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The Exodus

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This article is about the events related in the Bible. For the second book of the Bible, see Book of Exodus. For other uses, see Exodus (disambiguation).
Departure of the Israelites (David Roberts, 1829)

The Exodus is the founding myth of the Israelites.[1][a] Spread over the books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, it tells the story of the enslavement of the Israelites in ancient Egypt, their liberation through the hand of their tutelary deity Yahweh, the revelations at biblical Mount Sinai, and their wanderings in the wilderness up to the borders of Canaan, the land their god has given them.[2]

Its message is that Israel was delivered from slavery by Yahweh, and therefore belongs to him through the Mosaic covenant. The covenant's terms are that Yahweh will protect his chosen people, as long as they will keep his laws and exclusively worship him.[1][3] The Exodus and its laws remain central to Judaism, recounted daily in Jewish prayers and celebrated in festivals such as Passover, as well as resonating with non-Jewish groups, from early American settlers fleeing persecution in Europe to African Americans striving for freedom and civil rights.[4]

The consensus of modern scholars is that the Bible does not give an accurate account of the origins of Israel, which formed as an entity in the southern Transjordan region by the 13th century BCE from the indigenous Canaanite culture.[5][6][7] There is no evidence that the Israelites lived or were enslaved in ancient Egypt.[8][9][10] There is a widespread agreement that the composition of the Torah or Pentateuch, the biblical books which contain the Exodus narrative, took place in the Middle Persian Period (5th century BCE),[11] although the traditions behind it are older and can be found in the writings of the 8th-century BCE prophets.[12][13]

Summary

Narrative

Israel in Egypt (Edward Poynter, 1867)

The story of the Exodus is told in the books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, the last four of the five books of the bible (also called the Pentateuch or Torah). It begins with the Israelites in slavery. Their prophet Moses leads them out of Egypt and through the wilderness to Mount Sinai, where Yahweh reveals himself to his people and establishes the Mosaic covenant: they are to keep his torah (i.e. law, instruction), and in return he will give them the land of Canaan. The Israelites accept the covenant and receive their laws, and, with Yahweh now present in their midst, journey on from Sinai, towards the promised land, but when The Twelve Spies report that the land is filled with cannibalistic giants they refuse to go on, and Yahweh condemns them to remain in the desert until the generation that left Egypt passes away. After thirty-eight years at the oasis of Kadesh Barnea the next generation travel on to the borders of Canaan, where Moses addresses them for the final time, reviewing their travels and giving them further laws. The Exodus ends with the death of Moses on Mount Nebo and his burial by Yahweh, while the Israelites prepare for the conquest of the land.[14]

Covenant and law

The climax of the Exodus is the covenant (binding legal agreement) between God and Israel mediated by Moses at Sinai: Yahweh will protect Israel as his chosen people for all time, and Israel will keep Yahweh's laws and worship only him.[3] The covenant is described in stages: at Exodus 24:3–8 the Israelites agree to abide by the "book of the covenant" that Moses has just read to them; shortly afterwards God writes the "words of the covenant" – the Ten Commandments – on stone tablets; and finally, as the people gather in Moab to cross into Canaan, the land God has promised them, Moses makes a new covenant between Yahweh and Israel "beside the covenant he made with them at Horeb" (Deuteronomy 29:1).[15] The laws are set out in a number of codes:[16]

Composition

Ezra Reads the Law to the People (Gustave Doré's illustrations for La Grande Bible de Tours, 1866)

Scholars broadly agree that the publication of the first five books of the Bible took place in the mid-Persian period (the 5th century BCE),[b] echoing a traditional Jewish view which gives Ezra, the leader of the Jewish community on its return from Babylon, a pivotal role in its promulgation.[24] The first trace of the traditions behind it appears in the northern prophets Amos (possibly) and Hosea (certainly), both active in the 8th century BCE in northern Israel, but their southern contemporaries Isaiah and Micah show no knowledge of an exodus.[12] (Micah 6:45 contains a reference to the exodus, which many scholars take to be an addition by a later editor.)[c] The story may, therefore, have originated a few centuries earlier, perhaps the 9th or 10th BCE, and there are signs that it took different forms in Israel, in the Transjordan region, and in the southern Kingdom of Judah before being unified in the Persian era.[26]

Many theories have been advanced to explain the composition of the first five books of the Bible, but two have been especially influential.[27] The first of these, Persian Imperial authorisation, advanced by Peter Frei in 1985, holds that the Persian authorities required the Jews of Jerusalem to present a single body of law as the price of local autonomy.[28] Frei's theory was demolished at an interdisciplinary symposium held in 2000, but the relationship between the Persian authorities and Jerusalem remains a crucial question.[29] The second theory, associated with Joel P. Weinberg and called the "Citizen-Temple Community", proposes that the Exodus story was composed to serve the needs of a post-exilic Jewish community organised around the Temple, which acted in effect as a bank for those who belonged to it.[30] The books containing the Exodus story served as an "identity card" defining who belonged to this community (i.e., to Israel), thus reinforcing Israel's unity through its new institutions.[31]

Cultural significance

A Seder table setting, commemorating the Passover and Exodus

The Exodus is remembered daily in Jewish prayers and celebrated each year at the feasts of Pesach (Passover) and Shavuot, the two being known respectively as "the time of our freedom" and "the time our Torah was given".[32] The two are closely linked, with Pesach announcing that the freedom it introduces is only fully realised with the giving of the law (the Torah).[32] A third Jewish festival, Sukkot, the Festival of Booths, commemorates how the Israelites lived in booths following the exodus from their previous homes in Egypt.[32] The festivals now associated with the Exodus (Passover, Shavuot, and Sukkot) began as agricultural and seasonal feasts but became completely subsumed into the central Exodus myth of Israel's deliverance from oppression at the hands of God.[32] The fringes worn at the corners of traditional Jewish prayer shawls are a physical reminder of the obligation to observe the laws given at the climax of Exodus: "Look at it and recall all the commandments of the Lord" (Numbers).[33]

The Exodus has reverberated through world history. Many early American settlers interpreted their flight from Europe to a new life in America as a new exodus. Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin recommended that the Great Seal of the United States show Moses leading the Israelites across the Red Sea. African Americans suffering under slavery and racial oppression interpreted their situation in terms of the Exodus, making it a catalyst for social change.[34][35][36]

Historicity

There is a very large consensus among scholars that the Exodus and Conquest story is best understood as myth, and cannot be taken as history in any positivistic sense.[37] It is specifically the founding myth of the Jewish people, which explaining their origins and providing an ideological foundation for their culture and institutions.[1] There is no indication that the Israelites lived in ancient Egypt, and the Sinai Peninsula shows no sign of occupation for the 2nd millennium BCE.[38] Israel evolved within Canaan from native Canaanite roots.[39][40] The modern scholarly consensus is that the figure of Moses is mythical,[41] and while, as William G. Dever writes, "a Moses-like figure may have existed somewhere in the southern Transjordan in the mid-late 13th century B.C.", archaeology cannot confirm his existence.[42]

The Egyptian oppression may be based on the harsh treatment of Canaanites inside Canaan in the 2nd millennium BCE, when the region was ruled by Egypt, and these memories could later have been transferred to Egypt itself as a "collective memory",[7][43] from which an exodus story was created,[44] but collective memory is ultimately a better guide to what the remembering community regarded as important than to the historical events of the past.[45]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The name "exodus" is from Greek ἔξοδος exodos, "going out". For "myth" see Sparks, 2010, p. 73: "Charter (i.e., foundation) myths tell the story of a society's origins, and, in doing so, provide the ideological foundations for the culture and its institutions."[1]
  2. ^ Details point to a 1st millennium BCE date for the composition of the narrative: Ezion-Geber (one of the Stations of the Exodus), for example, dates to a period between the 8th and 6th centuries BCE with possible further occupation into the 4th century BCE,[17] and those place-names on the Exodus route that have been identified – Goshen, Pithom, Succoth, Ramesses and Kadesh Barnea – point to the geography of the 1st millennium BCE rather than the 2nd.[18] Similarly, Pharaoh's fear that the Israelites might ally themselves with foreign invaders seems unlikely in the context of the late 2nd millennium, when Canaan was part of the New Kingdom empire and Egypt faced no enemies in that direction, but does make sense in a 1st millennium BCE context, when Egypt was considerably weaker and faced invasion first from the Achaemenid Empire and later from the Seleucid Empire.[19] The mention of the dromedary in Exodus 9:3 also suggests a later date – the widespread domestication of the camel as a herd animal is thought not to have taken place before the late 2nd millennium BCE, after the Israelites had already emerged in Canaan,[20] and they did not become widespread in Egypt until c. 200–100 BCE.[21] Even the chronology of the Exodus narrative is symbolic rather than actual: for example, its culminating event, the erection of the Tabernacle as Yahweh's dwelling-place among his people, occurs in the year 2666 Anno Mundi (Year of the World, meaning 2666 years after God creates the world), and two-thirds of the way through a four thousand year era that culminates in or around the re-dedication of the Second Temple in 164 BCE.[22][23]
  3. ^ Micah 6:45 ("I brought you up out of Egypt and redeemed you from the land of slavery; I sent Moses to lead you, also Aaron and Miriam. My people, remember what Balak king of Moab plotted and what Balaam son of Beor answered. Remember your journey from Shittim to Gilgal, that you may know the righteous acts of the Lord”) is a late addition to the original book. See [25], Miller II, Robert D. (25 November 2013). Illuminating Moses: A History of Reception from Exodus to the Renaissance. BRILL. p. 19. ISBN 978-90-04-25854-9., McDermott, John J. (2002). Reading the Pentateuch: A Historical Introduction. Paulist Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-8091-4082-4., McKenzie, Steven L. (15 September 2005). How to Read the Bible: History, Prophecy, Literature--Why Modern Readers Need to Know the Difference and What It Means for Faith Today. Oxford University Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-19-803655-5., Collins, John J. (15 April 2018). Introduction to the Hebrew Bible: Third Edition. Augsburg Fortress, Publishers. p. 354. ISBN 978-1-5064-4605-9. Many scholars assume that the appeal to the exodus here is the work of a Deuteronomistic editor, but this is not necessarily so. and Wolff, Hans Walter (1990). Micah: A Commentary. Augsburg. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-8066-2449-5. apud Hamborg, Graham R. (24 May 2012). Still Selling the Righteous: A Redaction-critical Investigation of Reasons for Judgment in Amos 2.6-16. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 156–157. ISBN 978-0-567-04860-8.

References

Citations

  1. ^ a b c d Sparks 2010, p. 73.
  2. ^ Redmount 2001, p. 59.
  3. ^ a b Bandstra 2008, p. 28-29.
  4. ^ Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi (2004). The Jewish Study Bible: Jewish Publication Society Tanakh Translation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195297515.
  5. ^ Meyers 2005, pp. 6–7.
  6. ^ Moore & Kelle 2011, p. 81.
  7. ^ a b Faust 2015, p. 476.
  8. ^ Moore & Kelle 2011, p. ?.
  9. ^ Dever 2001, p. ?.
  10. ^ Meyers 2005, p. ?.
  11. ^ Romer 2008, p. 2.
  12. ^ a b Lemche 1985, p. 327.
  13. ^ Redmount 2001, p. 63.
  14. ^ Redmount 2001, p. 59–60.
  15. ^ McKenzie 2000, p. 4–5.
  16. ^ Bandstra 2008, p. 146.
  17. ^ Pratico & DiVito 1993, pp. 1–32.
  18. ^ Van Seters 1997, pp. 255ff.
  19. ^ Soggin 1998, pp. 128–29.
  20. ^ Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 334.
  21. ^ Faye 2013, p. 3.
  22. ^ Hayes & Miller 1986, p. 59.
  23. ^ Davies 1998, p. 180.
  24. ^ Romer 2008, p. 2 and fn.3.
  25. ^ Lemche 1985, p. 315.
  26. ^ Russell 2009, p. 1.
  27. ^ Ska 2006, pp. 217.
  28. ^ Ska 2006, pp. 218.
  29. ^ Eskenazi 2009, p. 86.
  30. ^ Ska 2006, pp. 226–227.
  31. ^ Ska 2006, p. 225.
  32. ^ a b c d Tigay 2004, p. 106.
  33. ^ Sarason 2015, p. 53.
  34. ^ Tigay 2004, p. 107.
  35. ^ Assmann 2018, p. 335.
  36. ^ Coomber 2012, p. 123.
  37. ^ Collins 2005, p. 46.
  38. ^ Redmount 2001, p. 77.
  39. ^ Barmash 2015b, p. 4.
  40. ^ Shaw 2002, p. 313.
  41. ^ Dever, William G. (1993). "What Remains of the House That Albright Built?". The Biblical Archaeologist. 56 (1). University of Chicago Press: 25–35. doi:10.2307/3210358. ISSN 0006-0895. JSTOR 3210358. the overwhelming scholarly consensus today is that Moses is a mythical figure
  42. ^ Dever 2001, p. 99.
  43. ^ Collins 2005, p. 45–46.
  44. ^ Anderson & Gooder 2017, p. unpaginated.
  45. ^ Collins 2005, p. 45.

Bibliography

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Assmann, Jan (2009). Moses the Egyptian: The Memory of Egypt. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674020306. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Assmann, Jan (2014). From Akhenaten to Moses: Ancient Egypt and Religious Change. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-977-416-631-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
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Barmash, Pamela (2015a). "Introduction: The Exodus: Central, Learning, and Generative". In Barmash, Pamela; Nelson, W. David (eds.). Exodus in the Jewish Experience: Echoes and Reverberations. Lexington Books. pp. vii–xiv. ISBN 9781498502931. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
Barmash, Pamela (2015b). "Out of the Mists of History: The Exaltation of the Exodus in the Bible". In Barmash, Pamela; Nelson, W. David (eds.). Exodus in the Jewish Experience: Echoes and Reverberations. Lexington Books. pp. 1–22. ISBN 9781498502931. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
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Sarason, Richard S. (2015). "The Past as Paradigm:Enactments of the Exodus Motif in Jewish Liturgy". In Barmash, Pamela; Nelson, W. David (eds.). Exodus in the Jewish Experience: Echoes and Reverberations. Lexington. ISBN 9781498502931. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Shaw, Ian (2002). "Israel, Israelites". In Shaw, Ian; Jameson, Robert (eds.). A Dictionary of Archaeology. Wiley Blackwell. ISBN 9780631235835. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Shea, William H. (2003). "The Date of the Exodus". In Grisanti, Michael A.; Howard, David M. (eds.). Giving the Sense: Understanding and Using Old Testament Historical Texts. Kregel Academic. ISBN 9780825428920. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Ska, Jean Louis (2006). Introduction to Reading the Pentateuch. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 9781575061221. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Soggin, John (1998). An Introduction to the History of Israel and Judah (tr. 1999). SCM Press. ISBN 9780334027881. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Sparks, Kenton L. (2010). "Genre Criticism". In Dozeman, Thomas B. (ed.). Methods for Exodus. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139487382. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Sparks, B.C. (2015). "Egyptian Texts Relating to the Exodus". In Levy, Thomas E.; Schneider, Thomas; Propp, William H.C. (eds.). Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience. Springer. ISBN 9783319047683. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Stiebing, William H. (1989). Out of the Desert: Archaeology and the Exodus/Conquest Narratives. Prometheus. ISBN 9781615926886. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Thompson, Thomas L. (1999). The Mythic Past: Biblical Archaeology And The Myth Of Israel. Basic Books. ISBN 0465010520. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Tigay, Jeffrey H. (2004). "Exodus". In Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi (eds.). The Jewish Study Bible. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195297515. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Van Seters, John (1997a). "The Geography of the Exodus". In Silberman, Neil Ash (ed.). The Land that I Will Show You. Sheffield Academic Press. ISBN 9781850756507. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Van Seters, John (1997b). In Search of History: Historiography in the Ancient World and the Origins of Biblical History. Eisenbrauns. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Verbrugghe, Gerald P.; Wickersham, John Moore (2001). Berossos and Manetho, Introduced and Translated: Native Traditions in Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08687-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Whitelam, Keith W. (2006). "General problems of studying the text of the bible...". In Rogerson, John William; Lieu, Judith (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199254255. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Wood, Ralpth C (1990). "Genre, Concept of". In Watson E. Mills (General Editor) (ed.). Mercer Dictionary of the Bible. Mercer University Press. ISBN 9780865543737. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help)
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