure can be a protective factor against substance use.[16]

Substance use is likely not attributed to peer pressure alone. Evidence of genetic predispositions for substance use exists[17] and some have begun to examine gene x environment interactions for peer influence. In a nationally representative sample, adolescents who had genetic predisposition were more likely to have good friends who were heavy substance users and were furthermore, more likely to be vulnerable to the adverse influence of these friends.[18] Results from specific candidate gene studies have been mixed. For instance, in a study of nicotine use Johnson and colleagues found that peer smoking had a lower effect on nicotine dependence for those with the high risk allele of CHRNA5.[19] This suggests that social contexts do not play the significant role in substance use initiation and maintenance as it may for others and that interventions for these individuals should be developed for this consideration.

Asch conformity

The Asch conformity experiments were a series of laboratory studies published in the 1950s that demonstrated a surprising degree of conformity to a majority opinion. These are also known as the Asch Paradigm. Experiments led by Solomon Asch of Swarthmore College asked groups of students to participate in a "sight test." In reality, all but one of the participants were confederates of the experimenter, and the study was really about how the remaining student would react to the confederates' behavior.

The Third Wave

The Third Wave was an experiment to demonstrate the appeal of fascism undertaken by history teacher Ron Jones with sophomore high school students attending his Contemporary History as part of a study of Nazi Germany. The experiment took place at Cubberley High School in Palo Alto, California, during the first week of April 1967. Jones, unable to explain to his students how the German populace could claim ignorance of the extermination of the Jewish people, decided to show them instead. Jones started a movement called "The Third Wave" and convinced his students that the movement is to eliminate democracy. The fact that democracy emphasizes individuality was considered as a drawback of democracy, and Jones emphasized this main point of the movement in its motto: "Strength through discipline, strength through community, strength through action, strength through pride". The Third Wave experiment is an example of risk behavior in authoritarian peer pressure situations.[20][21]

It is one useful tool in leadership. Instead of direct delegation of tasks and results demanding, employees are in this case, induced into a behaviour of self-propelled performance and innovation, by comparison feelings towards their peers. There are several ways peer pressure can be induced in a working environment. Examples include training and team meetings. In training, the team member is in contact with people with comparable roles in other organizations. In team meetings, there is an implicit comparison between every team member, especially if the meeting agenda is to present results and goal status.[22]

Neural mechanisms

Neuroimaging identifies the anterior insula and anterior cingulate as key areas in the brain determining whether people conform in their preferences in regard to its being popular with their peer group.[23]

Explanation

An explanation of how the peer pressure process works, called "the identity shift effect", is introduced by social psychologist, Wendy Treynor, who weaves together Leon Festinger's two seminal social-psychological theories (on cognitive dissonance, which addresses internal conflict, and social comparison, which addresses external conflict) into a unified whole. According to Treynor's original "identity shift effect" hypothesis, the peer pressure process works in the following way: One's state of harmony is disrupted when faced with the threat of external conflict (social rejection) for failing to conform to a group standard. Thus, one conforms to the group standard, but as soon as one does, eliminating this external conflict, internal conflict is introduced (because one has violated one's own standards). To rid oneself of this internal conflict (self-rejection), an "identity shift" is undertaken, where one adopts the group's standards as one's own, thereby eliminating internal conflict (in addition to the formerly eliminated external conflict), returning one once again to a state of harmony. Even though the peer pressure process begins and ends with one in a (conflict-less) state of harmony, as a result of conflict and the conflict resolution process, one leaves with a new identity—a new set of internalized standards.[24]

See also

References

  1. ^ B. B. Brown, "Adolescents' relationships with peers," In: R. M. Lerner & L. Steinburg (Eds.), Handbook of Adolescent Psychology, 2nd ed, New York: Wiley, 2004, p 363-394.
  2. ^ a b Laurence Steinberg and Kathryn C. Monahan, "Age Differences in Resistance to Peer Influence," Developmental Psychology 43(6), 2007, p. 1531-1543.
  3. ^ Kevin Durkin, "Peer Pressure", In: Anthony S. R. Manstead and Miles Hewstone (Eds.), The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social Psychology, 1996.
  4. ^ A. Cherie and Y. Berhane, "Peer pressure is the prime driver of risky sexual behaviors among school adolescents in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia," World Journal of AIDS 2(3), 2012, p. 159-164.
  5. ^ H. J. Spear and P. A. Kulbok, "Adolescent health behaviors and related factors: A review," Public Health Nursing 18(2), 2001, p. 82-93.
  6. ^ Stephanie Hanes, "Teens and volunteering: Altruism or just peer pressure?" The Christian Science Monitor, October 25, 2012.
  7. ^ Kellie B. Gormly, "Peer Pressure -- for students and adults -- can be positive," Pittsburgh Tribune-Review, March 18, 2013.
  8. ^ B. B. Brown et al, "The Importance of Peer Group (Crowd) Affiliation in Adolescence," Journal of Adolescence 9, 1986, p. 73-96.
  9. ^ Allen, Porter, McFarland, Marsh, & McElhaney (2005). "The Two Faces of Adolescents' Success with Peers: Adolescent Popularity, Social Adaptation, and Deviant Behavior". Child Development .. meg-ha and jinriksha, 76, 757–760.
  10. ^ Bahr, Stephen J.; Hoffmann, John P.; Yang, Xiaoyan (15 October 2005). "Parental and Peer Influences on the Risk of Adolescent Drug Use". The Journal of Primary Prevention. pp. 529–551. doi:10.1007/s10935-005-0014-8. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
  11. ^ . doi:Urberg, K. A., Shiang-Jeou, S., & Liang, J. (1990). Peer influence in adolescent cigarette smoking. Addictive Behaviors, 15(3), 247-255. {{cite web}}: Check |doi= value (help); Missing or empty |title= (help); Missing or empty |url= (help)
  12. ^ Farrell, Albert D.; White, Kamila S. (1998). "Peer influences and drug use among urban adolescents: Family structure and parent-adolescent relationship as protective factors". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. pp. 248–258. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.66.2.248. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
  13. ^ Dielman, T. E.; Butchart, A. T.; Shope, J. T. (1 January 1993). "Structural Equation Model Tests of Patterns of Family Interaction, Peer Alcohol Use, and Intrapersonal Predictors of Adolescent Alcohol Use and Misuse". Journal of Drug Education. pp. 273–316. doi:10.2190/8YXM-K9GB-B8FD-82NQ. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
  14. ^ Steinberg, Laurence; Fletcher, Anne; Darling, Nancy (1994). "Parental Monitoring and Peer Influences on Adolescent Substance Use". Pediatrics. 93: 1060.
  15. ^ Caldwell, Linda; Darling, Nancy (1999). "Leisure Context, Parental Control, and Resistance to Peer Pressure as Predictors of Adolescent Partying and Substance Use: An Ecological Perspective". Journal of Leisure Research. 31 (1).
  16. ^ Maxwell, Kimberly A. (2002). Journal of Youth and Adolescence. pp. 267–277. doi:10.1023/A:1015493316865. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Missing or empty |url= (help)
  17. ^ Kendler, Kenneth S.; Prescott, Carol A.; Myers, John; Neale, Michael C. (1 September 2003). "The Structure of Genetic and Environmental Risk Factors for Common Psychiatric and Substance Use Disorders in Men and Women". Archives of General Psychiatry. p. 929. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.60.9.929. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
  18. ^ Harden, K. Paige; Hill, Jennifer E.; Turkheimer, Eric; Emery, Robert E. (27 March 2008). "Gene-Environment Correlation and Interaction in Peer Effects on Adolescent Alcohol and Tobacco Use". Behavior Genetics. pp. 339–347. doi:10.1007/s10519-008-9202-7. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
  19. ^ Johnson, Eric O.; Chen, Li-Shiun; Breslau, Naomi; Hatsukami, Dorothy; Robbins, Tania; Saccone, Nancy L.; Grucza, Richard A.; Bierut, Laura J. (November 2010). "Peer smoking and the nicotinic receptor genes: an examination of genetic and environmental risks for nicotine dependence". Addiction. pp. 2014–2022. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03074.x. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
  20. ^ Weinfield, L (1991). Remembering the 3rd Wave. Retrieved March 6, 2010.
  21. ^ Jones, Ron (1972). THE THIRD WAVE. Retrieved March 6, 2010.
  22. ^ Salvador, José (2009). MBA CookBook.
  23. ^ Berns GS, Capra CM, Moore S, Noussair C. (2010). "Neural Mechanisms of the Influence of Popularity on Adolescent Ratings of Music". Neuroimage. 49:2687–2696. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.10.070 PMID 19879365
  24. ^ Treynor, Wendy (2009). Towards a General Theory of Social Psychology: Understanding Human Cruelty, Human Misery, and, Perhaps, a Remedy (A Theory of the Socialization Process). Redondo Beach: Euphoria Press. ISBN 0982302878. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
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