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Celibacy

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"Sworn virgin" redirects here. For Albanian gender identity, see Balkan sworn virgins.
Saint Kateri Tekakwitha, a Catholic laywoman who took a private vow of perpetual virginity

Celibacy (from Latin, cælibatus") is the state of voluntarily being unmarried. In popular use, it also means being sexually abstinent, or both, usually for religious reasons.[1][2][3][4] It is often in association with the role of a religious official or devotee.[1] In its narrow sense, the term celibacy is applied only to those for whom the unmarried state is the result of a sacred vow, act of renunciation, or religious conviction.[1][5] In a wider sense, it is commonly understood to only mean abstinence from sexual activity.[1][5]

Celibacy has existed in one form or another throughout history, in virtually all the major religions of the world, and views on it have varied. Ancient Judaism was strongly opposed to celibacy. Similarly, the Romans viewed it as an aberration and legislated fiscal penalties against it, with the sole exception granted to the Vestal Virgins. Christians in the Middle Ages and in particular Catholics believed that celibacy was a prerequisite for religious office (clerical celibacy). Protestantism saw a reversal of this trend in the West and the Eastern Orthodox Church never adopted it. The Islamic attitudes toward celibacy have been complex as well; Muhammad denounced it [citation needed], but some Sufi orders embrace it.

Classical Hindu culture encouraged asceticism and celibacy in the later stages of life, after one has met his societal obligations. Jainism and Buddhism have been influenced by Hinduism in this respect. There were, however, significant cultural differences in the various areas where Buddhism spread, which affected the local attitudes toward celibacy. It was not well received in China, for example, where other religions movements such as Daoism were opposed to it. A somewhat similar situation existed in Japan, where the Shinto tradition also opposed celibacy. In most native African and American Indian religious traditions, celibacy has been viewed negatively as well, although there were exceptions like periodic celibacy practiced by some Mesoamerican warriors.[6]

Etymology

The English word celibacy derives from the Latin caelibatus, "state of being unmarried", from Latin [caelebs] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), meaning "unmarried". This word derives from two Proto-Indo-European stems, *kaiwelo- "alone" and *lib(h)s- "living".[7]

Abstinence and celibacy

The words abstinence and celibacy are often used interchangeably. Sexual abstinence, also known as continence,[8] is abstaining from some or all aspects of sexual activity, often for some limited period of time.[9] Asexuality is considered distinct from abstention from sexual activity and from celibacy,[10][11] which are behavioral and generally motivated by factors such as an individual's personal or religious beliefs.[12] Elizabeth Abbott commented on the terminology in her A History of Celibacy (2001): "I also drafted a definition that discarded the rigidly pedantic and unhelpful distinctions between celibacy, chastity and virginity".[13]

A. W. Richard Sipe, while focusing on the topic of celibacy in Catholicism, states that "the most commonly assumed definition of celibate is simply an unmarried or single person, and celibacy is perceived as synonymous with sexual abstinence or restraint."[14] Sipe adds that even in the relatively uniform milieu of Catholic priests in the United States "there is simply no clear operational definition of celibacy".[15]

Some encyclopedias and dictionaries define celibacy as necessarily voluntary.[16][17][18][19][20][21]

"New Celibacy"

The concept of "new celibacy" was introduced by Gabrielle Brown in her 1980 book The New Celibacy.[22] In a revised version (1989) of her book, she claims that "abstinence is a response on the outside to what's going on, and celibacy is a response from the inside".[23] According to her definition, celibacy (even short-term celibacy that is pursued for non-religious reasons) is much more than not having sex. It is more intentional than abstinence, and its goal is personal growth and empowerment. This new perspective on celibacy is echoed by several authors including Elizabeth Abbott, Wendy Keller, and Wendy Shalit.[24]

Buddhism

Buddhist monks in Chiang Mai Province, Thailand
See also: Buddhism and sexuality

The rule of celibacy in the Buddhist religion, whether Mahayana or Theravada, has a long history. Celibacy was advocated as an ideal rule of life for all monks and nuns by Gautama Buddha, except for Japan where it is not strictly followed due to historical and political developments following the Meiji Restoration. In Japan, celibacy was an ideal among Buddhist clerics for hundreds of years. But violations of clerical celibacy were so common for so long that, finally, in 1872, state laws made marriage legal for Buddhist clerics. Subsequently, ninety percent of Buddhist monks/clerics married.[25] An example is Higashifushimi Kunihide, a prominent Buddhist priest of Japanese royal ancestry who was married and a father whilst serving as a monk for most of his lifetime.

Gautama, later known as the Buddha, is known for his renunciation of his wife, Princess Yasodharā, and son, Rahula. In order to pursue an ascetic life, he needed to renounce aspects of the impermanent world, including his wife and son. Later on both his wife and son joined the ascetic community and are mentioned in the Buddhist texts to have become enlightened. In another sense, a buddhavacana recorded the zen patriarch Vimalakirti as being an advocate of marital continence instead of monastic renunciation, the sutra became somewhat popular due to its brash humour as well as integrating the role of women in laity as well as spiritual life.[26]

Brahma Kumaris

In the religious movement of Brahma Kumaris, celibacy is also promoted for peace and to defeat power of lust and to prepare for life in forthcoming Heaven on earth for 2,500 years when children will be created by the power of the mind even for householders to like holy brother and sister.[27][28]

In this belief system, celibacy is given the utmost importance. It is said that, as per the direction of the Supreme God those lead a pure and celibate life will be successfully able to conquer the surging vices. The power of celibacy creates an unseen environment of divinity bringing peace, power, purity, prosperity and fortune. Those with the power of celibacy are eligible to claim a bright future of Golden Age of heaven / Paradise. Brahma Kumaris' concept of identifying the self as a soul, different from physical body, is deeply linked to the philosophy of celibacy. It is said that the craving for sex and impure thoughts are the reason for the whole trouble in the universe today. And celibacy is to lead the pure relationship in one's life.[citation needed]

Christianity

A Russian orthodox nun and monk in Israel, 2012

In Matthew 19:11–12 Jesus says, "All men cannot receive this saying, save they to whom it is given. For there are some eunuchs, which were so born from their mother's womb: and there are some eunuchs, which were made eunuchs of men: and there be eunuchs, which have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven's sake. He that is able to receive it, let him receive it."

When Jesus discusses marriage, he points out that there is some responsibility for a man marry another woman (and vice-versa). Not having assets of their own, women needed to be protected from the risk of their husbands' putting them on the street at whim. In those times marriage was an economic matter[29] rather than one of love. A woman and her children could easily be rejected.[citation needed] Restriction of divorce was based on the necessity of protecting the woman and her position in society, not necessarily in a religious context, but an economic context.[30] He also points out that there are those "which were made eunuchs of men: and there be eunuchs, which have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven's sake", but in the original Greek, the word εὐνοῦχος means "castrated person". It was the custom at the time Jesus lived for priests of some ancient gods and goddesses to be castrated.[31] In the pre-Christian period Vestals, who served the virgin goddess of the hearth, were obliged to forgo marriage, and so were some priests and servants of some ancient deities such as Isis.[31] Jewish priests are allowed to marry. However, they are not allowed to marry a divorcee or certain other classes of women, or, in the case of a high priest, a widow (Leviticus 21:7, 8, 14 and 15).

There is no commandment in the New Testament that Jesus' disciples have to live in celibacy.[29] The general view on sexuality among the early Jewish Christians was quite positive.[32] Jesus himself does not speak in negative terms of the body in the New Testament. While the Jewish sect of essenes practiced celibacy the general practice of the Jewish community by that time prescribed marriage for everybody, and at an early age.[29] Saint Peter, also known as Simon Peter, the Apostle was married; Jesus healed Simon Peter's mother-in-law (Matt. 8:14), and other apostles and church members among the early Jewish Christians were also married: Paul's personal friends, Priscilla and Aquila (Romans 16:3), who were Paul's coworkers, Andronicus of Pannonia (Romans 16:7), and Junia (Romans 16:7), who were highly regarded among the apostles, Ananias and Sapphira (Ap 5:1), Apphia and Philemon (Phil 1: 1). According to Eusebius Church History (Historia Ecclesiastica), Paul the Apostle, also known as Saul of Tarsus, was also married. It was the custom in the Jewish community to marry early.[32]

In his early writings, Paul the Apostle described marriage as a social obligation that has the potential of distracting from Christ. Sex, in turn, is not sinful but natural, and sex within marriage is both proper and necessary.[33] In his later writings, Paul made parallels between the relations between spouses and God's relationship with the church. "Husbands love your wives even as Christ loved the church. Husbands should love their wives as their own bodies" (Ephesians 5:25-28). The early Christians lived in the belief that the End of the World would soon come upon them, and saw no point in planning new families and having children.[29] This was why Paul encouraged both celibate and marital lifestyles[29] among the members of the Corinthian congregation, regarding celibacy as the preferable of the two:

"Now concerning the things whereof ye wrote unto me: it is good for a man not to touch a woman. Nevertheless, to avoid fornication, let every man have his own wife, and let every woman have her own husband. Let the husband render unto the wife due benevolence: and likewise also the wife unto the husband. The wife hath not power of her own body, but the husband: and likewise also the husband hath not power of his own body, but the wife. Defraud ye not one the other, except it be with consent for a time, that ye may give yourselves to fasting and prayer; and come together again, that Satan tempt you not for your incontinency.

But I speak this by permission, and not of commandment. For I would that all men were even as I myself. But every man hath his proper gift of God, one after this manner, and another after that. I say therefore to the unmarried and widows, it is good for them if they abide even as I. But if they cannot contain, let them marry: for it is better to marry than to burn.

And unto the married I command, yet not I, but the Lord, Let not the wife depart from her husband: But and if she depart, let her remain unmarried or be reconciled to her husband: and let not the husband put away his wife. But to the rest speak I, not the Lord: If any brother hath a wife that believeth not, and she be pleased to dwell with him, let him not put her away. And the woman which hath an husband that believeth not, and if he be pleased to dwell with her, let her not leave him. For the unbelieving husband is sanctified by the wife, and the unbelieving wife is sanctified by the husband: else were your children unclean; but now are they holy. But if the unbelieving depart, let him depart. A brother or a sister is not under bondage in such cases: but God hath called us to peace. For what knowest thou, O wife, whether thou shalt save thy husband? or how knowest thou, O man, whether thou shalt save thy wife?"[34]

Paul the Apostle emphasized the importance of overcoming the desires of the flesh and saw the state of celibacy being superior to the marriage.[35]

In the Catholic Church, a consecrated virgin is a woman who has been consecrated by the church to a life of perpetual virginity in the service of God. According to most Christian thought, the first sacred virgin was Mary, the mother of Jesus, who was consecrated by the Holy Spirit during the Annunciation. Tradition also has it that the Apostle Matthew consecrated virgins. A number of early Christian martyrs were women or girls who had given themselves to Christ in perpetual virginity, such as Saint Agnes and Saint Lucy.

Desert Fathers

"Saint Macarius and a Cherub" from Saint Catherine's Monastery, Sinai, Egypt.

The Desert Fathers were Christian hermits, and ascetics [36] who had a major influence on the development of Christianity and celibacy. Paul of Thebes is often credited with being the first hermit monk to go to the desert, but it was Anthony the Great who launched the movement that became the Desert Fathers.[37] Sometime around 270 AD, Anthony heard a Sunday sermon stating that perfection could be achieved by selling all of one's possessions, giving the proceeds to the poor, and following Christ.(Matt. 19.21) He followed the advice and made the further step of moving deep into the desert to seek complete solitude.[36]

Over time, the model of Anthony and other hermits attracted many followers, who lived alone in the desert or in small groups. They chose a life of extreme asceticism, renouncing all the pleasures of the senses, rich food, baths, rest, and anything that made them comfortable.[38] Thousands joined them in the desert, mostly men but also a handful of women. Religious seekers also began going to the desert seeking advice and counsel from the early Desert Fathers. By the time of Anthony's death, there were so many men and women living in the desert in celibacy that it was described as "a city" by Anthony's biographer.[36] The first Conciliar document on celibacy of the Western Christian Church (Canon 33 of the Synod of Elvira, c. AD 305) states that the discipline of celibacy is to refrain from the use of marriage, i.e. refrain from having carnal contact with your spouse.[39]

According to the later St. Jerome (347 – 420) celibacy is a moral virtue, consisting of living in the flesh, but outside the flesh, and so being not corrupted by it (vivere in carne praeter carnem). Celibacy excludes not only libidinous acts, but also sinful thoughts or desires of the flesh.[40] Jerome referred to marriage prohibition for priests when he claimed in Against Jovinianus that Peter and the other apostles had been married before they were called, but subsequently gave up their marital relations.[41] Celibacy as a vocation may be independent from religious vows (as is the case with consecrated virgins, ascetics and hermits). In the Catholic, Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox traditions, bishops are required to be celibate. In the Eastern Christian traditions, priests and deacons are allowed to be married, yet have to remain celibate if they are unmarried at the time of ordination.

Augustinian view

Nuns in procession, French manuscript, ca. 1300.

In the early Church higher clerics lived in marriages. Augustine of Hippo was one of the first to develop a theory that sexual feelings were sinful and negative. Augustine taught that the original sin of Adam and Eve was either an act of foolishness (insipientia) followed by pride and disobedience to God, or else inspired by pride.[42] The first couple disobeyed God, who had told them not to eat of the Tree of the knowledge of good and evil (Gen 2:17).[43] The tree was a symbol of the order of creation.[44] Self-centeredness made Adam and Eve eat of it, thus failing to acknowledge and respect the world as it was created by God, with its hierarchy of beings and values.[45] They would not have fallen into pride and lack of wisdom, if Satan hadn't sown into their senses "the root of evil" (radix Mali).[46] Their nature was wounded by concupiscence or libido, which affected human intelligence and will, as well as affections and desires, including sexual desire.[47] The sin of Adam is inherited by all human beings. Already in his pre-Pelagian writings, Augustine taught that Original Sin was transmitted by concupiscence,[48] which he regarded as the passion of both, soul and body,[49] making humanity a massa damnata (mass of perdition, condemned crowd) and much enfeebling, though not destroying, the freedom of the will.

In the early 3rd century the Canons of the Apostolic Constitutions decreed that only lower clerics might still marry after their ordination, but marriage of bishops, priests, and deacons were not allowed.[50][51][52] Augustine's view of sexual feelings as sinful affected his view of women. For example, he considered a man’s erection to be sinful, though involuntary,[53] because it did not take place under his conscious control. His solution was to place controls on women to limit their ability to influence men.[54] He equated flesh with woman and spirit with man.[55]

He believed that the serpent approached Eve because she was less rational and lacked self-control, while Adam's choice to eat was viewed as an act of kindness so that Eve would not be left alone.[54] Augustine believed sin entered the world because man (the spirit) did not exercise control over woman (the flesh).[56] Augustine's views on women were not all negative, however. In his Tractates on the Gospel of John, Augustine, commenting on the Samaritan woman from John 4:1–42, uses the woman as a figure of the church.

According to Raming, the authority of the Decretum Gratiani, a collection of Roman Catholic canon law which prohibits women from leading, teaching, or being a witness, rests largely on the views of the early church fathers, especially St. Augustine.[57] The laws and traditions founded upon St. Augustine's views of sexuality and women continue to exercise considerable influence over church doctrinal positions regarding the role of women in the church.[58]

After Augustine

Catholic priests from all over the world in Budapest, 2013

One explanation for the origin of obligatory celibacy is that it is based on the writings of Saint Paul, who wrote of the advantages celibacy allowed a man in serving the Lord.[59] Celibacy was popularised by the early Christian theologians like Saint Augustine of Hippo and Origen. Another possible explanation for the origins of obligatory celibacy revolves around more practical reason, "the need to avoid claims on church property by priests' offspring".[60] It remains a matter of Canon Law (and often a criterion for certain religious orders, especially Franciscans) that priests may not own land and therefore cannot pass it on to legitimate or illegitimate children. The land belongs to the Church through the local diocese as administered by the Local Ordinary (usually a bishop), who is often an ex officio corporation sole. Celibacy is viewed differently by the Catholic Church and the various Protestant communities. It includes clerical celibacy, celibacy of the consecrated life, voluntary lay celibacy, and celibacy outside of marriage.

The Protestant Reformation rejected celibate life and sexual continence for preachers. Protestant celibate communities have emerged, especially from Anglican and Lutheran backgrounds.[citation needed] A few minor Christian sects advocate celibacy as a better way of life. These groups included the Shakers, the Harmony Society and the Ephrata Cloister. Celibacy not only for religious and monastics (brothers/monks and sisters/nuns) but also for bishops is upheld by the Catholic Church traditions.[61]

Many evangelicals prefer the term "abstinence" to "celibacy." Assuming everyone will marry, they focus their discussion on refraining from premarital sex and focusing on the joys of a future marriage. But some evangelicals, particularly older singles, desire a positive message of celibacy that moves beyond the "wait until marriage" message of abstinence campaigns. They seek a new understanding of celibacy that is focused on God rather than a future marriage or a lifelong vow to the Church.[62]

There are also many Pentecostal churches which practice celibate ministry. For instance, The Pentecostal Mission is a church spread world-wide which strictly forbids its ministers to marry. [citation needed]

Catholic Church

Conventual Franciscan friar, 2012
See also: Clerical celibacy (Catholic Church)

During the first three or four centuries, no law was promulgated prohibiting clerical marriage. Celibacy was a matter of choice for bishops, priests, and deacons.[63] The early Church resisted asceticism. Scripture reflects the fact that early Christians embraced marriage and yet felt that an ascetic bias against marriage was seeping into their culture: 1 Timothy 4:1 "In the last times, some will turn away from the faith by paying attention to deceitful spirits and demonic instructions through the hypocrisy of liars with branded consciences. They forbid marriage and require abstinence from foods that God created to be received with thanksgiving for those who believe and know the truth. For everything created by God is good and nothing is to be rejected when received with thanksgiving. For it is made holy by the invocation of God in prayer".1 Tim 4:1

Statutes forbidding clergy from having wives were written beginning with the Council of Elvira (306) but these early statutes were not universal and were often defied by clerics and then retracted by hierarchy.[64] The Synod of Gangra (345) condemned a false asceticism whereby worshipers boycotted celebrations presided over by married clergy.” [65] The Apostolic Constitutions (c 400) excommunicated a priest or bishop who left his wife ‘under the pretense of piety”’ (Mansi, 1:51).[66]

“A famous letter of Synesius of Cyrene (c 414) is evidence both for the respecting of personal decision in the matter and for contemporary appreciation of celibacy. For priests and deacons clerical marriage continued to be in vogue”.[67]

“The Second Lateran Council (1139) seems to have enacted the first written law making sacred orders a diriment impediment to marriage for the universal Church.”.[64] Celibacy was first required of some clerics in 1123 at the First Lateran Council. Because clerics resisted it, the celibacy mandate was restated at the Second Lateran Council (1139) and the Council of Trent (1545–64).[68] In places, coercion and enslavement of clerical wives and children was apparently involved in the enforcement of the law.[69] “The earliest decree in which the children [of clerics] were declared to be slaves and never to be enfranchised [freed] seems to have been a canon of the Synod of Pavia in 1018. Similar penalties were promulgated against wives and concubines (see the Synod of Melfi, 1189 can. Xii), who by the very fact of their unlawful connexion with a subdeacon or clerk of higher rank became liable to be seized by the over-lord”.[69] Mandatory celibacy for priests continues to be a contested issue even today.

In the Roman Catholic Church, the Twelve Apostles are considered to have been the first priests and bishops of the Church. Some say the call to be eunuchs for the sake of Heaven in Matthew 19 was a call to be sexually continent and that this developed into mandatory celibacy for priests as the successors of the apostles. Others see the call to be sexually continent in Matthew 19 to be a caution for men who were too readily divorcing and remarrying.

The view of the Church is that celibacy is a reflection of life in Heaven, a source of detachment from the material world which aids in one's relationship with God. Celibacy is designed to "consecrate themselves with undivided heart to the Lord and to "the affairs of the Lord, they give themselves entirely to God and to men. It is a sign of this new life to the service of which the Church's minister is consecrated; accepted with a joyous heart celibacy radiantly proclaims the Reign of God."[70] In contrast, Saint Peter, whom the Church considers its first Pope, was married given that he had a mother-in-law whom Christ healed (Matthew 8).

Usually, only celibate men are ordained as priests in the Latin Rite.[71][72] More recently, married clergy who have converted from other Christian denominations have been ordained Roman Catholic priests without becoming celibate.[73] Mandatory priestly celibacy is not doctrine of the Church (such as the belief in the Assumption of Mary) but a matter of discipline, like the use of the vernacular (local) language in Mass or Lenten fasting and abstinence.[74] As such, it can theoretically change at any time though it still must be obeyed by Catholics until the change were to take place. The Eastern Catholic Churches ordain both celibate and married men. However, in both the East and the West, bishops are chosen from among those who are celibate.[75][76] In Ireland, several priests have fathered children, the two most prominent being Bishop Eamonn Casey and Father Michael Cleary.

Discalced Carmelites from Argentina, 2013

The classical heritage flourished throughout the Middle Ages in both the Byzantine Greek East and the Latin West. Will Durant made a convincing case that certain prominent features of Plato's ideal community where discernible in the organization, dogma and effectiveness of "the" Medieval Church in Europe:[77]

"The clergy, like Plato's guardians, were placed in authority... by their talent as shown in ecclesiastical studies and administration, by their disposition to a life of meditation and simplicity, and ... by the influence of their relatives with the powers of state and church. In the latter half of the period in which they ruled [800 AD onwards], the clergy were as free from family cares as even Plato could desire [for such guardians]... [Clerical] Celibacy was part of the psychological structure of the power of the clergy; for on the one hand they were unimpeded by the narrowing egoism of the family, and on the other their apparent superiority to the call of the flesh added to the awe in which lay sinners held them...."[77] "In the latter half of the period in which they ruled, the clergy were as free from family cares as even Plato could desire".[77]

“Greater understanding of human psychology has led to questions regarding the impact of celibacy on the human development of the clergy. The realization that many non-European countries view celibacy negatively has prompted questions concerning the value of retaining celibacy as an absolute and universal requirement for ordained ministry in the Roman Catholic Church” [78]

“The declining number of priests in active ministry, the exemption from the requirement of celibacy for married clergy who enter the Catholic Church after having been ordained in the Episcopal Church, and reported incidences of de facto nonobservance of the requirement by clergy in various parts of the world, especially in Africa and Latin America, suggests that the discussion [of celibacy] will continue” [78] Catholic Churches developed the less well-known institution of chaste marriage.

The reintroduction of a permanent diaconate has permitted the Church to allow married men to become deacons but they may not go on to become priests.

Celibate homosexual Christians

Some homosexual Christians choose to be celibate following their denomination's teachings on homosexuality.[79]

In 2014 the American Association of Christian Counselors amended its code of ethics to eliminate the promotion of conversion therapy for homosexuals and encouraged them to be celibate instead.[79]

Hinduism

A sadhu by the Ghats on the Ganges, Varanasi, 2008

In Hinduism, celibacy is usually associated with the sadhus ("holy men"), ascetics who withdraw from society and renounce all worldly ties. Celibacy, termed brahmacharya in Vedic scripture, is the fourth of the yamas and the word literally translated means "dedicated to the Divinity of Life". The word is often used in yogic practice to refer to celibacy or denying pleasure, but this is only a small part of what brahmacharya represents. The purpose of practicing brahmacharya is to keep a person focused on the purpose in life, the things that instill a feeling of peace and contentment.

Islamic perspective

See also: Nikah

Islamic attitudes toward celibacy have been complex, Muhammad denounced it, however some Sufi orders embrace it. Islam does not promote celibacy; rather it condemns premarital sex and extramarital sex. In fact, according to Islam, marriage enables one to attain the highest form of righteousness within this sacred spiritual bond and is as such to be sought after and desired. It disagrees with the concept that marriage acts as a form of distraction in attaining nearness to God. The Qur'an (57:27) states, "But the Monasticism which they invented for themselves, We did not prescribe for them but only to please God therewith, but that they did not observe it with the right observance."

The following sayings about the Prophet also address celibacy:

"There have been people who have come to the prophet and explained how they love to be engaged in prayer and fasting for the sake of God. The Prophet Mohammed told them that, despite this being good, it is also a blessing to raise a family, to remain moderate and not to concentrate too much on one aspect as not only can this be unhealthy for an individual as well as upon society, it may also take one away from God."[citation needed]

Celibacy appears as a peculiarity among some Sufis.[80]

Celibacy was practiced by women saints in Sufism.[81] Celibacy was debated along with women's roles in Sufism in medieval times.[82]

Celibacy, poverty, meditation, and mysticism within an ascetic context along with worship centered around Saint's tombs were promoted by the Qadiri Sufi order among Hui Muslims in China.[83][84] In China, unlike other Muslim sects, the leaders (Shaikhs) of the Qadiriyya Sufi order are celibate.[85][86][87][88][89] Unlike other Sufi orders in China, the leadership within the order is not a hereditary position, rather, one of the disciples of the celibate Shaikh is chosen by the Shaikh to succeed him . The 92-year-old celibate Shaikh Yang Shijun was the leader of the Qadiriya order in China as of 1998.[90]

Celibacy is practiced by Haydariya Sufi dervishes.[91][92]

Meher Baba

The spiritual teacher Meher Baba stated that "[F]or the [spiritual] aspirant a life of strict celibacy is preferable to married life, if restraint comes to him easily without undue sense of self-repression. Such restraint is difficult for most persons and sometimes impossible, and for them married life is decidedly more helpful than a life of celibacy. For ordinary persons, married life is undoubtedly advisable unless they have a special aptitude for celibacy".[93] Baba also asserted that "The value of celibacy lies in the habit of restraint and the sense of detachment and independence which it gives".[94] and that "The aspirant must choose one of the two courses which are open to him. He must take to the life of celibacy or to the married life, and he must avoid at all costs a cheap compromise between the two. Promiscuity in sex gratification is bound to land the aspirant in a most pitiful and dangerous chaos of ungovernable lust."[95]

Ancient Greece and Rome

In Sparta and many other Greek cities, failure to marry was grounds for loss of citizenship, and could be prosecuted as a crime. Both Cicero and Dionysius of Halicarnassus stated that Roman law forbade celibacy. There are no records of such a prosecution, nor is the Roman punishment for refusing to marry known.[96]

Pythagoreanism was the system of esoteric and metaphysical beliefs held by Pythagoras and his followers. Pythagorean thinking was dominated by a profoundly mystical view of the world. The Pythagorean code further restricted his members from eating meat, fish, and beans which they practised for religious, ethical and ascetic reasons, in particular the idea of metempsychosis – the transmigration of souls into the bodies of other animals.[97][98] "Pythagoras himself established a small community that set a premium on study, vegetarianism, and sexual restraint or abstinence. Later philosophers believed that celibacy would be conducive to the detachment and equilibrium required by the philosopher's calling."[99]

The Balkans

Main article: Balkan sworn virgins

The tradition of sworn virgins developed out of the Kanuni i Lekë Dukagjinit (English: The Code of Lekë Dukagjini, or simply the Kanun). The Kanun is not a religious document – many groups follow it, including Roman Catholics, the Albanian Orthodox, and Muslims.

Women who become sworn virgins make a vow of celibacy, and are allowed to take on the social role of men: inheriting land, wearing male clothing, etc.

See also

References

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  8. ^ Public Domain Melody, John (1913). "Continence". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 23 July 2011.
  9. ^ Palazzini, Pietro, ed. (1962). "Abstinence and Continence". Dictionary of Moral Theology. London: Burns & Oates.
  10. ^ Varcarolis' Foundations of Psychiatric Mental Health Nursing. Elsevier Health Sciences. 2013. p. 382. ISBN 1455753580. Retrieved 7 May 2014. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |authors= ignored (help)
  11. ^ DePaulo, Bella (26 September 2011). "ASEXUALS: Who Are They and Why Are They Important?". Psychology Today. Retrieved 7 May 2014. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  12. ^ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (3d ed. 1992), entries for celibacy and thence abstinence
  13. ^ Abbott, Elizabeth (2001). A History of Celibacy. Da Capo Press. pp. 16–17. ISBN 9780306810411.
  14. ^ A.W. Richard Sipe (1990). A Secret World: Sexuality And The Search For Celibacy. Routledge. p. 3. ISBN 1-134-85134-0.
  15. ^ A.W. Richard Sipe (1990). A Secret World: Sexuality And The Search For Celibacy. Routledge. p. 52. ISBN 1-134-85134-0.
  16. ^ Johannes P. Schadé (2006). Encyclopedia of World Religions. Foreign Media Group. p. 180. ISBN 978-1-60136-000-7.
  17. ^ "the Encyclopedia Britannica - (Celibacy, the state of being unmarried and, therefore, sexually abstinent, usually in association with the role of a religious official or devotee.)". global.britannica.com. Retrieved 2015. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  18. ^ "Britannica Concise Encyclopedia". p. 359. Retrieved 2015. The deliberate abstinence from sexual activity, usually in connection with a religious role or practice {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  19. ^ "Oxford Dictionary - The state of abstaining from marriage and sexual relations". Retrieved 2015. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  20. ^ "Children's Britannica A voluntary refusal to marry or engage in sexual intercourse, celibacy is often associated with taking religious vows. The three types of religious celibacy are sacerdotal, monastic, and institutional. ". Retrieved 2015. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  21. ^ "The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fifth Edition, 2011". www.thefreedictionary.com. Retrieved 2015. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  22. ^ Frayser, Suzanne G.; Whitby, Thomas J. (1995). Studies in Human Sexuality: A Selected Guide. Libraries Unlimited. p. 341. ISBN 9781563081316.
  23. ^ Brown, Gabrielle (1989). The New Celibacy: A Journey to Love, Intimacy, and Good Health in a New Age (Rev ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
  24. ^ Abbott, Elizabeth. A History of Celibacy. Cambridge, Massachusetts: DaCapo, 1999; Keller, Wendy. The Cult of the Born-Again Virgin: How Single Women Can Reclaim Their Sexual Power. Deerfield Beach, Florida: Health Communications, 1999; Shalit, Wendy. A Return to Modesty: Discovering the Lost Virtue. New York: Touchstone, 2000.
  25. ^ Richard M. 2001. Neither Monk nor Layman: Clerical Marriage in Modern Japanese Buddhism. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, p 4
  26. ^ Thurman, Robert A. F. "VIMALAKIRTI NIRDESA SUTRA". Retrieved 14 April 2015.
  27. ^ Babb, Lawrence A. (1987). Redemptive Encounters: Three Modern Styles in the Hindu Tradition (Comparative Studies in Religion and Society). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-7069-2563-7. "Sexual intercourse is unnecessary for reproduction because the souls that enter the world during the first half of the Cycle are in possession of a special yogic power (yog bal) by which they conceive children"
  28. ^ Barrett, David V (2001). The New Believers. Cassell & Co. pp. 265. ISBN 0-304-35592-5.
  29. ^ a b c d e Henry Chadwick, The Early Church, ISBN 978-0140231991
  30. ^ Jonathan Hill, What Has Christianity Ever Done for Us?: How It Shaped the Modern World 978-0830833283
  31. ^ a b Versluis, Arthur, The secret history of western sexual mysticism. Vermont 2008.
  32. ^ a b Geels, Antoon & Roos, Lena. Sexuality in world's religions. University press, Lund, Sweden 2010.
  33. ^ Will Deming, Paul on marriage and celibacy: the hellenistic background of 1 Corinthians 7. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. 2003; 2nd edition.
  34. ^ 1Corinthians 7:1–16
  35. ^ Robert Crooks; Karla Baur (2010). Our Sexuality (11th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 11. ISBN 0-495-81294-3.
  36. ^ a b c Chryssavgis 2008, p. 15.
  37. ^ Waddell 1957, p. 30.
  38. ^ Riddle 2008, p. 43.
  39. ^ Roman Cholij Clerical Celibacy in East and West. Gracewing 1990; 2nd Rev. ed., p. 36.
  40. ^ art. Celibacy, clerical, in Dictionary of Moral Theology. Compiled under the Direction of H. E. Cardinal Roberti. Ed. Mgr. Pietro Palazzini. London: Burns & Oates Publishers of the Holy See 1962;
  41. ^ Aduersus Jovinianum I, 7. 26 (PL 23, 230C; 256C).
  42. ^ He explained to Julian of Eclanum that it was a most subtle job to discern what came first: Sed si disputatione subtilissima et elimatissima opus est, ut sciamus utrum primos homines insipientia superbos, an insipientes superbia fecerit. (Contra Julianum, V, 4.18; PL 44, 795)
  43. ^ Augustine of Hippo, On the Literal Meaning of Genesis (De Genesi ad litteram), VIII, 6:12, vol. 1, p. 192-3 and 12:28, vol. 2, p. 219-20, trans. John Hammond Taylor SJ;BA 49,28 and 50–52; PL 34, 377; cf. idem, De Trinitate, XII, 12.17; CCL 50, 371–372 [v. 26–31;1–36]; De natura boni 34–35; CSEL 25, 872; PL 42, 551–572
  44. ^ Augustine of Hippo, On the Literal Meaning of Genesis (De Genesi ad litteram), VIII, 4.8; BA 49, 20
  45. ^ Augustine explained it in this way: "Why therefore is it enjoined upon mind, that it should know itself? I suppose, in order that it may consider itself, and live according to its own nature; that is, seek to be regulated according to its own nature, viz., under Him to whom it ought to be subject, and above those things to which it is to be preferred; under Him by whom it ought to be ruled, above those things which it ought to rule. For it does many things through vicious desire, as though in forgetfulness of itself. For it sees some things intrinsically excellent, in that more excellent nature which is God: and whereas it ought to remain steadfast that it may enjoy them, it is turned away from Him, by wishing to appropriate those things to itself, and not to be like to Him by His gift, but to be what He is by its own, and it begins to move and slip gradually down into less and less, which it thinks to be more and more." ("On the Trinity" (De Trinitate), 5:7; CCL 50, 320 [1–12])
  46. ^ Augustine of Hippo, Nisi radicem mali humanus tunc reciperet sensus ("Contra Julianum", I, 9.42; PL 44, 670)
  47. ^ In one of Augustine's late works, Retractationes, he made a significant remark indicating the way he understood difference between spiritual, moral libido and the sexual desire: "Libido is not good and righteous use of the libido" ("libido non est bonus et rectus usus libidinis"). See the whole passage: Dixi etiam quodam loco: «Quod enim est cibus ad salutem hominis, hoc est concubitus ad salutem generis, et utrumque non est sine delectatione carnali, quae tamen modificata et temperantia refrenante in usum naturalem redacta, libido esse non potest». Quod ideo dictum est, quoniam "libido non est bonus et rectus usus libidinis". Sicut enim malum est male uti bonis, ita bonum bene uti malis. De qua re alias, maxime contra novos haereticos Pelagianos, diligentius disputavi. Cf. De bono coniugali, 16.18; PL 40, 385; De nuptiis et concupiscentia, II, 21.36; PL 44, 443; Contra Iulianum, III, 7.16; PL 44, 710; ibid., V, 16.60; PL 44, 817. See also Idem (1983). Le mariage chrétien dans l'oeuvre de Saint Augustin. Une théologie baptismale de la vie conjugale. Paris: Études Augustiniennes. p. 97.
  48. ^ Augustine of Hippo, Imperfectum Opus contra Iulianum, II, 218
  49. ^ In 393 or 394 he commented: "Moreover, if unbelief is fornication, and idolatry unbelief, and covetousness idolatry, it is not to be doubted that covetousness also is fornication. Who, then, in that case can rightly separate any unlawful lust whatever from the category of fornication, if covetousness is fornication? And from this we perceive, that because of unlawful lusts, not only those of which one is guilty in acts of uncleanness with another's husband or wife, but any unlawful lusts whatever, which cause the soul making a bad use of the body to wander from the law of God, and to be ruinously and basely corrupted, a man may, without crime, put away his wife, and a wife her husband, because the Lord makes the cause of fornication an exception; which fornication, in accordance with the above considerations, we are compelled to understand as being general and universal" ("On the Sermon on the Mount", De sermone Domini in monte, 1:16:46; CCL 35, 52)
  50. ^ Constitutiones apostolorum 8, 47, 26 (SC 336, 280, 83f.) τῶν εις κληρον παρελθόντων ἄγαμον κελεύομεν Βουλομένους γαμεῖν αναγνώστας και ψαλτας μόνους.
  51. ^ Socrates Scholasticus, Historia ealesiastica I, 11, 5 (GCS Socr. 42,i9f.)
  52. ^ Stefan Heid (2000),Celibacy in the Early Church, p. 170
  53. ^ Augustine of Hippo, City of God, 14.17
  54. ^ a b Reuther, R.R. (2007). "Augustine: sexuality gender and women", pp. 47–68 in J.C. Stark (Ed.), Feminist interpretations of Augustine, University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, ISBN 027103257X.
  55. ^ Augustine of Hippo, as cited in Trombley, C. (2003). Who said women can’t teach? God’s vision for women in ministry. Gainesville, FL: Bridge-Logos, p. 239, ISBN 1458796329.
  56. ^ Edwards, B. (2011) Let My People Go: A Call to End the Oppression of Women in the Church, Charleston, SC: Createspace, ISBN 1466401117.
  57. ^ Raming, I. (2004). A history of women and ordination volume two: The priestly office of women – God’s gift to a renewed church. (B. Cooke & G. Macy, Trans.). Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press Inc. pp. 29–30, ISBN 0810848503.
  58. ^ Edwards, B. (2011). "Let My People Go: A Call to End the Oppression of Women in the Church." Charleston, SC: Createspace, ISBN 1466401117.
  59. ^ Schreck, p. 255.
  60. ^ Vitello, Paul (22 March 2009). "On Eve of Retirement, Cardinal Breathes Life Into Debate on Priestly Celibacy". The New York Times. Retrieved 1 April 2010.
  61. ^ Celibacy. Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009. Archived 31 October 2009.
  62. ^ Colon, Christine, and Bonnie Field. Singled Out: Why Celibacy Must Be Reinvented in Today's Church. Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos, 2009.
  63. ^ [Henry Chadwick, The Early Church, ISBN 978-0140231991]
  64. ^ a b New Catholic Encyclopedia, vol 3 Catholic University of America: Washington, D.C. 1967, p 366
  65. ^ Encyclopedia of Catholicism,1995, ed. O’Brien, Richard, NY: Harper Collins Publishers, p.290
  66. ^ New Catholic Encyclopedia, vol 3, Catholic University of America: Washington, D.C. 1967 p.370
  67. ^ New Catholic Encyclopedia, vol 3 Catholic University of America: Washington, D.C. 1967, p 323
  68. ^ New Advent, "Celibacy of the Clergy"
  69. ^ a b The Catholic Encyclopedia vol 3, New York: The Encyclopedia Press, Inc., 486
  70. ^ Catechism of the Roman Catholic Church, 1579
  71. ^ "Canon 1037". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved 9 March 2008.
  72. ^ "Canon 1031". 1983 Code of Canon Law. Vatican. Retrieved 9 March 2008.
  73. ^ Cholij, Roman (1993). "Priestly Celibacy in Patristics and in the History of the Church". Vatican. Retrieved 6 April 2008. A priest who is married at time of ordination continues to be married, with full obligation to all expectations of the marriage, but cannot remarry and remain in the practice of the priesthood.
  74. ^ "Celibacy and the Priesthood".
  75. ^ Niebuhur, Gustav (16 February 1997). "Bishop's Quiet Action Allows Priest Both Flock And Family". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 April 2008.
  76. ^ "1990 Codex Canonum Ecclesiarum Orientalium, Canons 285, 373, 374, 758". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 1990. Retrieved 12 September 2008.
  77. ^ a b c Durant, Will (2005). Story of Philosophy. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-69500-2. Retrieved 10 December 2013.
  78. ^ a b Encyclopedia of Catholicism,1995, ed. O’Brien, Richard, NY: Harper Collins Publishers, p.291
  79. ^ a b "Gay, Christian and ... celibate: The changing face of the homosexuality debate - Religion News Service". Religionnews.com. Retrieved 7 July 2015.
  80. ^ Clarke, Peter B.; Beyer, Peter, eds. (2009). The World's Religions: Continuities and Transformations. Taylor & Francis. p. 692. ISBN 1135211000. Retrieved 24 April 2014. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  81. ^ Jaschok, Maria; Shui, Jingjun (2000). The History of Women's Mosques in Chinese Islam: A Mosque of Their Own (illustrated ed.). Psychology Press. p. 43. ISBN 0700713026. Retrieved 24 April 2014. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  82. ^ Bodman, Herbert L.; Tohidi, Nayereh Esfahlani, eds. (1998). Women in Muslim Societies: Diversity Within Unity. Lynne Rienner Publishers. p. 12. ISBN 1555875785. Retrieved 24 April 2014. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  83. ^ Westerlund, David; Svanberg, Ingvar, eds. (1999). Islam Outside the Arab World. St. Martin's Press. p. 199. ISBN 0312226918. Retrieved 24 April 2014. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  84. ^ Westerlund, David; Svanberg, Ingvar (2012). Islam Outside the Arab World. Routledge. p. 199. ISBN 1136113304. Retrieved 24 April 2014. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  85. ^ Manger, Leif O., ed. (1999). Muslim Diversity: Local Islam in Global Contexts. Vol. Volume 26 of NIAS studies in Asian topics: Nordisk Institut for Asienstudier (illustrated ed.). Psychology Press. p. 118. ISBN 070071104X. ISSN 0142-6028. Retrieved 24 April 2014. {{cite book}}: |volume= has extra text (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  86. ^ Esposito, John L., ed. (1999). The Oxford History of Islam (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 452. ISBN 0195107993. Retrieved 24 April 2014. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  87. ^ Atabaki, Touraj; Mehendale, Sanjyot, eds. (2004). Central Asia and the Caucasus: Transnationalism and Diaspora (illustrated ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 197. ISBN 0203495829. Retrieved 24 April 2014. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  88. ^ Gladney, Dru C. (2004). Atabaki, Touraj; Mehendale, Sanjyot (eds.). Central Asia and the Caucasus: Transnationalism and Diaspora (illustrated ed.). Routledge. p. 197. ISBN 1134319940. Retrieved 24 April 2014. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  89. ^ Gladney, Dru C. (1996). Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People's Republic. Vol. Volume 149 of Harvard East Asian monographs (illustrated ed.). Harvard Univ Asia Center. p. 44. ISBN 0674594975. ISSN 0073-0483. Retrieved 24 April 2014. {{cite book}}: |volume= has extra text (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  90. ^ Lipman, Jonathan Neaman (1998). Familiar strangers: a history of Muslims in Northwest China. University of Washington Press. p. 89. ISBN 0295800550. Retrieved 24 April 2014. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  91. ^ Renard, John (2005). Historical Dictionary of Sufism. Historical Dictionaries of Religions, Philosophies, and Movements Series. Scarecrow Press. p. 104. ISBN 0810865408. Retrieved 24 April 2014. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  92. ^ Renard, John (2009). The A to Z of Sufism. Vol. Volume 44 of The A to Z Guide Series. Scarecrow Press. p. 104. ISBN 081086343X. Retrieved 24 April 2014. {{cite book}}: |volume= has extra text (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  93. ^ Baba, Meher (1967). Discourses. 1. San Francisco: Sufism Reoriented. pp. 144–45. ISBN 978-1-880619-09-4.
  94. ^ Baba, Meher (1967). Discourses. 1. San Francisco: Sufism Reoriented. p. 145. ISBN 978-1-880619-09-4.
  95. ^ Baba, Meher (1967). Discourses. 1. San Francisco: Sufism Reoriented. p. 146. ISBN 978-1-880619-09-4.
  96. ^ Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges, The Ancient City, 38-39
  97. ^ "Vegetarianism". The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink (PDF). OUP. 2004.
  98. ^ Russell, Bertrand, History of Western Philosophy
  99. ^ "celibacy", The New Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed.,vol 3 Chicago, 2007.

Bibliography

Media related to Celibacy at Wikimedia Commons

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