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See also: End of the world
Look up eschatology in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, by Albrecht Dürer.

Eschatology (from the Greek ἔσχατος meaning "last" + -logy) is a part of theology and philosophy concerned with the final events in the history of the world or the ultimate destiny of mankind, commonly phrased as the end of the world. In many religions, the end of the world is a future event prophesied in sacred texts or folklore. More broadly, eschatology may encompass related concepts such as the Messiah or Messianic Age, the afterlife, and the soul.

The Greek word αἰών means "age"; may be translated "end of the age (or historical period[1])" instead of "end of the world". The distinction also has theological significance, for the "end times" in many religions may involve the destruction of the planet (or of all living things), but with the human race surviving in some new form, ending the current "age" of existence and beginning a new one.

Most Western monotheistic religions have doctrines claiming that "chosen" or "worthy" members of the one true faith will be "spared" or "delivered" from the coming judgment and wrath of God. They will be ushered into paradise either before, during, or after it depending upon the end-time scenario to which they hold.

Buddhism

Main article: Buddhist eschatology

Buddha predicted that his teachings would disappear after 500 years. According to the Sutta Pitaka, the "ten moral courses of conduct" will disappear and people will follow the ten amoral concepts of theft, violence, murder, lying, evil speaking, adultery, abusive and idle talk, covetousness and ill will, wanton greed, and perverted lust resulting in skyrocketing poverty and the end of the worldly laws of true dharma.

During the Middle Ages, the span of time was expanded to 5,000 years. Commentators like Buddhaghosa predicted a step-by-step disappearance of the Buddha's teachings. During the first stage, arahats would no longer appear in the world. Later, the content of the Buddha's true teachings would vanish, and only their form would be preserved. Finally, even the form of the Dharma would be forgotten. During the final stage, the memory of the Buddha himself would be forgotten, and the last of his relics would be gathered together in Bodh Gaya and cremated. Some time following this development a new Buddha named Maitreya will arise to renew the teachings of Buddhism and rediscover the path to Nirvana. Maitreya is believed to currently reside in the Tushita heaven, where he is awaiting his final rebirth in the world.

The decline of Buddhism in the world, and its eventual re-establishment by Maitreya, are in keeping with the general shape of Buddhist cosmology. Like Hindus, Buddhists generally believe in a cycle of creation and destruction, of which the current epoch represents only the latest step. The historical Buddha Shakyamuni is only the latest in a series of Buddhas that stretches back into the past.

Christianity

The Last Judgement - Fresco in the Sistine Chapel by Michelangelo.
Main articles: Christian eschatology, Timeline of unfulfilled Christian Prophecy, Armageddon, Apocalypticism, and End times

Some Christians in the 1st century AD believed the end of the world could come during their lifetime. When the converts of Paul in Thessalonica were persecuted by the Roman Empire, they believed the end was upon them. However, doubt rose when as early as the 90s Christians said, "We have heard these things [of the end of the world] even in the days of our fathers, and look, we have grown old and none of them has happened to us".[1] The Mark 13:8 passage, as well as Mathew 24:6-8, are often misunderstood as these indicate that the wars and rumours of wars are signs that the End is yet to come, not that it has come. In the 130s Justin Martyr declared God was delaying the end of the world because he wished for Christianity to become a world religion. In the 250s Cyprian wrote that Christian sins of that time were a prelude and proof that the end was near.

However, by the 3rd century most Christians believed the End was beyond their own lifetime; Jesus, it was believed, had denounced attempts to divine the future, to know the "times and seasons", and such attempts to predict the future were discouraged; yet some attempted to suggest a date for the End with the help of Jewish traditions in the Six Ages of the World. Using this system, the End was fixed at 202, but when the date passed, the date was changed to AD 500.

Some current Christians place the end of the world within their lifetime or shortly thereafter. As evidence to support these ideas, many point to the prolific news coverage of tragedies around the world, sometimes "Biblical" in proportion, and offer interpretations of various passages from the Bible. Also, some Catholics believed that the third part of the Fatima message, which was to be disclosed by the Vatican in 1960 but finally was published under the pontificate of John Paul II, was a prophetic message from the Blessed Mother about the end times, but they now believe it to be a symbolic message closely related to the assassination attempt of the late Pope.

Millennialists concentrate on the issue of whether the true believers will see the tribulation or be removed from it by the Rapture, a question which causes division in evangelical circles. Amillennialists believe the end times encompass the time from Christ's ascension to the Last day, and maintain that the "thousand years" is metaphorical.

Current biblical scholarship, particularly form criticism, tends to view the apocalyptic language in the Bible as being addressed to events at the time of the authors of its various books. Revelation, for example, is interpreted as a polemic against Rome, and a deep theological expression about the futility of temporal power in the face of faith in God. Similar non-canonical works previously accepted as valid by the Christian Church, such as the Apocalypse of Peter present a variety of apocalyptic scenarios and may have originally been intended as spiritual allegories.

Such readings of scripture typically dismiss attempts to find apocalyptic prophecy or codes in the Book of Daniel, the so-called mini-apocalypse in Isaiah, and in Revelation. Scripture, in their estimation, does indeed have significance today but its historical and cultural basis cannot be ignored. If the texts were addressed to a disaster many millennia away, it makes little sense that the prophet speaking would have any audience at all. It is a great deal more likely that the prophet was addressing the situation of his people in that moment. Over time, essential truths continued to be spoken by the Scriptures, but their underlying purpose is seen, in this mode of exegesis, to have little to do with the end of creation and more to do with the failings of secular institutions and the emptiness of a life without faith.

Still other Christians anticipate that biblical prophecy will be fulfilled literally. They see current world and regional wars, earthquakes, hurricanes and famines as the beginning of the birth pains which Jesus described in Matthew 24:7–8and Mark 13:8.

Hinduism

Main article: Hindu eschatology

Hindu traditional prophecies, as described in the Puranas and several other texts, say that the world shall fall into chaos and degradation. There will then be a rapid influx of perversity, greed and conflict, and this state has been described as:

"Yada Yada Hi Dharmasya Glanirva Bhavathi Bharatha, Abhyuthanam Adharmaysya Tadatmanam Srijami Aham". Bhagavad Gita (Chapter IV-7)

"Whenever there is decay of righteousness O! Bharatha And a rise of unrighteousness then I manifest Myself!"

Thus whenever there is intolerable evil and chaos in the world, there is an appearance of an avatar. In the current yuga, known as the Kali (the most evil) yuga, "The Lord shall manifest Himself as the Kalki Avatar... He will establish righteousness upon the earth and the minds of the people will become as pure as crystal."

In Hinduism, there is no eternal damnation of souls. There is no end times as well. After this evil Kali yuga ends, the next yuga or epoch would be Satya yuga where everyone will be righteous, followed by Dwapara yuga, Treta yuga and then another Kali Yuga. Thus time is cyclical and the epochs keep repeating infinitely. However, the extent of tolerable evil and degradation in each epoch is different and therefore the threshold that is necessary for the manifestation of God's incarnation is different for each yuga. The current yuga is the most evil and so the threshold for the appearance of the avatar is so high that the world needs to degrade to the maximum levels.

The length of Kalpa is said to be different by various groups from 5,000 years according the Brahma Kumaris World Spiritual University to 4,320 million years in the terms of orthodox Hindus. The BKWSU is unique amongst Hindu cults in believing in a 5th age called the Confluence Age which correlates to the Christian concept of "End Times", a time of both destruction of the world and revelation of God. According to the BKWSU, humanity entered the End Times in approximately 1936 and the world will end in approximately 2036; although there was a failed prediction of the end of the world in 1976.

Islam

Main article: Islamic eschatology

Islamic eschatology is concerned with the Qiyamah (end of the world; Last Judgment) and the final judgment of humanity. Eschatology is one of the three main principles of Islam, alongside tawhid (the unity of Allah) and nubuuwa (prophecy). Like the other Abrahamic religions, Islam teaches the bodily resurrection of the dead, the fulfillment of a divine plan for creation, and the immortality of the human soul; the righteous are rewarded with the pleasures of Jannah (Heaven), while the unrighteous are punished in Jahannam (Hell). A significant fraction of the Quran deals with these beliefs, with many hadith elaborating on the themes and details. Islamic apocalyptic literature describing the Armageddon is often known as fitna (a test) and malahim (or ghayba in the shi'ite tradition).

Judaism

Main article: Jewish eschatology

In Judaism, the end of the world is called the Acharit hayamim ("End of days"). Tumultuous events will overturn the old world order, creating a new order in which God is universally recognized as the ruler over everyone and everything. One of the sages of the Talmud says, "Let the end of days come, but may I not live to see them", because they will be filled with so much conflict and suffering.

The Talmud, in the tractate Avodah Zarah, page 9A, states that this world as we know it will only exist for six thousand years. The Jewish calendar (luach) functions completely on the assumption that time begins at the Creation of the world by God in Genesis. Many people (notably Conservative and Reform Jews and some Christians) think that the years of the Torah, or Jewish Bible, are symbolic. According to the ancient Jewish teachings continued by today's Orthodox Jews, the years are literal and consistent throughout all time, with 24 hours per day and an average of 365 days per year. Appropriate calibrations are, of course, done with leap years, to account for the difference between the lunar calendar and the solar calendar, since the Jewish calendar is based on both. Thus the year 2006 equals 5766 years since creation on the present Jewish calendar. According to this calculation, the end of days will occur at or before the year 2240.

According to Jewish tradition, those living during the end times will see:

  1. Ingathering of the scattered Jewish exiles to geographic Israel,
  2. Defeat of all of Israel's enemies,
  3. Building (or divine placement) of the third Jewish Temple in Jerusalem and the resumption of the sacrificial offerings and Temple service,
  4. Revival of the Dead (techiat hameitim), or the Resurrection,
  5. At some point, the Jewish Messiah will become the anointed King of Israel. He will divide the Jews in Israel into their original tribal portions in the land. During this time, Gog, king of Magog, will attack Israel. Who Gog and the Magog ALSO KNOWN AS RUSSIA Magog will fight a great battle, in which many will die on both sides, but God will intervene and save the Jews. This is the battle referred to as Armageddon. God, having vanquished this final enemy once and for all, will accordingly banish all evil from human existence. After the year 6000 (in the Jewish calendar), the seventh millennium will be an era of holiness, tranquility, spiritual life, and worldwide peace, called the Olam Haba ("Future World"), where all people will know God directly."

"All Israel have a portion in the world to come." (Talmud Sanhedrin 10:1) The Ramban (Nachmanades) interprets the world to come as the ultimate good and purpose of creation. He therefore holds that the world to come actually refers to the resurrection of the dead. An event that will occur after the messianic age has already begun. The Ramban holds that all Israel, even the sinners, have a portion in this epoch of resurrection. (The Tzemach Tzedek, Derech Mitzvosecha, Law of Tzitzis).

Mormonism

Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints believe that at the beginning of the Millennial Era, Jesus Christ the Lord will appear in his Second Coming at what is now Jackson County, MO[citation needed] and usher in a thousand year era of peace called the Millennium, when Satan will be bound. The wicked will be removed from the earth and the righteous will be caught up in a cloud while the earth is cleansed. Every man or woman to ever live on the Earth, will be resurrected (for those who are dead at the time of the second coming), or transformed into a state of immortality (for those who are living at the second coming).

Afterwards, the Last Judgment will occur, in which all beings will be placed into one of three heavenly kingdoms; the Celestial Kingdom, Terrestrial Kingdom, and Telestial Kingdom. In the Doctrine and Covenants, Joseph Smith Jr., translator of the Book of Mormon and first prophet, leader, and seer of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, puts the kingdoms into levels of glory; sun, the moon, and the stars. The sun being the brightest, is relative to the glory of the celestial kingdom, which is for those who obey the commandments, live righteously, become baptized. The moon, being the second brightest, is relative to the terrestrial kingdom, which is for those who are righteous in a sense, but do not constantly obey the commandments and/or are not baptized. The stars, being the least brightest, are relative to the telestial kingdom, which is for those who are not righteous, meaning they constantly do not obey the commandments and are not baptized. A very small group of people who reject Jesus Christ after receiving full and indisputable knowledge of his divinity, will go to what is called Outer darkness, which is where Satan will eventually be sent with his hosts of angels.

While the exact time of Christ's return is not known, certain signs are accepted as pointing to his return:

  • The mountain of the Lord’s house shall be established in the top of the mountains, Isa. 2: 2-3.
  • The Lord shall lift an ensign and gather Israel, Isa. 5: 26 (2 Ne. 15: 26-30).
  • The sun shall be darkened and the moon shall not cause her light to shine, Isa. 13: 10 (Joel 3: 15; D&C 29: 14).
  • Men shall transgress the law and break the everlasting covenant, Isa. 24: 5.
  • The Nephites (ancient fallen people of the Americas, descended from Joseph of Egypt) shall speak as a voice from the dust, Isa. 29: 4 (2 Ne. 27).
  • Israel shall be gathered with power, Isa. 49: 22-23 (1 Ne. 21: 22-23; 3 Ne. 20-21).
  • God shall set up a kingdom which shall not be destroyed, Dan. 2: 44 (D&C 65: 2).
  • War, dreams, and visions shall precede the Second Coming, Joel 2.
  • All nations will gather against Jerusalem to battle, Zech. 14: 2 (Ezek. 38-39).
  • The day cometh that shall burn as an oven, Mal. 4: 1 (3 Ne. 25: 1; D&C 133: 64; JS-H 1: 37).
  • Great calamities shall precede the Second Coming, Matt. 24 (JS-M 1).
  • Paul described apostasy and perilous times of the last days, 2 Tim. 3-4.
  • Two prophets will be slain and resurrected in Jerusalem, Rev. 11 (D&C 77: 15).
  • The gospel shall be restored in the last days by angelic ministry, Rev. 14: 6-7 (D&C 13; 27; 110: 11-16; 128: 8-24).
  • Babylon will be established and fall, Rev. 17-18.
  • Israel shall be gathered with power, 1 Ne. 21: 13-26 (Isa. 49: 13-26; 3 Ne. 20-21).
  • The Book of Mormon shall come forth by the power of God, Morm. 8.
  • Lamanites (American Indians) to blossom, D&C 49: 24-25.
  • The wicked to slay the wicked, D&C 63: 32-35 (Rev. 9).
  • War will be poured out upon all nations, D&C 87: 2.
  • Signs, upheavals of the elements, and angels prepare the way for the coming of the Lord, D&C 88: 86-94.
  • Darkness to cover the earth, D&C 112: 23-24.

American Indian

Several American Indian tribes have similar beliefs concerning the end times.

Hopi

Tribal leaders of the Hopi tribe, such as Dan Evehema, Thomas Banyaca and Martin Gashwaseoma, prophesize that the coming of the white man signals the end times, along with a strange beast "like a buffalo but with great horns that would overrun the land". It is prophesied that during the end times, the earth would be crossed by iron snakes and stone rivers; the land would be criss-crossed by a giant spider's web, and seas will turn black. (A common speculative interpretation is to equal "iron snakes" with trains, "rock rivers" with highways and the giant spiders web with powerlines.)

It is also prophesied that a "great dwelling place" in the heavens shall fall with a great crash. It will appear as a blue star, and the earth will rock to and fro. White men would then battle people in other lands, with those who possess wisdom of their presence. There would then be smoke in the deserts, and the signs that great destruction is near.

Many would then die, but those who understand the prophecies shall live in the places of the Hopi people and be safe. The Pahana or "True White Brother" would then return to plant the seeds of wisdom in people's hearts, and thus usher in the dawn of the Fifth World.

Lakota

According to an Oglala Lakota medicine man - "darkness would descend over the tribe...the world would be out of balance. Floods, fires and earthquakes would then ensue."

A "White Buffalo Calf Woman" will then purify the world. She will then bring back harmony and spiritual balance.

White bisons have been born in 1994, in 1995 and in 2006 at a farm in Janesville, Wisconsin. Many tribal leaders thus feel that the prophecy is being fulfilled.[citation needed]

Maya

Main article: Maya calendar § 2012

The ancient and many modern Maya groups believe that the universe has been renewed four previous times. The first attempt at human life produced animals instead; the second produced a people made of clay who would eventually become certain insects (such as ants and bees); the third attempt produced monkeys; and the fourth attempt produced us: "true humans." Each prior attempt at the human creation was destroyed by a different catastrophe which ended the universe. These stories vary by Maya group: the animals were nearly destroyed by a flood, the people of clay were nearly destroyed by a flood and then a global firestorm, the monkey-people were attacked by their own belongings and their animals.

The astronomically-based Mayan calendar will be completing its first great cycle of approximately 5,200 years on the 21st December, 2012. Although there is no substantial evidence that the ancient Maya considered the date significant, many people have postulated that this is the "end of the Universe" from the Mayan perspective, and others believe that the Mayans meant this to symbolize the "coming of a great change."

Norse mythology

Main article: Ragnarok

In Norse mythology a strong winter called the Fimbulwinter will seize the earth and bring disorder and fighting between the people of Midgard just before Ragnarok. Ragnarok ("fate of the gods") is the battle during the end of the world waged between the gods (the Æsir, the Vanir and the Einherjar, led by Odin) and the forces of Chaos (the fire giants, the Jotuns and various monsters, led by Loki). Not only will the gods, giants, and monsters perish in this apocalyptic conflagration, but almost everything in the universe will be torn asunder. Only the gods Váli and Vidar will survive to rule over a new world.

Zoroastrianism

Main article: Zoroastrian eschatology

Zoroastrianism eschatology is the oldest eschatology in recorded history. By 500 BC, Zoroastrians had fully developed a concept of the end of the world through a divine devouring in fire.

According to Zoroastrian philosophy, redacted in the Zand-i Vohuman Yasht, "at the end of thy tenth hundredth winter...the sun is more unseen and more spotted; the year, month, and day are shorter; and the earth is more barren; and the crop will not yield the seed; and men ... become more deceitful and more given to vile practices. They have no gratitude."

At the end of the Battle between the righteous and wicked, a Final Judgment of all souls will commence. Sinners will be punished 3 days, but are then forgiven. The world will reach perfection as poverty, old age, disease, thirst, hunger, and death are halted. Zoroastrian concepts parallel greatly with those of Jewish, Christian, and Islamic eschatological beliefs largely due to the influence Zoroastrianism exerted on Judaism whilst the Levant was under Achaemenid control and the subsequent emergence of Christianity and Islam from Judaism.

Prophetic movements

Russell also drew from the teachings of Miller, that he learned from Barbour and formed the Watchtower Society (Jehovah's Witnesses). He taught that Christ's invisible presence began in 1874, that the Anointed were to be taken to heaven in 1881 and the end would occur in 1914. Though this proved wrong some of his followers remained, and the next leader predicted the resurrection to start on earth in 1925. This too did not eventuate, and in 1943 the dates were significantly changed, with 1874 being discarded and 1914 becoming the start of Christ's presence. The end of the world was to occur whilst some of those born prior to 1914 were still alive. In 1995 this teaching was changed, with the end of the world to be some time in the not too distant future. (For specific Watchtower quotes see http://jwfacts.com/index_files/1800s.htm)

Other religions

Ancient Greek myth claimed that, as Zeus had done to his father Chronus, Zues would too be overthrown by a son. This can be seen as the equivalent to the end of the world, or the end of an age. Prometheus revealed to him that this son would be born from Zeus and Thetis, if they copulated. In order to prevent this from happening, Zeus married Thetis to Peleus, a weak mortal. This union still produced Achilles, the protagonist of the Illiad and one of the greatest heros of Greek myth.

Philosophy

Eschatology has also been a belief shared, sometimes theorized, by philosophers. Saint Augustine has been one of the most famous eschatological thinkers, followed by Hegel's philosophy of history, and, some have argued Marxists – as a secular religion. Theodicy has gathered together most Enlightenment thinkers, among whom are Kant and Rousseau.

More recently, many involved in futures studies and transhumanism note the accelerating rate of scientific progress and anticipate a technological singularity in the 21st century that would profoundly and unpredictably change the course of human history.

Notes

  1. ^ Achtemeier, P. J., Harper & Row, P., & Society of Biblical Literature, Harper's Bible Dictionary, San Francisco: HarperCollins Publishers, 1985, ISBN 0-06-065673-5, s.v. "eschatology"

See also

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