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"Boudicca" redirects here. For the cruise ship, see MV Boudicca.

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For the 2003 film also known as "Warrior Queen", see Boudica (film).

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Boudica
Queen Boudica in John Opie's painting "Boadicea Haranguing the Britons"
Diedcirca AD 60 or 61, Britainnia
Other namesBoudicca, Boadicea, Buddug
OccupationQueen of the Iceni
SpousePrasutagus

Boudica (/ˈbuːd[invalid input: 'ɨ']kə/; alternative spelling: Boudicca), also known as Boadicea /boʊd[invalid input: 'ɨ']ˈsiːə/, and known in Welsh as Buddug [ˈbɨ̞ðɨ̞ɡ][1] (d. AD 60 or 61) was queen of the British Iceni tribe, a Celtic tribe who led an uprising against the occupying forces of the Roman Empire.

Boudica's husband Prasutagus was ruler of the Iceni tribe. He ruled as a nominally independent ally of Rome and left his kingdom jointly to his daughters and the Roman emperor in his will. However, when he died, his will was ignored and the kingdom was annexed as if conquered. Boudica was flogged, her daughters were raped, and Roman financiers called in their loans.

In AD 60 or 61, while the Roman governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus was leading a campaign on the island of Anglesey off the northwest coast of Wales, Boudica led the Iceni as well as the Trinovantes and others in revolt.[2] They destroyed Camulodunum (modern Colchester). Camulodunum was earlier the capital of the Trinovantes, but at that time was a colonia—a settlement for discharged Roman soldiers, as well as the site of a temple to the former Emperor Claudius. Upon hearing the news of the revolt, Suetonius hurried to Londinium (modern London), the twenty-year-old commercial settlement that was the rebels' next target.

The Romans, having concluded that they did not have the numbers to defend the settlement, evacuated and abandoned Londinium. Boudica led 100,000 Iceni, Trinovantes and others to fight Legio IX Hispana and burned and destroyed Londinium, and Verulamium (modern-day St Albans).[3][4] An estimated 70,000–80,000 Romans and British were killed in the three cities by those led by Boudica.[5] Suetonius, meanwhile, regrouped his forces in the West Midlands, and despite being heavily outnumbered, defeated the Britons in the Battle of Watling Street.

The crisis caused the Emperor Nero to consider withdrawing all Roman forces from Britain, but Suetonius's eventual victory over Boudica confirmed Roman control of the province. Boudica then either killed herself so she would not be captured, or fell ill and died. The extant sources, Tacitus[6] and Cassius Dio, differ.[7]

Interest in the history of these events was revived during the English Renaissance and led to a resurgence of Boudica's fame during the Victorian era, and Queen Victoria was portrayed as her namesake.[8]Boudica has since remained an important cultural symbol in the United Kingdom. However, the absence of native British literature during the early part of the first millennium means that knowledge of Boudica's rebellion comes solely from the writings of the Romans.

History

Boudica's name

Boudica has been known by several versions of her name. Raphael Holinshed calls her Voadicia, while Edmund Spenser calls her Bunduca, a version of the name that was used in the popular Jacobean play Bonduca, in 1612.[9] William Cowper's poem, Boadicea, an ode (1782) popularised an alternate version of the name.[10] From the 19th century and much of the late 20th century, Boadicea was the most common version of the name, which is probably derived from a mistranscription when a manuscript of Tacitus was copied in the Middle Ages.

Her name was clearly spelled Boudicca in the best manuscripts of Tacitus, but also Βουδουικα, Βουνδουικα, and Βοδουικα in the (later and probably secondary) epitome of Cassius Dio. The name is attested in inscriptions as "Boudica" in Lusitania, Boudiga in Bordeaux, and Bodicca in Algeria.[11]

Kenneth Jackson concludes, based on later development of Welsh and Irish, that the name derives from the Proto-Celtic feminine adjective *boudīka, "victorious", that in turn is derived from the Celtic word *bouda, "victory" (cf. Irish bua (Classical Irish buadh), Buaidheach, Welsh buddugoliaeth), and that the correct spelling of the name in the British language is Boudica, pronounced Template:IPA-cel.

The closest English equivalent to the vowel in the first syllable is the ow in "bow-and-arrow").[12] The modern English pronunciation is /ˈbuːdɪkə/,[13] and it has been suggested that the most comparable English name, in meaning only, would be "Victoria".[14]

Background

Location of Iceni territory within England, Wales and Mann; modern county borders for England and pre-1996 borders for Wales are shown for context.

Tacitus and Dio agree that Boudica was of royal descent. Dio describes her as "possessed of greater intelligence than often belongs to women." He also describes her as tall, with tawny hair hanging down to below her waist, a harsh voice and a piercing glare. He notes that she habitually wore a large golden necklace (perhaps a torc), a colourful tunic, and a thick cloak fastened by a brooch.[15][16]

Her husband Prasutagus was the king of the Iceni, the people who inhabited roughly what is now Norfolk. They initially were not part of the territory under direct Roman control, having voluntarily allied themselves to Rome following Claudius' conquest of AD 43. They were proud of their independence, and had revolted in AD 47 when the then-governor Publius Ostorius Scapula threatened to disarm them.[17] Prasutagus had lived a long life of conspicuous wealth and, hoping to preserve his line, made the Roman emperor co-heir to his kingdom, along with his wife and two daughters.

It was normal Roman practice to allow allied kingdoms their independence only for the lifetime of their client king, who would then agree to leave his kingdom to Rome in his will. For example, the provinces of Bithynia[18] and Galatia[19] were incorporated into the Empire in just this way. Roman law also allowed inheritance only through the male line, so when Prasutagus died, his attempts to preserve his line were ignored and his kingdom was annexed as if it had been conquered. His lands and property were confiscated and nobles treated like slaves. According to Tacitus, Boudica was flogged and her daughters were raped. Cassius Dio says that Roman financiers, including Seneca the Younger, chose this time to call in their loans. Tacitus does not mention this, but does single out the Roman procurator Catus Decianus for criticism for his "avarice." Prasutagus, it seems, had lived well on borrowed Roman money, and on his death his subjects had become liable for the debt.[citation needed]

Boudica's uprising

In AD 60 or 61, while the current governor, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, was leading a campaign against the island of Mona (modern Anglesey) in the north of Wales, which was a refuge for British rebels and a stronghold of the druids, the Iceni conspired with their neighbours the Trinovantes, amongst others, to revolt. Boudica was chosen as their leader. According to Tacitus, they drew inspiration from the example of Arminius, the prince of the Cherusci who had driven the Romans out of Germany in AD 9, and their own ancestors who had driven Julius Caesar from Britain.[20] Dio says that at the outset Boudica employed a form of divination, releasing a hare from the folds of her dress and interpreting the direction in which it ran, and invoked Andraste, a British goddess of victory.

The rebels' first target was Camulodunum (Colchester), the former Trinovantian capital and, at that time, a Roman colonia. The Roman veterans who had been settled there mistreated the locals and a temple to the former emperor Claudius had been erected there at local expense, making the city a focus for resentment. The Roman inhabitants sought reinforcements from the procurator, Catus Decianus, but he sent only two hundred auxiliary troops. Boudica's army fell on the poorly defended city and destroyed it, besieging the last defenders in the temple for two days before it fell. Archaeologists have shown that the city was methodically demolished.[21] The future governor Quintus Petillius Cerialis, then commanding the Legio IX Hispana, attempted to relieve the city, but suffered an overwhelming defeat. His infantry was wiped out—only the commander and some of his cavalry escaped. The location of this famous destruction of the Legio IX is now claimed by some to be the village of Great Wratting, in Suffolk, which lies in the Stour Valley on the Icknield Way West of Colchester, and by a village in Essex.[22] After this defeat, Catus Decianus fled to Gaul.

When news of the rebellion reached him, Suetonius hurried along Watling Street through hostile territory to Londinium. Londinium was a relatively new settlement, founded after the conquest of AD 43, but it had grown to be a thriving commercial centre with a population of travellers, traders, and, probably, Roman officials. Suetonius considered giving battle there, but considering his lack of numbers and chastened by Petillius's defeat, decided to sacrifice the city to save the province.

...Alarmed by this disaster and by the fury of the province which he had goaded into war by his rapacity, the procurator Catus crossed over into Gaul. Suetonius, however, with wonderful resolution, marched amidst a hostile population to Londinium, which, though undistinguished by the name of a colony, was much frequented by a number of merchants and trading vessels. Uncertain whether he should choose it as a seat of war, as he looked round on his scanty force of soldiers, and remembered with what a serious warning the rashness of Petilius had been punished, he resolved to save the province at the cost of a single town. Nor did the tears and weeping of the people, as they implored his aid, deter him from giving the signal of departure and receiving into his army all who would go with him. Those who were chained to the spot by the weakness of their sex, or the infirmity of age, or the attractions of the place, were cut off by the enemy. - Tacitus[5]

Londinium was abandoned to the rebels who burnt it down, slaughtering anyone who had not evacuated with Suetonius. Archaeology shows a thick red layer of burnt debris covering coins and pottery dating before AD 60 within the bounds of Roman Londinium.,[23] whilst Roman-era skulls found in the Walbrook in 2013 were potentially linked to victims of the rebels.[24] Verulamium (St Albans) was next to be destroyed.

In the three settlements destroyed, between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed. Tacitus says that the Britons had no interest in taking or selling prisoners, only in slaughter by gibbet, fire, or cross. Dio's account gives more detail; that the noblest women were impaled on spikes and had their breasts cut off and sewn to their mouths, "to the accompaniment of sacrifices, banquets, and wanton behaviour" in sacred places, particularly the groves of Andraste.

Romans rally

Boadicea and Her Daughters by Thomas Thornycroft, standing near Westminster Pier, London
See also: Battle of Watling Street

While Boudica's army continued their assault in Verulamium (St. Albans), Suetonius regrouped his forces. According to Tacitus, he amassed a force including his own Legio XIV Gemina, some vexillationes (detachments) of the XX Valeria Victrix, and any available auxiliaries.[25] The prefect of Legio II Augusta, Poenius Postumus, stationed near Exeter, ignored the call,[26] and a fourth legion, IX Hispana, had been routed trying to relieve Camulodunum,[27] but nonetheless the governor was able to call on almost ten thousand men.

Suetonius took a stand at an unidentified location, probably in the West Midlands somewhere along the Roman road now known as Watling Street, in a defile with a wood behind him — but his men were heavily outnumbered. Dio says that, even if they were lined up one deep, they would not have extended the length of Boudica's line. By now the rebel forces were said to have numbered 230,000, however, this number should be treated with scepticism — Dio's account is known only from a late epitome, and ancient sources commonly exaggerate enemy numbers.

Boudica exhorted her troops from her chariot, her daughters beside her. Tacitus gives her a short speech in which she presents herself not as an aristocrat avenging her lost wealth, but as an ordinary person, avenging her lost freedom, her battered body, and the abused chastity of her daughters. She said their cause was just, and the deities were on their side; the one legion that had dared to face them had been destroyed. She, a woman, was resolved to win or die; if the men wanted to live in slavery, that was their choice.

However, the lack of manoeuvrability of the British forces, combined with lack of open-field tactics to command these numbers, put them at a disadvantage to the Romans, who were skilled at open combat due to their superior equipment and discipline. Also, the narrowness of the field meant that Boudica could put forth only as many troops as the Romans could at a given time.

First, the Romans stood their ground and used volleys of pila (heavy javelins) to kill thousands of Britons who were rushing toward the Roman lines. The Roman soldiers, who had now used up their pila, were then able to engage Boudica's second wave in the open. As the Romans advanced in a wedge formation, the Britons attempted to flee, but were impeded by the presence of their own families, whom they had stationed in a ring of wagons at the edge of the battlefield, and were slaughtered. This is not the first instance of this tactic—the women of the Cimbri, in the Battle of Vercellae against Gaius Marius, were stationed in a line of wagons and acted as a last line of defence.[28] Ariovistus of the Suebi is reported to have done the same thing in his battle against Julius Caesar.[29] Tacitus reports that "according to one report almost eighty thousand Britons fell" compared with only four hundred Romans.

Boadicea Front View Thomas Thornycroft

According to Tacitus in his Annals, Boudica poisoned herself, though in the Agricola which was written almost twenty years prior he mentions nothing of suicide and attributes the end of the revolt to socordia ("indolence"); Dio says she fell sick and died and then was given a lavish burial; though this may be a convenient way to remove her from the story. Considering Dio must have read Tacitus, it is worth noting he mentions nothing about suicide (which was also how Postumus and Nero ended their lives).

Postumus, on hearing of the Roman victory, fell on his sword. Catus Decianus, who had fled to Gaul, was replaced by Gaius Julius Alpinus Classicianus. Suetonius conducted punitive operations, but criticism by Classicianus led to an investigation headed by Nero's freedman Polyclitus. Fearing Suetonius' actions would provoke further rebellion, Nero replaced the governor with the more conciliatory Publius Petronius Turpilianus.[30] The historian Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus tells us the crisis had almost persuaded Nero to abandon Britain.[31]

Location of her defeat

The location of Boudica's defeat is unknown. Most historians [citation needed] favour a site in the West Midlands, somewhere along the Roman road now known as Watling Street. Kevin K. Carroll suggests a site close to High Cross in Leicestershire, on the junction of Watling Street and the Fosse Way, which would have allowed the Legio II Augusta, based at Exeter, to rendezvous with the rest of Suetonius's forces, had they not failed to do so.[32] Manduessedum (Mancetter), near the modern town of Atherstone in Warwickshire, has also been suggested,[33] as has "The Rampart" near Messing in Essex, according to legend.[34] More recently, a discovery of Roman artefacts in Kings Norton close to Metchley Camp has suggested another possibility,[35] and a thorough examination of a stretch of Watling Street between St. Albans, Boudica's last known location, and the Fosse Way junction has suggested the Cuttle Mill area of Paulerspury in Northamptonshire, which has topography very closely matching that described by Tacitus of the scene of the battle.[36]

In 2009 it was suggested that the Iceni were returning to East Anglia along the Icknield Way when they encountered the Roman army in the vicinity of Arbury Bank, Hertfordshire.[37] In March 2010, evidence was published suggesting the site may be located at Church Stowe, Northamptonshire.[38]

Historical sources

Tacitus, the most important Roman historian of this period, took a particular interest in Britain as his father-in-law Gnaeus Julius Agricola served there three times (and was the subject of his first book). Agricola was a military tribune under Suetonius Paulinus, which almost certainly gave Tacitus an eyewitness source for Boudica's revolt. Cassius Dio's account is only known from an epitome, and his sources are uncertain. He is generally agreed to have based his account on that of Tacitus, but he simplifies the sequence of events and adds details, such as the calling in of loans, that Tacitus does not mention.

Gildas, in his 6th century De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae, may have been alluding to Boudica when he wrote "A treacherous lioness butchered the governors who had been left to give fuller voice and strength to the endeavours of Roman rule".[2]

Cultural depictions

History and literature

By the Middle Ages Boudica was forgotten. She makes no appearance in Bede's work, the Historia Brittonum, the Mabinogion or Geoffrey of Monmouth's History of the Kings of Britain. But the rediscovery of the works of Tacitus during the Renaissance allowed Polydore Vergil to reintroduce her into British history as "Voadicea" in 1534.[39] Raphael Holinshed also included her story in his Chronicles (1577), based on Tacitus and Dio,[40] and inspired Shakespeare's younger contemporaries Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher to write a play, Bonduca, in 1610.[9] William Cowper wrote a popular poem, "Boadicea, an ode", in 1782.[10]

It was in the Victorian era that Boudica's fame took on legendary proportions as Queen Victoria came to be seen as Boudica's "namesake", their names being identical in meaning. Victoria's Poet Laureate, Alfred, Lord Tennyson, wrote a poem, "Boadicea", and several ships were named after her.[41]

Statue

A great bronze statue of Boudica with her daughters in her war chariot (furnished with scythes after the Persian fashion) was commissioned by Prince Albert and executed by Thomas Thornycroft. It was completed in 1905 and stands next to Westminster Bridge and the Houses of Parliament, with the following lines from Cowper's poem, referring to the British Empire:

Regions Caesar never knew
Thy posterity shall sway.

Ironically, the great anti-imperialist rebel was now identified with the head of the British Empire, and her statue[42] stood guard over the city she razed to the ground.[43]

Boudica and King's Cross

The area of King's Cross, London was previously a village known as Battle Bridge which was an ancient crossing of the River Fleet. The original name of the bridge was Broad Ford Bridge.

The name "Battle Bridge" led to a tradition that this was the site of a major battle between the Romans and the Iceni tribe led by Boudica.[44] The tradition is not supported by any historical evidence and is rejected by modern historians. However, Lewis Spence's 1937 book Boadicea - warrior queen of the Britons went so far as to include a map showing the positions of the opposing armies. There is a belief that she was buried between platforms 9 and 10 in King's Cross station in London, England. There is no evidence for this and it is probably a post-World War II invention.[45]

Fiction/Music/Film

Other cultural references

In 2003 an LTR retrotransposon from the genome of the human blood fluke "Schistosoma mansoni" was named "Boudicca".[50] The Boudicca retrotransposon, a high-copy retroviral-like element, was the first mobile genetic element of this type to be discovered in S. mansoni.

In July 2008, the British television series Bonekickers, dedicated an hour to Boudica in the episode named "The Eternal Fire".[51] Various female politicians, including former Prime Minister of New Zealand Helen Clark have been called Boadicea.[52]

See also

References

  1. ^ Davies, John (1993). A History of Wales. London: Penguin. p. 28. ISBN 0-14-014581-8.
  2. ^ a b Hingley, Richard; Unwin, Christina, Boudica: Iron Age Warrior Queen, Hambledon Continuum; New Ed edition (15 June 2006), ISBN 978-1-85285-516-1, p.44 and 61
  3. ^ N. Davies, The Isles: A History, 2008, p. 93.
  4. ^ S. Dando-Collins, Legions of Rome: The definitive history of every Roman legion, 2012
  5. ^ a b Tacitus, Annals 14.33
  6. ^ Tacitus, Agricola 14-16; Annals 14:29-39
  7. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History 62:1-12
  8. ^ The Gentleman's Magazine. W. Pickering. 1854. pp. 541–.
  9. ^ a b Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher, Bonduca
  10. ^ a b William Cowper, Boadicea, an ode
  11. ^ Graham Webster, Boudica: The British Revolt against Rome AD 60, 1978; Guy de la Bédoyère, The Roman Army in Britain. Retrieved 5 July 2005
  12. ^ Kenneth Jackson, "Queen Boudica?", Britannia 10, 1979
  13. ^ Boudicca. Dictionary.com. Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. (Retrieved 20 December 2007).
  14. ^ Rhys, Sir John. 1908. General Literature Committee: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (Great Britain). Early Britain, Celtic Britain. p. 284. [1]
  15. ^ P. Keegan, Boudica, Cartimandua, Messalina and Agrippina the Younger. Independent Women of Power and the Gendered Rhetoric of Roman History
  16. ^ The term xanthotrichos translated in this passage as red-brown or tawny can also mean auburn, or a shade short of brown, but most translators now agree a colour in between light and browny red - tawny -Boudica and her stories: narrative transformations of a warrior queen, Carolyn D. Williams, University of Delaware Press, 2009, p. 62.
  17. ^ Tacitus, Annals 12:31-32
  18. ^ H. H. Scullard, From the Gracchi to Nero, 1982, p. 90
  19. ^ John Morris, Londinium: London in the Roman Empire, 1982, pp. 107-108
  20. ^ Tacitus, Agricola 15
  21. ^ Jason Burke, "Dig uncovers Boudicca's brutal streak", The Observer, 3 December 2000
  22. ^ "Haverhill From the Iron Age to 1899". St. Edmundsbury Borough Council.
  23. ^ George Patrick Welch, Britannia: The Roman Conquest & Occupation of Britain, 1963, p. 107.
  24. ^ http://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/oct/02/roman-skulls-crossrail-london-boudicca
  25. ^ Tacitus, Annals 14.34
  26. ^ Tacitus, Annals 14.37
  27. ^ Tacitus, Annals 14.32
  28. ^ Florus, Epitome of Roman History 1.38
  29. ^ Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico 1.51
  30. ^ Tacitus, Annals 14.39
  31. ^ Suetonius, Nero 18, 39-40
  32. ^ Kevin K. Carroll, "The Date of Boudicca's Revolt", Britannia 10, 1979
  33. ^ Sheppard Frere, Britannia: A History of Roman Britain, 1987, p. 73
  34. ^ Messing-cum-Inworth Community Website: Messing Village
  35. ^ Is Boudicca buried in Birmingham?, BBC, 25 May 2006. Retrieved 9 September 2006
  36. ^ Battlefield Britain (BBC). "The Rebellion of Boudicca" (2004), Paulerspury website [2]
  37. ^ Appleby, G. 2009. The Boudican Revolt: Countdown to Defeat. In Hertfordshire Archaeology and History, Volume 16, 2009, pp. 57-65.
  38. ^ "Landscape Analysis and Appraisal Church Stowe, Northamptonshire, as a Candidate Site for the Battle of Watling Street, by craft:pegg"
  39. ^ Polydore Vergil's English History Book 2 (pp. 69-72).
  40. ^ Raphael Holinshed, Chronicles: History of England 4.9-13
  41. ^ Alfred, Lord Tennyson, Boadicea
  42. ^ Corinne Field (30 April 2006). "Battlefield Britain—Boudicca's revolt against the Romans". Culture24. Retrieved 8 December 2009.
  43. ^ Graham Webster, Boudica: The British Revolt against Rome AD 60, 1978
  44. ^ Walter Thornbury (1878). "Highbury, Upper Holloway and King's Cross". Old and New London: Volume 2. British History Online. pp. 273–279. Retrieved 11 November 2010.
  45. ^ "THE "WARRIOR QUEEN" UNDER PLATFORM 9". Museum of London. Retrieved 13 August 2011.
  46. ^ Boadicea (1927)
  47. ^ Boudica (2003)
  48. ^ Boudicca at The Gargoyles Encyclopedia.
  49. ^ The Wrath of the Iceni at bigfinish.com.
  50. ^ Copeland CS, Brindley PJ, Heyers O, Michael SF, Johnston DA, Williams DL, Ivens AC, Kalinna BH, "Boudica, a retrovirus-like long terminal repeat retrotransposon from the genome of the human blood fluke Schistosoma mansoni". Journal of Virology 2003 Jun;77(11):6153-66; Copeland CS, Heyers O, Kalinna BH, Bachmair A, Stadler PF, Hofacker IL, Brindley PJ, "Structural and evolutionary analysis of the transcribed sequence of Boudicca, a Schistosoma mansoni retrotransposon". Gene 2004;329:103-114.
  51. ^ "The Eternal Fire" on IMDB
  52. ^ O'Sullivan, Fran (30 October 2008). "Gladiator v Boadicea: No contest?". The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved 11 September 2011.

Further reading

  • Aldhouse-Green, M., Boudica Britannia: Rebel, War-Leader and Queen (Harlow, Pearson Longman, 2006).
  • Böckl, Manfred (2005). Die letzte Königin der Kelten (in German). Berlin: Aufbau Verlag. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  • Cassius Dio Cocceianus (1914–1927). Dio's Roman History. Vol. 8. Earnest Cary trans. Cambridge, MA: Halvard University Press.
  • Collingridge, Vanessa (2004). Boudica. London: Ebury.
  • de la Bédoyère, Guy (2003). "Bleeding from the Roman Rods: Boudica". Defying Rome: The Rebels of Roman Britain. Tempus: Stroud.
  • Dudley, Donald R; Webster, Graham (1962). The Rebellion of Boudicca. London: Routledge.
  • Fraser, Antonia (1988). The Warrior Queens. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
  • Godsell, Andrew (2008). "Boadicea: A Woman's Resolve". Legends of British History. Wessex Publishing.
  • Hingley, Richard; Unwin, Christina (2004). Boudica: Iron Age Warrior Queen. London: Hambledon and London.
  • Roesch, Joseph E. (2006). Boudica, Queen of The Iceni. London: Robert Hale Ltd.
  • Tacitus, Cornelius (1948). Tacitus on Britain and Germany. H. Mattingly trans. London: Penguin.
  • Tacitus, Cornelius (1989). The Annals of Imperial Rome. M. Grant trans. London: Penguin.
  • Taylor, John (1998). Tacitus and the Boudican Revolt. Dublin: Camvlos.
  • Webster, Graham (1978). Boudica. Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield.
  • Cottrell, Leonard (1958). The Great Invasion. Evans Brothers Limited.
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