Amaranthus brownii

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Amaranthus brownii
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Core eudicots
Order:
Caryophyllales
Family:
Amaranthaceae
Genus:
Amaranthus
Species:
A. brownii
Binomial name
Amaranthus brownii

Amaranthus brownii is an annual herb in the Amaranthaceae family. It is one of nine species of Amaranthus in the Hawaiian Islands, but the only endemic Hawaiian species of the genus. The plant was first discovered during the Tanager Expedition in 1923 by botanist Edward Leonard Caum while exploring Nihoa, a small island in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. A. brownii is endemic to the island of Nihoa and is found nowhere else.

The plant is one of 26 vascular plants on Nihoa, 17 of which are indigenous, six alien, and three endemic only to Nihoa, including A. brownii, the Nihoa Fan Palm or loulu (Pritchardia remota), and the Nihoa Carnation (Schiedea verticillata). A. brownii differs from other Hawaiian species of Amaranthus with its spineless leaf axils, linear leaves, and indehiscent fruits.

Conservation and recovery plans for A. brownii have been proposed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. The plant was listed as an endangered species in 1996 and classified as critically endangered on the IUCN Red List in 2003. A. brownii is considered the rarest plant on Nihoa,[1] and has not been directly observed on the island since 1983.[2] Past expeditions collected seeds, but no specimens have managed to survive ex-situ conservation efforts outside of its native habitat. As a result, there are currently no known plants or seeds from A. brownii in any botanical gardens.

Description

A. brownii is an herbaceous annual plant that grows from 30–90 cm (0.98–2.95 ft) in height and has narrow, linear leaves, small green flowers, and fruit that holds a single, dark red seed. It is monoecious and the male and female flowers are found together on the same plant.[2] There are at least nine recorded species of Hawaiian Amaranthus, but A. brownii is the only native species in the islands.[3][a] A. brownii differs from other Hawaiian species of Amaranthus with its spineless leaf axils, linear leaves, and indehiscent fruits (fruit which does not open to release seeds when ripe).[2] The fruits are ovoid and between 0.8–1 mm long and 0.6-0.8 mm wide.[4]

The species was first collected on Nihoa by botanist Edward Leonard Caum on June 17, 1923, during a ten-day visit to the island by the Tanager Expedition.[5] It was named after botanist Forest B. H. Brown[b] in 1931 by fellow botanists Erling Christophersen and Edward Leonard Caum.[6] As of August 2007, the Fish and Wildlife Service does not recognize a common name.[7]

Distribution and habitat

A. brownii has a very limited range; it is found only on the 0.65 km2 (0.25 sq mi) island of Nihoa, located 275 km (171 mi) northwest of Kauai. It is thought that this endemic plant has probably always been rare and restricted to the island of Nihoa.[8] Its habitat is protected as part of the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge in the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, and it is managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service.[9] A. brownii grows during the moist, winter season from December through July in Nihoa's coastal dry shrubland habitat.[10] The plant can be found in shallow soil on rocky outcrops in exposed areas between 120 and 215 m (394 and 705 ft).[2] The plant is one of three endemic and endangered species only found on Nihoa, along with the Nihoa Fan Palm (Pritchardia remota) and the Nihoa Carnation (Schiedea verticillata).[10][11] At least nine other native plant species can be found in its habitat, including Hawaiian Goosefoot (Chenopodium oahuense), lovegrass (Eragrostis variablis), koali ʻawa (Ipomoea indica), Goat's foot (Ipomoea pes-caprae ssp. brasiliensis), Panicum torridum, naupakas (Scaevola sericea), Sicyos pachycarpus, ʻilima (Sida fallax), and Nelson's Horsenettle (Solanum nelsonii).[2]

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument

At the time of its discovery in 1923, botanists first observed the plant growing in great quantity on the ridges towards Miller Peak and on eastern ridges of the island.[c] Expeditions in the early and mid-1960s failed to identify any specimens, but in 1969, ethnobotanist Douglas E. Yen of the Bishop Museum collected specimens near Miller Peak.[12] C. Christensen visited Nihoa in 1980 to reevaluate endemic species last observed on the Tanager Expedition.[13] Sheila Conant and Mark S. Collins also visited Nihoa in 1980, and Conant returned twice in 1981, first with Mark J. Rauzon and later with Audrey L. Newman. In 1983, Conant visited the island with Wayne C. Gagné. Conant found A. brownii growing on the island in 1981 and 1983, by which time only two populations of 35 plants were thought to exist:[1] 23 plants were found near Miller Peak and 12 plants in Middle Valley. The two plant populations are separated by a distance of approximately 0.4 km (0.25 mi).[9]

Aerial view of Nihoa. In 1983, W. Gagné recorded 12 plants living on the island.[4]

Prehistoric Polynesian habitation on Nihoa[d] may have initially led to a decrease in the plant population of A. brownii.[14] Currently, major threats include invasive species, fire, and hybridization with other Amaranthus species.[9] Inbreeding is a serious threat, as the small plant population is forced to reproduce within its own circle resulting in genetic defects.[3] A. brownii is also forced to compete with non-native pigweed (Portulaca oleracea), the plant's main alien species threat.[2] In 2002 and 2004, the invasive gray bird grasshopper (Schistocerca nitens), presented an even larger threat to A. brownii. Although it was first recorded on the island in 1977,[15] the increasing population density of S. nitens resulted in massive defoliation of Nihoa's vegetation, leaving A. brownii at greater risk of predation;[7] In 2004 alone, an estimated 400,000 gray bird grasshoppers destroyed almost 90% of the vegetation on Nihoa.[15][e]

Conservation

Wildlife refuge staff visited Nihoa during the dry season at least 21 times between 1983-1996.[7] In more than a decade of field surveys, no living plants were identified. Because winter surveys of Nihoa tend to be difficult and dangerous due to poor landing conditions,[2] surveys were not conducted during the moist, winter growing season from December through March when the plant is easiest to find.[3] Most of the surveys have been completed during the summer months, when the stems of A. brownii dry up and cannot be distinguished from other herbaceous plants.[7] As a result, additional winter surveys of A. brownii on Nihoa are required to accurately assess its current conservation status.[3] A seven day visit to the island in April 2006 still did not find any specimens but botanists are optimistic that the species has survived.[7]

Plant populations were found on Miller's Ridge and on the west ridge of Middle Valley[1]

Ex-situ conservation efforts to propagate A. brownii by seed in botanical gardens have been unsuccessful.[3] During the 1981 expedition, A. bronwii seeds were collected by Sheila Conant and presented to the Waimea Arboretum on the Hawaiian island of Oahu and the Kew Gardens in London, England. Although the seeds at the Waimea Arboretum germinated and grew for a while, no plants survived beyond the stage of seedling development. Information about the outcome of the seeds sent to Kew Gardens is unavailable.[1]

A. brownii was originally proposed for listing under the Endangered Species Act on June 16, 1976, but was withdrawn on December 10, 1979 as out of date and incomplete.[16] It was proposed again on March 24, 1993,[16] and was federally listed as an endangered species on August 21, 1996.[6] In 2003, A. brownii was internationally classified as critically endangered on the IUCN Red List.[17] On May 22, 2003, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service designated 171 acres (69 hectares) on the island of Nihoa as an critical habitat for A. brownii, as well as Pritchardia remota, Schiedea verticillata, and two other species also found on Nihoa and other Hawaiian islands, Sesbania tomentosa (ʻohai) and Mariscus pennatiformis.[2]

See also

Notes

a. ^ Wagner and Herbst list five naturalized species of Amaranthus in Hawaii in addition to the endemic A. brownii. The authors note that the information may be both inaccurate and incomplete due to errors caused by a lost collection and lack of data.[4] A. graecizans, A. retroflexus, and a third unknown species (possibly extinct or reclassified) have been proposed as additional naturalized candidates.

Genus Species Common name Status Range
Amaranthus A. brownii none Critically Endangered Nihoa (end)
A. dubius Spleen amaranth n/a Kauai, Oahu, Lanai, Hawaii
A. hybridus Green amaranth n/a Oahu, Maui
A. lividus Purple amaranth n/a Kauai, Oahu, Maui, Hawaii
A. spinosus Spiny amaranth (pakai kuku) n/a Kure Atoll, Kauai, Oahu, Maui, Hawaii
A. viridis Slender amaranth (pakai, ʻaheahea, pakaikai, pakapakai) n/a Kure Atoll, Kaʻula, Kauai, Oahu, Lanai, Maui, Kahoolawe, Hawaii

A. brownii is one of 12 endemic flowering plant species in the Amaranthaceae family found in the Hawaiian Islands:[18]

Genus Species Common name Status Range
Achyranthes A. atollensis Hawaiʻi chaff flower Extinct Kure Atoll, Midway Atoll, Pearl and Hermes Atoll, Laysan (ex.)
A. mutica Blunt chaff flower Critically Endangered Kauai (ex.), Hawaii (island)
A. splendens Maui chaff flower Vulnerable Oahu, Molokai (ex.), Lanai, Maui
Amaranthus A. brownii Critically Endangered Nihoa
Charpentiera C. densiflora Pāpala Critically Endangered Kauai, Maui
C. elliptica Kauai
C. obovata Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Maui, Hawaii (island)
C. ovata Oahu, Molokai, Maui, Hawaii (island)
C. tomentosa Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Maui, Hawaii (island)
Nototrichium N. divaricatum Na Pali rockwort (kuluʻi) Kauai
N. humile Endangered Oahu, East Maui
N. sandwicense All eight southeastern Hawaiian Islands

b. ^ Brown was botanist of the Bayard Dominick Expedition to the Marquesas Islands (1921-1922).[19]

c. ^ Another specimen was collected by C. S. Judd: Nihoa: fl, fr, June 20, 1923, C. S. Judd No. 2[5]

d. ^ According to Mark J. Rauzon, anthropologist Kenneth Emory, a member of the Tanager Expedition, identified 66 archaeological sites on the island of Nihoa, and to date 86 sites have been found. Emory estimated that 7.7 percent of the island (12 out of 156 acres) was used for terraced, dry-land crop production, and along with fish and seafowl, Emory believed 100 people (or more) could have survived on a long-term basis. However, questions about good potable water sources and the fact that only six skeletons have been found cast doubt on this figure.[20]

e. ^ Compare the destruction of vegetation on Nihoa in 2004 to that of Laysan island. In 1894, Max Schlemmer introduced rabbits to Laysan. Eventually, the rabbit problem and bird poaching led U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt to declare the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands a bird sanctuary in 1909. By 1918, 26 plant species had disappeared from the island and the Laysan Millerbird had become extinct. The Tanager Expedition arrived in 1923 and exterminated the last of the surviving rabbits.[21]

References

  1. ^ a b c d Conant, Sheila (1985). "Recent Observations on the Plants of Nihoa Island, Northwestern Hawaiian Islands" (PDF). Pacific Science. 39 (2). University of Hawaii Press: 135–149. Retrieved 2008-07-22.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h United States Fish and Wildlife Service (May 22, 2003). "Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Designation of Critical Habitat for Five Plant Species From the Northwestern Hawawiian Islands, Hawaii" (PDF). Federal Register. 68 (99). United States Government Printing Office: 28053–28075. Retrieved 2009-05-31.
  3. ^ a b c d e Evenhuis, Neal L. (ed.) (2004). Natural History of Nihoa and Necker Islands. Bishop Museum Bulletin in Cultural and Environmental Studies; No. 1. Honolulu, Hawaii: Bishop Museum Press. pp. 56–57. ISBN 1-58178-029-X. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  4. ^ a b c Wagner, W.L. (1999). Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaiʻi. Vol. I (Revised ed.). Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press. pp. 185–189. ISBN 0824821661. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  5. ^ a b Christophersen, Erling (1931-07-01). Vascular plants of the Leeward Islands, Hawaii. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin No. 81; Tanager Expedition Publication No. 7. Honolulu, Hawaii: Bishop Museum Press. pp. 25–26. Nihoa: fl, fr, June 17, 1923, E. L. Caum No. 73. Type, B. P. Biship Mus. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  6. ^ a b United States Fish and Wildlife Service (1996-08-21). "Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Determination of Endangered Status for Three Plants from the Island of Nihoa, Hawaii". Federal Register. 61 (163). United States Government Printing Office: 43178–43184. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  7. ^ a b c d e Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office (2007). "Amaranthus brownii (No common name); 5-Year Review; Summary and Evaluation" (PDF). United States Fish and Wildlife Service. Retrieved 2010-01-10. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  8. ^ United States Fish and Wildlife Service (1998-03-31). "Final Recovery Plan for Three Plant Species on Nihoa Island" (PDF). Final. United States Fish and Wildlife Service: 10547–10550. Retrieved 2010-01-09. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  9. ^ a b c "Amaranthus brownii fact sheet" (PDF). Hawaii's Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy. Hawai'i Department of Land and Natural Resources. October 1, 2005. Retrieved 2008-03-31.
  10. ^ a b U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (March 1998). "Final Recovery Plan for Three Plant Species on Nihoa Island" (PDF). Portland, OR: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  11. ^ Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office (2008). "Recovery Plan for Three Plant Species on Nihoa Island". Endangered Species in the Pacific Islands. United States Fish and Wildlife Service. Retrieved 2008-09-05.
  12. ^ Clapp, Roger B. (1977). "The Natural History of Nihoa Island, Northwestern Hawaiian Islands" (PDF). Atoll Research Bulletin (207). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2008-12-07. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  13. ^ Conant, Sheila (1994). "The Unique Terrestrial Biota of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands". In E. Alison Kay (ed.). A Natural History of the Hawaiian Islands: Selected Readings II. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. pp. 378–390. ISBN 978-0-8248-1659-9. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  14. ^ Beacham, Walton (2000). Beacham's Guide to the Endangered Species of North America. Arachnids and Crustaceans, Insects, Lichens, Fern Allies, True Ferns, Conifers, Dicots. Vol. Vol. 3. Detroit: Gale Group. pp. 1641–1642. ISBN 0787650285. {{cite book}}: |volume= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  15. ^ a b Lockwood, J.A. (July–September 2008). "Confessions of a Hit Man". Conservation Magazine. 9 (3). Seattle, WA: Society for Conservation Biology. Retrieved 2009-05-29. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date format (link) See also: Latchininsky, Alexandre V. (2008). "Grasshopper Outbreak Challenges Conservation Status of a Small Hawaiian Island". Journal of Insect Conservation. 12 (3–4). Springer Netherlands: 343–357. doi:10.1007/s10841-008-9143-8. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  16. ^ a b NatureServe (2009). "Comprehensive Report Species - Amaranthus brownii. NatureServe Explorer: An online encyclopedia of life". Arlington, Virginia: NatureServe. Retrieved 2010-01-10.
  17. ^ Bruegmann, M.M. (2003). "Amaranthus brownii". 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Retrieved 2008-04-03. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  18. ^ Lilleeng-Rosenberger, Kerin E (2005). Growing Hawaii's Native Plants: A Simple Step-by-Step Approach for Every Species. Mutual Publishing. ISBN 1566477166.Carr, Gerald. "Hawaiian Native Plant Genera". Hawaiian Native Plant Propagation Database. University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa. Retrieved 2009-05-12.
  19. ^ Sherff, E. E. (Mar., 1932). "Review: Monocotyledons of Southeastern Polynesia". Botanical Gazette. 93 (1). University of Chicago Press: 107–108. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  20. ^ Rauzon, Mark J. (2001). Isles of Refuge: Wildlife and History of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. University of Hawaii Press. p. 12. ISBN 0824823303.
  21. ^ Unger, Tom E. (2004). "The Tanager Expedition". Max Schlemmer, Hawaii's King of Laysan Island. iUniverse. ISBN 9780595299881.

Further reading

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