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Cleavage
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Latin	sulcus intermammarius
TA98	A16.0.02.002
	Anatomical terminology [edit on Wikidata]

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Cleavage (intermammary cleft, intermammary sulcus or sulcus intermammarius) is the space between a woman's breasts, lying over the sternum. Display of cleavage is often considered aesthetic or erotic, and is often associated with garments with low necklines that expose or highlight cleavage, such as ball gowns, evening gowns, lingerie, and swimwear.

Anatomy

Deltoid muscle

Pectoralis major

Anterior auxiliary fold

Superficial anatomy of human female breast

Intermammary cleft or intermammary sulcus is delineated by where the fatty portions of each breast sits in relationship to the sternum, or breastbone.^[1] It divides the two mammary complexes that consist of two bodies of fatty pads, glandular tissues of mammary glands, connective tissues, and skin, as well as two duct systems (lactiferous duct of lymphatic vessel) and lobule alveoli emanating from two nipples.^[2]^[3] Lymph vessels can ventrally extend as far as the intermammary sulcus.^[4]

The International Federation of Associations of Anatomists (IFAA) uses the terms "intermammary sulcus" or "intermammary cleft" when referring to the area of cleavage between the breasts not including the breasts. For legal purposes it was noted by the United States federal courts that "anal cleft or cleavage" and "cleavage of the female breast" are so imprecise as to provide no guidance in defining them.^[5] Medically, the "width" of a woman's cleavage is determined by the attachment points of her breast tissue to the periosteal tissue covering her breast bone. and is also defined somewhat by the medial attachments of the pectoralis major muscle when implants are in the sub-muscular position.^[6]

Plastic surgeon Alan Matarasso said, "Ergonomically speaking, cleavage equals the position of the breasts on the chest wall."^[7] The skin of the cleavage area is frailer than the skin of the face as it has fewer oil glands, and may show loss of elasticity sooner.^[7] Rabbi Aha b. Raba (circa 5th century) and Nathan the Babylonian (circa 2nd century) measured the appropriate size of the cleavage as "of one hand-breadth between a woman's breasts".^[8]

Culture

Many people in Western culture, both male and female, consider breasts an important female secondary sex characteristic^[9] and an important aspect of femininity and many women use décolletage that exposes cleavage as part of their physical and sexual attractiveness and to improve their sense of femininity. Display of cleavage with a low neckline is often regarded as a form of feminine flirting or seduction, as much as for its aesthetic or erotic effect. Most men derive erotic pleasure from seeing a woman's cleavage,^[10] and some people derive pleasure in their female partner exposing cleavage. When cleavage is enhanced with a push-up bra or exposed by a low neckline it draws considerable attention.^[1]^[11] During adolescence, some girls become obsessed with breast shape and cleavage.^[12] In South Africa, Wonderbra sponsors a National Cleavage Day during which women are encouraged to display their cleavage.^[13] The use of tight clothing and the display of cleavage has been attributed as causes of an increase in breast fetishism, and atypical paraphilia.^[14]

In Western and some other societies, there are differences of opinion as to how much cleavage exposure is acceptable in public.^[15] In contemporary Western society, the extent to which a woman may expose her breasts depends on social and cultural context. Displaying cleavage or any part of female breast may be considered inappropriate or even prohibited by dress codes in some settings, such as workplaces, churches, and schools, while in some spaces showing as much cleavage as possible can be permissible or even encouraged. The exposure of nipples or areolae is almost always considered immodest and in some instances is viewed as lewd or indecent behavior.^[16] Art historian James Laver argued that the changing standards of revealing cleavage is more prominent in evening wear than in day wear in the Western world.^[17]

Term	Image	Description
Décolletage	noborder	Décolletage is the upper part of a woman's torso, between her waist and neck, comprising her neck, shoulders, back and chest, that is exposed by the neckline of her clothing. However, the term is most commonly applied to a neckline that reveals or emphasizes cleavage.^[18] In strict usage, décolletage is the neckline extending about two handbreadths from the base of the neck down, front and back.^[19]
Side cleavage	noborder	When the lateral aspects of the breasts are uncovered, it is known as side cleavage, sidewinders or sideboob.^[20]^[21] In early 2010s side cleavage was identified as a fashion trend. Gabriele Hackworthy, fashion director at Harper's Bazaar, said, "The look is unlikely to fade fast, with Yves Saint Laurent and Roberto Cavalli both pushing the silhouette next season."^[22]^[23]
Bottom cleavage	noborder	Exposure of the underside of the breast, such as below an extremely short crop top, is known as neathage (a blend of underneath and cleavage), Australian cleavage, bottom cleavage (also used to mean "buttock cleavage"), reverse cleavage or underboob.^[20]^[21] Armand Limnander wrote in The New York Times (2008) that it was "a newly fetishized anatomical zone where the lower part of the breast meets the torso, popularized by 80s rock chicks in cutoff tank tops; recently rediscovered by girls-gone-wild devotees".^[24]
Downblouse	noborder	Downblouse is a form of voyeurism or fetishism involving looking down a woman's dress or top to observe her cleavage or breasts.^[25] With the advent of camera phones, covert photography of cleavage became popular with some websites becoming dedicated to such photos.^[26]^[27]

Theories

The cleavage area between the breasts is perhaps the epicentre and stimulation of interest. Breast and buttock cleavages, sharing a similarity between their appearances, are considered to be very sexual.^[28] British zoologist and ethologist Desmond Morris theorizes that cleavage is a sexual signal that imitates the image of the cleft between the buttocks.^[29] Swelling of the anterior is a sign of mating-readiness in ape species. Among humans the female genitalia is regressed and the upright posture reduces visibility of the buttocks, but the breasts are significantly enlarged. Theorists hypothesize that with these evolutionary change measure of mating-readiness and attractiveness in females has shifted from swagging buttocks to the pendulous shape of breasts and cleavage.^[30] The same evolutionary trait explains the attractiveness of other pendulous shapes (i.e. ear lobes) and other cleavages (i.e. toe cleavage).^[31]

Evolutionary psychologists theorize that humans' permanently enlarged breasts, in contrast to other primates' breasts, which only enlarge during ovulation, allowed females to "solicit male attention and investment even when they are not really fertile",^[32] though Morris notes that in recent years there has been a trend toward reversing breast augmentations.^[33]^[34] According to social historian David Kunzle, waist confinement and décolletage are the primary sexualization devices of Western costume.^[35] By the turn of the 21st century, some of the attention given to cleavage and breasts started to shift to buttocks, especially in the media.^[36]^[37]

Detractors

Many cultures do not regard display of cleavage to be a noteworthy practice, with toplessness being the norm in some culture, while in others total coverage is expected

The fascination with female breasts and cleavage is widespread but not universal to all people. When breasts begin to grow, some girls try to resist the change by binding down their breasts or wearing loose clothes that disguise them.^[12] Gymnophobics, may feel uncomfortable with the sight of a woman's cleavage or object to low-cut clothing for modesty or other reasons. Journalist Carolyn Latteier commented in Berman & Berman's TV program All about breasts, "I interviewed a young anthropologist working with women in Mali, a country in Africa where women go around with bare breasts. They're always feeding their babies. And when she told them that in our culture men are fascinated with breasts there was an instant of shock. The women burst out laughing. They laughed so hard, they fell on the floor. They said, 'You mean, men act like babies?'"^[38]

There is also historical evidence that some cultures strongly discouraged cleavage or any hint of it.^[39] Early English Puritans used a tight bodice to flatten breasts completely, while 17th century Spaniards put lead plates across the chests of young girls to prevent their bosoms from developing.^[39] In the Quran, the holy book of Islam, it is explicitly stated, "Let them draw their Khimar (shawl/head veil) over their juyub (breast-line/cleavage)".^[40] The ayat refers to the women's clothes worn, parted in the front to expose the breasts, at the time when it was cited.^[41]^[42]^[43]^[44] It was later interpreted as total covering of a woman's body.^[42]^[45]^[46] In early 21st century Muslim world there are differences in legal implementation. In Saudi Arabia and Afghanistan, women are required to cover their body and face completely,^[47] Iranian law requires a chador (over-cloak) or a hijab (head scarf).^[48] In Egypt, the exposure cleavage in the media is considered to be nudity.^[49]

History

Antiquity

In 2600 BCE, princess Nofret of the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt was depicted in a V-neck grown with a plunging neckline that exposed ample cleavage. In 1600 BCE, Snake Goddess figurines were sculpted in Minos with open dress-fronts, revealing entire breasts.^[50] In the earliest times there was no consideration for supporting the breasts to enhance cleavage. A bra prototype started emerging in Ancient Greece in around 2500 BCE.^[51] Ancient Greek goddess Hera wore an early version of a push-up bra, described in the Iliad as festooned with "brooches of gold" and "a hundred tassels", to increase her cleavage to divert Zeus from the Trojan War.^[7]

Age of acceptability

Frans Hals. Gypsy Girl. 1628-30. Oil on wood, 58 x 52 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris

François Boucher. Young Woman with Flowers in Her Hair. circa 1734. Oil on canvas, 56.8 × 46 cm. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

In Europe during the Middle Ages, when women wore shapeless clothing, art frequently portrayed women with one or more of their breasts exposed to signify fertility rather than sexuality.^[52] Décolletage was often a feature of the dress of the late Middle Ages. This continued through the Victorian period. Gowns that exposed a woman's neck and top of her chest were very common and uncontroversial in Europe from at least the 11th century until the Victorian period in the 19th century. Ball or evening gowns especially featured low square décolletage designed to display and emphasize cleavage.^[53]^[54]

In the 14th century, necklines were lowered, clothes were tightened and breasts were once again flaunted. It was during the Renaissance period that the corset was born. Breasts were pushed up, pushed together and molded into firm protruding decorations that emphasized breasts to the maximum.^[52] In 1450, Agnès Sorel, mistress to Charles VII of France, is credited with starting a fashion when she wore deep low square décolleté gowns with fully bared breasts in the French court.^[55] Other aristocratic women of the time who were painted with breasts exposed included Simonetta Vespucci, whose portrait with exposed breasts was painted by Piero di Cosimo in c.1480. The Ottoman Empire decreed that "all gowns should open at the neck to allow robing and disrobing", and a trype of fashion police was engaged to apprehend and fine designers and tailors who failed to make such gowns.^[51]

In many European societies between the Renaissance and the 19th century, wearing low-cut dresses that exposed breasts was more acceptable than today; with a woman's bared legs, ankles, or shoulders being considered to be more risqué than exposed breasts.^[56] In aristocratic and upper-class circles the display of breasts was at times regarded as a status symbol, as a sign of beauty, wealth or social position.^[57] The bared breast even invoked associations with nude sculptures of classical Greece that were exerting an influence on art, sculpture, and architecture of the period.^[58] After the French Revolution décolletage become larger in the front and less in the back.^[59]

During the 16th century, women's fashions with exposed breasts were common in society, from queens to common prostitutes, and emulated by all classes.^[60] Anne of Brittany has also been painted wearing a dress with a square neckline. Low square décolleté styles were popular in England in the 17th century and even Queen Mary II and Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I of England, were depicted with fully bared breasts; and architect Inigo Jones designed a masque costume for Henrietta Maria that fully revealed both of her breasts.^[58]^[60] During the fashions of the period 1795–1820, many women wore dresses that bared necks, bosoms and shoulders. Anne of Austria was known for wearing, along with female members of her court, very tight bodice and corsets that forced breasts together to make deeper cleavages, very low necklines that exposed breasts visible almost in entirety above the aereola and pendants lying on the cleavage to highlight it.^[50]

The wearing of low-cut dresses that exposed breasts was considered more acceptable than it is today—with a woman's bared legs, ankles, or shoulders being considered to be more risqué than exposed breasts.^[61] Low cut dresses that exposed a woman’s neck and top of her chest were very common across Europe until the Victorian period, though a woman’s bared legs, ankles and shoulders were considered more risqué.^[62]

Age of controversy

Adam Gottlob Moltke. Portrait of Sophie Hedvig Raben. 1760/61. Oil on canvass, 77 × 60.5 cm. Frederiksborg Palace, Hillerød

Alice Joyce portrayed in the Flapper look, 1926

During the Victorian period, social attitudes required women to cover their bosom in public. For ordinary wear, high collars were the norm. Towards the end of the Victorian period (end 19th century) the full collar was the fashion, though some décolleté dresses were worn on formal occasions (see 1880s in fashion). The Gallican Church mandated that the cleavage and the opening of a woman's bodice must be laced and declared the cleavage as "the gate of hell".^[63]

During the French Enlightenment, there was a debate as to whether a woman's breasts were merely a sensual enticement or rather a natural gift to be offered from mother to child. In Alexandre Guillaume Mouslier de Moissy's 1771 play The True Mother (La Vraie Mère), the title character rebukes her husband for treating her as merely an object for his sexual gratification: "Are your senses so gross as to look on these breasts – the respectable treasures of nature – as merely an embellishment, destined to ornament the chest of women?"^[64] Nearly a century later, also in France, a man from the provinces who attended a Court ball at the Tuilleries in Paris in 1855 was deeply shocked by the décolleté dresses and is said to have exclaimed in disgust: "I haven't seen anything like that since I was weaned!"^[65]

In 1884, a portrait painting by John Singer Sargent of American-born Paris socialite, Virginie Amélie Avegno Gautreau, was criticized^[66] for depicting her in a sleek black dress displaying what was considered scandalous cleavage and her right shoulder strap fallen off her shoulder. The controversy was so great that he reworked the painting to move the shoulder strap from her upper arm to her shoulder, and Sargent left Paris for London in 1884 his reputation in tatters. The painting was named "Portrait of Madame X".^[67]^[68] In 1908, a single pad made of rubber or a "bust form" was advertised that was to be worn inside the front of the bodice to make cleavage virtually undetectable.^[69]

Clergymen all over the world became shocked when dresses to be worn with modest round or V-shaped necklines became fashionable around 1913. In the German Empire, for example, all Roman Catholic bishops joined in issuing a pastoral letter attacking the new fashions.^[70] Fashions became more restrained in terms of décolletage, while exposure of the leg became more accepted in Western societies, during World War I and remained so for nearly half a century.^[71]

Age of reintroduction

American-born French cabaret dancer Josephine Baker

Hollywood star Marilyn Monroe in Some Like it Hot (1959)

In 1953, Hollywood film The French Line was found objectionable under the Hays Code because of Jane Russell's "breast shots in bathtub, cleavage and breast exposure" while some of her décollete gowns were thought "...intentionally designed to give a bosom peep-show effect beyond even extreme decolletage."^[72] But other actresses defied the then standards. For example, Gina Lollobrigida raised eyebrows with her famous low-cut dress in 1960, and other celebrities, performers and models followed suit, and the public was not far behind. Low-cut styles of various depths are now common in many situations. During the 1950s, Hollywood and the fashion industry successfully promoted large cloven bustlines (and falsies). In the late 1960s, erogenous attention began to shift from the large bust to the trim lower torso, reasserting the need to diet, especially as new clothing fashions — brief, sheer, and close fitting — prohibited heavy reliance on foundation lingerie. Legs were relatively less emphasized as elements of beauty.^[73]

From the 1960s onward, however, changes in fashions were towards increasing displays of cleavage in films and television, with Jane Russell and Elizabeth Taylor being the biggest stars who led the fashion,^[74] and in everyday life low-cut dress styles became very common, even for casual wear.^[75] During a short period in 1964, "topless" dress designs appeared at fashion shows, but those who wore the dresses in public found themselves arrested on indecency charges.^[76] The Wonderbra was created in 1964 by Louise Poirier for Canadelle, a Canadian lingerie company. It had 54 design elements that lift and support the bustline while creating a deep plunge and push-together effect. First-year sales for the Wonderbra, later repositioned Wonderbra as a romantic, fashionable and sexy brand,^[77] were approximated at US$120 million.^[78]

The ideal of breasts and cleavage has also evolved in the later half of 20th century, with shapes enhanced by use of a variety of methods and techniques. In the 1950s the preferred shape was pointy, echoing the sci-fi look of the times; in 1960s it was elegantly sloped in alignment with Hippie chic of the times; and from 1990s buffed, pumped and engorged look has become the preference.^[79]

Continued controversy

Display of cleavage can still be controversial. In the United States, in two separate incidents in 2007, Southwest Airlines crews asked travelers to modify their clothing, to wear sweaters, or to leave the plane because the crew did not consider the amount of cleavage displayed acceptable.^[80] In Langley, British Columbia, a young woman was sent home from her high school for wearing a top that her principal deemed inappropriate because “it showed too much cleavage”.^[81]^[82]^[83] German Chancellor Angela Merkel created controversy when she wore a low-cut evening gown to the opening of the Oslo Opera House in 2008,^[84]^[85] U.S. Senator Hillary Clinton and British Home Secretary Jacqui Smith drew attention for wearing low-cut blouses that revealed a small amount of cleavage, resulting in comments in the Washington Post and the New York Times.^[84]^[86] Vera Lengsfeld, the Conservative Christian Democratic Union candidate for Berlin's Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg district, used pictures of herself and German Chancellor Angela Merkel in low-cut dresses during her political campaign. Facing a tough campaign, she posted 750 provocative campaign posters, accompanied by the slogan "We Have More to Offer", to draw attention to "serious election issues." The posters had a positive impact.^[87]

Cleavage enhancement

Various methods have been used by women in history to accentuate breasts.

Underwear

Corset, circa 1808

Wonderbra, circa 1975

Corsets that enhanced cleavage were introduced in the mid-16th century.^[88] By the late 18th century cleavage-enhancing corsets grew more dramatic in pushing the breasts upwards.^[89] The tight lacing of corsets worn in the 19th and early 20th centuries emphasized both cleavage and the size of the bust and hips. Especially evening or ball gowns were designed to display and emphasize the décolletage.^[53]^[54]

When corsets became unfashionable, brassieres and padding helped to project, display and emphasize the breasts. In 1893, New Yorker Marie Tucek was granted a patent for a "breast supporter", described as a modification of the corset, and was very similar to a modern push-up bra designed to support the breasts. It consisted of a plate made of metal, cardboard, or other stiff material, shaped to fit against the torso under the breasts, following the contour of the breasts. It was covered with silk, canvas, or other cloth, which extended above the plate to form a pocket for each breast. The plate curved around the torso and ended near the armpits.^[90]^[91]

Development of the underwire bra started in the 1930s,^[92] though it did not gain widespread popularity until the 1950s, when the end of World War II freed metal for domestic use.^[93]^[94] Aviator and Film Maker Howard Hughes designed a prototype for an aerodynamic underwire bra for Jane Russell when filming The Outlaw in 1941. According to Hughes the resultant amount of cleavage was "the length of the actual cleavage is five inches and one-quarter".^[7] Several brassiere manufacturers, among them Wonderbra and Victoria's Secret, produce push-up and other types of bras that enhance cleavage. Frederick's of Hollywood introduced a design called Hollywood Extreme Cleavage Bra that helped give the impression of a spherical cleavage like augmented breasts that was popularized by stars like Pamela Anderson.^[95]

Variant	Image	Description
Push-up bra	noborder	A push-up bra is usually a demi-cup bra.^[96] Wonderbra was the first push-up bra made. A push-up bra creates the appearance of increased cleavage using padded cups that are angled to push the breasts inwards and upwards, towards the center of the chest. Most push-up bras have wide-set straps, which can directing the breasts further towards the center toward when the straps are set the outside edge of the cups.^[97] Re-positioning of the bust is partly achieved through built-in foam padding, and removable inserts such as liquid and air bags.^[98] The bra cups are often under-wired.^[96]
Plunge bra	noborder	Plunge bras create the appearance of increased cleavage because of their deep (plunging) front silhouette, angled cups and narrow center gore.^[96] These allow a very low cut neck line, and still remain out of view, by using a very narrow center gore. Open neckline is further achieved by cutting the cups away from the middle, and setting the shoulder straps wide apart.^[98] The center of the plunge bra, where the two bra cups meet, drops down below the level of the nipple.^[97] Plunge bras differ from push-up bras in that they are not generally as heavily padded.^[96]
Padded bra	noborder	The cup of a padded bra has foam, silicone, air pockets or liquid padding in the cups to add extra thickness that provides definition and size.^[97] A padded bra lifts, supports and shapes the bust, which creates a fuller look, and also pushes the breasts upward, increasing cleavage.^[98] Graduated padding is thicker at the base of the cups and tapers gently to create a natural looking silhouette and an enhanced cleavage.^[96] Actress Julia Roberts was required to wear a custom made silcone gel filled bra for the movie Erin Brockovich in order to increase her cleavage.^[99]^[100]^[101]
Underwire bra	noborder	An underwire bra utilizes a thin, semi-circular strip of rigid wire fitted inside the brassiere fabric.^[97] The wire sewn into the bra fabric and under each cup, from the center gore to under the wearer's armpit. It helps to lift, separate, shape, and support the breasts. These bras use a thin strip of metal, plastic or resin, usually with a nylon coating at both ends.^[102]^[103] Underwire bras accounted for 60% of the United Kingdom bra market in 2000^[104] and 70% in 2005.^[105] About 70% of women who wear bras wear a steel underwire bra according to underwear manufacturer industries of New York.^[102] In 2001, 70% (350 million) of the bras sold in the United States were underwire bras.^[90]^[102] As of 2005, underwire bras were the fastest growing segment of the market.^[106]
Modern corset	noborder	In 1985, designer Vivienne Westwood influenced the re-emergence of the corset as a trendy way to enhance cleavage.^[107]

Taping

Many women, including beauty pageant participants and cross-genders, create glamorous cleavage by using duct tape painfully underneath and across their breast, bending forward, tightly pulling them together and up.^[108]^[109]^[110] Types of tape used include surgical micropore tape and athletic tape. Some also use a strip of moleskin across under the breasts with tape at the ends to hold it in place. Use of the wrong techniques or tape with too strong an adhesive can cause injuries such as rashes, blisters, and skin being torn off.^[109]^[110]

Surgery

The size and shape of cleavage enhanced by surgery (left) over natural cleavage (right)

Bigger breasts are easier to push together to accent the hollow between them.^[1] Some flat-chested women feel self-conscious about their small breasts and want to improve their sexual attractiveness by seeking breast augmentation.^[111] Plastic surgeon Gerard H. Pitman says, "you can't have cleavage with an A cup. You have to be at least a B or a C."^[7] The average breast size has grown from a 34B to a 36C since the 1970s and clothing styles are smaller and snugger.^[112] Similar statement was made for non-surgical cleavage enhancement as well (i.e. lingerie manufacturers Frederick's of Hollywood promises "hi-rise cleavage to small busts" and Curvees in Etam claims to give girls with B cup and "exciting C cup cleavage").^[113]

An augmenation mammoplasty for emplacing breast implants has three therapeutic purposes:

primary reconstruction: to replace breast tissues damaged by trauma (blunt, penetrating, blast), disease (breast cancer), and failed anatomic development (tuberous breast deformity).
revision and reconstruction: to revise (correct) the outcome of a previous breast reconstruction surgery.
primary augmentation: to aesthetically augment the size, form, and feel of the breasts.

For breast reconstruction, and for the augmentation and enhancement of the aesthetics — size, shape, and texture — of a woman’s breasts, there are two types of breast implant devices in practice: saline implants filled with sterile saline solution and silicone implants filled with viscous silicone gel.

Implants do not by themselves make a woman's cleavage wider unless the physician overextended or stretched the lateral dissection from the contraction of the pectoralis major muscle.^[6] If a surgeon tries to increase cleavage by loosening the inside borders of the breast, it could end up with symmastia, a confluence of the breast tissue of both breasts across the midline anterior to the sternum.^[114]^[115] Procedures are generally followed, during breast reconstruction, to preserve a natural cleavage of breasts.^[116]^[117]

Exercise

Push-up (left) and machine fly (right) are two of the best work-outs that help create a robust bust-line

Regular exercise of the muscles and fibres of the pectoral complex, which lies just under the fatty tissues of the breast, helps prevent droopiness, creates the illusion of larger and firmer breasts, and enhances cleavage.^[118]^[119]^[120] Exercises like incline chest press and chest fly are the most effective in developing breasts and getting a better cleavage.^[121]^[122] Weight training, nautilus machines, push ups and chest presses are particularly helpful, as well as a number of other exercises, including rowing and basketball.^[118]

For beginners flat chest dumbbell pullovers and dumbbell flyers on incline bench is recommended, while the advanced exercisers may include bench press movements, flyers, pullovers, exercise of the pec deck and push-ups at least twice a week.^[123] Cleavage enhancing exercises can be grouped into four parts:^[124]^[125]

An incline exercise accentuates the upper chest and declines stresses the lower region. It helps augment proportions and symmetry.
Properly developed upper pectoral region, with help from incline exercises, give an appearance of a firm, elevated chest.
The lower pectoral region is the easiest to develop, and, unless it is a specific weak spot, does not need occasional decline exercises.
Push-ups are great complimentary exercise, sometimes also as an alternative to chest presses.

In some form of exercise, breasts unsupported by a sports bra are exposed to greater risk of droopiness.^[126]^[127]

Make up

Making cleavage appear deeper and the breasts look fuller alongside the cleavage with makeup is achieved using shading effects. The middle of the cleavage is made to look deeper by using a darker makeup colour than the base colour of the skin, while the most prominent areas of the breasts (either side of the cleavage) are made to look larger or more protruding by the use of a paler colour.^[128]^[129] In enhancing cleavage the use of airbrush makeup is recommended.^[130]

Photo retouching

In 2006, British actress Keira Knightley wore a revealing Gucci dress at the European premiere of Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest that displayed her skinny body and flat chest.^[131] Her breasts were digitally enlarged on the U.S. theatrical version of the poster for both that movie and for the movie King Arthur. This practice angered Knightley, who said that it "comes from market research that clearly shows that other women refuse to look at famous actresses and stars with small breasts." Later in 2006, Knightley claimed she is "not allowed to be on a magazine cover in the US without at least a C cup because it 'turns people off'."^[132]

Pathology

Cleavage wrinkles are deep, vertical creases caused by hours spent sleeping on one’s side, where gravity forces the top breast to bend farther past the body's midline than it should. The lines can also be caused by sports bras and push-up bras, which smash the breasts together and are often worn for hours. Once the collagen in skin breaks down from age and sun exposure, those wrinkles tend to linger. The generously endowed, naturally or surgically, tend to be more afflicted.^[133]

Dermatoheliosis (photo aging) is a problem common to the cleavage exposed for prolonged periods to UV radiation (sunlight). It is characterized by hyperpigmentation, leathery texture, roughness, wrinkles, lentigines (age spots), actinic elastosis, and telangiectasias (spider veins), is a common problem for the skin of the breast cleavage. ^[134]

Poikiloderma of Civatte, a condition of dilated blood vessels and red to red-brown spots, is common to upper part of the cleavage, especially for those who wear sports bras or push-up bras for prolonged periods, and commonly affects fair skinned middle-aged to elderly women.^[7]^[135] It is characterized by hypopigmentation, hyperpigmentation, telangiectasias and superficial skin atrophy (occasional itching is reported), is another condition caused by long exposure to sunlight.^[136]^[137]

Intermammary cleft can get attacked by plaque type psoriasis, which can in turn can cause erythematosus.^[138]

Hidradenitis suppurativa (HS) is a non-contagious chronic skin disease affects intertriginous skin of apocrine sweat gland bearing areas like inframammary fold, and intermammary sulcus. It is characterized by clusters of abscesses, epidermoid cysts, sebaceous cysts, pilonidal cysts.^[139]^[140]

Prurigo pigmentosa is a rare skin condition of unknown cause that affects depressed places on chest and back like the intermammary area. It is characterized by the sudden onset of erythematous papules that leave a reticulated hyperpigmentation when they heal.^[141]^[142]

Treatment

Cleavage wrinkles are treated by botox.^[7]^[133] Use of strong sunscreen on the cleavage area is also recommended.^[7] Poikiloderma and Dermatoheliosis are treated by desquamation (skin peeling).^[7]^[136] There is no single effective treatment for HS. The recommended treatments include antibiotics, antiandrogens, corticosteroids, ciclosporins, and TNF inhibitors.^[140]

Sources

References

Gernsheim, Alison. Victorian and Edwardian Fashion. A Photographic Survey. Mineola, N.Y.: Dover Publications, 1981. Reprint of 1963 edition. ISBN 0-486-24205-6
Morris, Desmond. Manwatching. A Field Guide to Human Behavior. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1977. ISBN 0-8109-1310-0
Morris, Desmond The Naked Woman. A Study of the Female Body. New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2004. ISBN 0-312-33853-8

Citation

^ ^a ^b ^c Dr. Ted Eisenberg and Joyce K. Eisenberg, ‘’ The Scoop on Breasts: A Plastic Surgeon Busts the Myths’’, eBooks2go, 2012, ISBN 9780985724931
^ Heide Schatten and Gheorghe M. Constantinescu, Comparative Reproductive Biology, page 17, John Wiley & Sons, 2008, ISBN 9780470390252
^ Genaro Andres Contreras, The Use of Tylosin to Treat Intramammary Infections , page 22, ProQuest, 2008, ISBN 9780549607625
^ Charles Wesley Turner, The mammary gland (vol. 1), page 80, Lucas Bros., 1952
^ West's federal supplement (First Series), p. 994, West Publishing Co, 1990
^ ^a ^b Oliver, Rob (August 29, 2007). "I'll boost your boobs or go bust!". Retrieved 13 April 2013.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Daphne Merkin, "The Great Divide", New York Times, August 28, 2005
^ Leonard J. Swidler, Women in Judaism: The Status of Women in Formative Judaism, page 160, Scarecrow Press, 1976, ISBN 9780810809048
^ secondary sex characteristics
^ Kinsey, Alfred C. et al. Sexual Behavior in the Human Male. Saunders, 1948.
^ Dr. Ted Eisenberg and Joyce K. Eisenberg, The Scoop on Breasts: A Plastic Surgeon Busts the Myths, eBooks2go, 2012, ISBN 9780985724931
^ ^a ^b Ashlea Worrel, An Examination of Women's Body Image and Sexual Satisfaction, page 15, ProQuest, 2008, ISBN 9780549651444
^ "National Cleavage Day" on Wonderbra.co.za
^ Glazier & Flowerday 2003, p. 58
^ Salmansohn, Karen (October 29, 2007). "The Power of Cleavage". The Huffington Post.
^ D. Leder, The Body in Medical Thought and Practice, page 223, Springer Science & Business Media, 1992, ISBN 9780792316572
^ Carter, Michael Fashion classics from Carlyle to Barthes, page 732, Berg Publishers, 2003, ISBN 1-85973-606-8
^ Barnhart, edited by Robert K. (1994). Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology (1st ed. ed.). New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-270084-1. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help); |first= has generic name (help)
^ Rudofsky, Bernard (1984). The Unfashionable Human Body (Repr. d. Ausg. ed.). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. ISBN 978-0-442-27636-2.
^ ^a ^b Dunlap, Elizabeth. "The glossary: can't pronounce the ingredient, the makeup artist's name, or even the product? Read our guide!", Marie Claire, 2007-10-01
^ ^a ^b Lott, Tim. "A boob too far", The Guardian, 2006-08-06
^ Imogen Fox, The side cleavage: a new trend is born", The Guardian, 29 May 2012
^ Staff writer, "Trend Watch: The Side Cleavage", US Weekly, June 27, 2011
^ Armand Limnander, "The Talk", New York Times, April 13, 2008
^ Tom Dalzell and Terry Victor, Sex Slang, page 51, Routledge, 2007, ISBN 9781134194926
^ Lisa Guerin, Smart Policies for Workplace Technologies, page 215, Nolo, 2013, ISBN 9781413318432
^ Anil Aggrawal, Forensic and Medico-legal Aspects of Sexual Crimes and Unusual Sexual Practices, page 134, CRC Press, 2008, ISBN 9781420043099
^ Arthur Asa Berger, Media and Society: A Critical Perspective, page 194, Rowman & Littlefield, 2012, ISBN 9781442217805
^ Morris (1977)
^ Sean Curtis, Steal This Book Too!, page 287, Authorhouse, May 2004, ISBN 9781418418755
^ Michael Shermer (editor), The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience (vol. 1), page 629, ABC-CLIO, November 14, 2002, ISBN 978-1576076538
^ Crawford, Charles B. and Krebs, Dennis (eds.) "How Mate Choice Shaped Human Nature", Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology: Ideas, Issues, and Applications, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates (1998)
^ Morris (1997) pp. 236,240
^ Morris (2004), pp. 156-159
^ Craik, Jennifer. The Face of Fashion, page 122, Routledge, 1993, ISBN 0-203-40942-6
^ Boye De Mente, The Origins of Human Violence, page 61, Cultural-Insight Books, 2010, ISBN 9781452858463
^ DNA: Daily News & Analysis, "Flesh Flashing Fashion", February 13, 2014
^ "Breast taboo in North American society". Retrieved 2009-5-6.
^ ^a ^b Herbert Harari and Robert Malcolm Kaplan, Social Psychology: Basic and Applied, page 271, Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1982, ISBN 9780818504815
^ An-Nur:Ayat 31
^ L.S. Cahill and M.A. Farley, Embodiment, Morality, and Medicine, page 47, Springer Science & Business Media, 1995, ISBN 9780792333425
^ ^a ^b Haideh Moghissi, Women and Islam: Social conditions, obstacles and prospects, page 77, Taylor & Francis, 2005, ISBN 9780415324205
^ Reina Lewis and Sara Mills, Feminist Postcolonial Theory: A Reader, page 589, Routledge, 2003, ISBN 9780415942744
^ Ziauddin Sardar, Reading the Qur'an: The Contemporary Relevance of the Sacred Text of Islam, page 332, Oxford University Press, 2011, ISBN 9780199911493
^ Reina Lewis and Sara Mills, Feminist Postcolonial Theory: A Reader, page 590, Routledge, 2003, ISBN 9780415942744
^ Ziauddin Sardar, Reading the Qur'an: The Contemporary Relevance of the Sacred Text of Islam, page 333, Oxford University Press, 2011, ISBN 9780199911493
^ Mary Zeiss Stange, Carol K. Oyster and Jane E. Sloan, Encyclopedia of Women in Today's World (Volume 1), page 235, SAGE, 2011, ISBN 9781412976855
^ Lynne Hume, The Religious Life of Dress: Global Fashion and Faith, page 71, A&C Black, 2013, ISBN 9781472567475
^ Sylvia Tamale, African Sexualities: A Reader, page 229, Fahamu/Pambazuka, 2011, ISBN 9780857490162
^ ^a ^b James S. Olson, Bathsheba's Breast: Women, Cancer, and History, page 324, JHU Press, 2005, ISBN 9780801880643
^ ^a ^b Carl Fors, Hens: Why Women Are Different, page 312, Infinity Publishing, 2006, ISBN 9780741429544
^ ^a ^b Dr. Ava Cadell, "Why Men Are Fascinated with Big Breasts", Loveology University
^ ^a ^b Gernsheim, Alison. Victorian and Edwardian Fashion. A Photographic Survey. pp. 25-26, 43, 53, 63, Dover Publications, Mineola, N.Y., 1981 (Reprint of 1963 edition). ISBN 0-486-24205-6 Cite error: The named reference "Gernsheimpp" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
^ ^a ^b Desmond Morris. The Naked Woman. A Study of the Female Body, p. 156. New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2004. ISBN 0-312-33853-8. Cite error: The named reference "DesmondMorris" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
^ Monique Canellas-Zimmer, Histoires de mode, Les Dossiers d'Aquitaine - 2005, ISBN 9782846221191.
^ Cunnington, C. Willett and Cunnington, Phillis E. The History of Underclothes. London: Faber & Faber, 1981. ISBN 978-0-486-27124-8
^ "French Caricature". University of Virginia Health System. Retrieved 2010-01-13.
^ ^a ^b Gent, Lucy and Llewellyn, Nigel (eds.) Renaissance Bodies: The Human Figure in English Culture c. 1540–1660. London: Reaktion Books, 1990
^ S. Devadas Pillai. Indian sociology through Ghurye, a dictionary, p. 68, Popular Prakashan, 1997, ISBN 81-7154-807-5.
^ ^a ^b "Historian Reveals Janet Jackson's 'Accidental' Exposing of Her Breast was the Height of Fashion in the 1600s". University of Warwick. 5 May 2004. Archived from the original on 3 August 2004.
^ The History of Underclothes. London: Faber & Faber. 1981. ISBN 978-0-486-27124-8. {{cite book}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help)
^ Terry Breverton, Everything You Ever Wanted to know about the tudors but were afraid to ask, page 186, Amberley Publishing Limited, 2014, ISBN 9781445638454
^ Carl Fors, Hens: Why Women Are Different, page 308, Infinity Publishing, 2006, ISBN 9780741429544
^ Schama, Simon. Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution, p. 147. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1989. ISBN 0-394-55948-7
^ Gernsheim, p. 43
^ Richard Ormand and Elaine Kilmurray, Sargent: The Early Portraits, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998, p. 114, ISBN 0-300-07245-7
^ Fairbrother, Trevor (2001). John Singer Sargent: The Sensualist. p. 139, Note 4. ISBN 0-300-08744-6.
^ "Sargent's Portraits", an article including a mention of the scandal caused by the portrayal of cleavage in John Singer Sargent's "Portrait of Madame X".
^ Sherrie A. Inness, Delinquents and Debutantes: Twentieth-century American Girls' Cultures, page 117, New York University Press, 1998, ISBN 9780814737651
^ Gernsheim, p. 94
^ Johnson, Kim K. P.; Torntore, Susan J. and Eicher, Joanne Bubolz. Fashion foundations, p. 716, Berg Publishers, 2003, ISBN 1-85973-619-X
^ Doherty, Thomas (2007). Hollywood's Censor: Joseph I. Breen and the Production Code Administration. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-14358-3.
^ Allan Mazur, "U.S. trends in feminine beauty and overadaptation", Journal of Sex Research, pp. 281-303, Volume 22, Issue 3, 1986, The Society for the Scientific Study of Sexuality, Pennsylvania, USA. DOI: 10.1080/00224498609551309
^ Patricia Baker, Fashions of a Decade, page 51, Infobase Publishing, 2006, ISBN 9781438118918
^ Wayne Koestenbaum, Cleavage: essays on sex, stars, and aesthetics, page 125, Ballantine Books, 2000, ISBN 9780345434609
^ "Sixties City – Bringing on back the good times". Retrieved 2010-01-14.
^ Mintzberg, Henry; James Waters (1984). Researching the Formation of Strategies: The History of Canadian Lady, 1939–1976 in R.B. Lamb (ed.) Competitive Strategic Management. New York: Prentice Hall. p. 70. ISBN 0-13-154972-3.
^ Moberg, Matthew; Jonathan Siskin, Barry Stern (1999). "Wonderbra Story". University of Michigan Business School.
^ A.A. Gill, To America with Love, page 113, Simon and Schuster, 2013, ISBN 9781416596219
^ NBC News. "Woman told she was too Hot to Fly"
^ Bell, S., & Austin, I. "Student’s challenge of dress code not over yet: Too much cleavage: 15-year-old allowed back after sent home in revealing top". National Post, page A4, June 1, 1999
^ Austin, I. "Cleavage gets girls busted by high-school principal", page A2, Vancouver Province, May 31, 1999
^ Cleavage in a Tank Top: Bodily Prohibition and the Discourses of School Dress Codes, Shauna Pomerantz, Brock University, The Alberta Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 53, No. 4, Winter 2007, 373-386
^ ^a ^b "Merkel 'Surprised' by Attention to Low-cut Dress". Spiegel Online. 15 April 2008.
^ "Angela Merkel Raises Eyebrows with Cleavage Display". Deutsche Welle. 15 April 2008.
^ "Plunging Neckline: Merkel 'Surprised' by Attention to Low-Cut Dress". Spiegel Online. April 15, 2008. Retrieved 11 April 2013.
^ Moore, Tristana (Aug 17, 2009). "Busting Out: German Pol Plays the Cleavage Card". Time. Retrieved 11 April 2013.
^ Condra, Jill. The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Clothing Through World History, p. 152, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008, ISBN 0-313-33664-4
^ Spooner, Catherine. Fashioning Gothic Bodies, p. 28, Manchester University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-7190-6401-5
^ ^a ^b Riordan, Teresa (2002-10-28). "Patents; In bra technology, an incremental improvement can translate into comfort". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2009-04-24. Retrieved 2009-04-21.
^ US patent 494397, Marie Tucek, "Breast Supporter", issued 1893-03-28
^ Napoleon, Anthony (2003). "Wardrobe". Awakening Beauty: An Illustrated Look at Mankind's Love and Hatred of Beauty (Illustrated ed.). Virtual Bookworm Publishing. pp. 31, 130–131. ISBN 1-58939-378-3. Retrieved 2009-04-21.
^ Kanner, Bernice (1983-12-12). "The Bra's not for Burning". New York Magazine. 16 (49). New York Media: 26–30. ISSN 0028-7369. Retrieved 2009-04-21.
^ Seigel, Jessica (2004-02-13). "The Cups Runneth Over". The New York Times. Retrieved 2013-05-09. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
^ Jene Luciani, The Bra Book, pp=103, 140, BenBella Books Inc., 2013, ISBN 9781935251927
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e "Bra Glossery". Bare Necessities. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "Bra Glossary by Apparel Search". Apparel Search Company. Archived from the original on 2012-04-03. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Bra Photo Glossary... and "Bra Mysteries" Revealed!". ingerie-confidant.com. Archived from the original on 2013-03-04. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
^ Dennis Bingham, Whose Lives Are They Anyway?, page 341, Rutgers University Press, 2010, ISBN 9780813549309
^ "Julia Roberts' Erin Brockovich lingerie up for sale", Daily Express, April 25, 2014
^ "The Kelly effect: Ms Brook's curves spark a rush for Ultimo gel bras", Daily Mail, 17 July 2010
^ ^a ^b ^c Kehaulani, Sara (2004-12-10). "Functional Fashion Helps Some Through Airport Checkpoints". Washington Post. p. 2. Retrieved 2009-04-24.
^ Madaras, Lynda (2007). The "what's happening to my body?" book for girls (Third ed.). Newmarket Press. pp. 48–50. ISBN 1-55704-764-2. Retrieved 2009-04-21.
^ "Charnos takes the plunge with a brand new bra". UK: Aroq Ltd. 2000-10-25. Retrieved 2009-04-22.
^ "Boom in Bras as Women Go Busty". Daily Record. 2005-10-12. Retrieved 2009-04-22.
^ "Lingerie – UK – September 2005 – Market Research Report". Mintel). September 2005. Retrieved 2009-04-21.
^ Domna C. Stanton, Discourses of Sexuality: From Aristotle to AIDS, page 40, University of Michigan Press, 1992, ISBN 9780472065134
^ Sarah Banet-Weiser, The Most Beautiful Girl in the World: Beauty Pageants and National Identity, page 73, University of California Press, (1999) ISBN 9780520217898
^ ^a ^b Andy Paige, Style on a Shoestring, page 24, McGraw Hill Professional, 2009, ISBN 9780071595063
^ ^a ^b JoAnn Roberts, Art and Illusion: A Guide to Crossdressing (Vol. 2), Creative Design Services, 1994, ISBN 1-880715-08-2
^ Brett, Samantha (February 17, 2012). "The Great Cleavage Conundrum: should men look if it's on display?". Northern Argus. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
^ Shanna Thompson, "The 6 Rules of Cleavage", LifeScript.com, March 07, 2014
^ Kristina Roberts Ellis, Bodies of Thought, Sites of Anxiety, pages 82-83, ProQuest, 2008, ISBN 9780549983828
^ "Symmastia".
^ Iliana E. Sweis, Outsmarting Mother Nature, page 163, ABC-CLIO, 2010, ISBN 9780313386145
^ Jay R. Harris, Marc E. Lippman, C. Kent Osborne and Monica Morrow, Diseases of the Breast, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2012, ISBN 9781451148701
^ Kendall R. Roehl, "Breast Reconstruction" (PDF), page 34, The Open Breast Cancer Journal, Volume 2, 2010
^ ^a ^b Brigitte Mars, Beauty by Nature, page 136, Book Publishing Company, 2006, ISBN 9781570671937
^ Christine Lydon, Look Hot, Live Long, page 198, Basic Health Publications, Inc., 2003, ISBN 9781591200246
^ Joyce L. Vedral, Bone Building Body Shaping Workout, page 131, Simon and Schuster, 1998, ISBN 9780684847313
^ Shirley Archer, Andrea Mattei, The Everything Wedding Workout Book, page 131, Everything Books, 2006, ISBN 9781605503035
^ Cynthia Targosz, Your Best Bust, page 33, Sourcebooks, Inc., 2005, ISBN 9781402202629
^ Adrienne Moore (ed.), Today's Black Woman, Volume 3, page 50, 1997, TBW Inc.
^ Brad Schoenfeld, Sculpting Her Body Perfect, page 43, Human Kinetics, 2007, ISBN 9780736073882
^ Selene Yeager, Selene Yeager's Perfectly Fit, page 145, Rodale, 2001, ISBN 9781579543167
^ Toffelmire, Amy. "Why do breasts sag?". MedBroadcast.com. Retrieved 3 February 2012.
^ Scurr, Joanna C.; White, Jennifer L.; Hedger, Wendy (2010). "The effect of breast support on the kinematics of the breast during the running gait cycle". Journal of Sports Sciences. 28 (10): 1103–9. doi:10.1080/02640414.2010.497542. PMID 20686995. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |laydate= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |laysource= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |laysummary= ignored (help)
^ Art and Illusion: A Guide to Crossdressing Third Edition, Vol. 2 - Fashion & Style", JoAnn Roberts, Creative Design Services, 1994, ISBN 1-880715-08-2
^ "Making Faces", Kevyn Aucoin, Prion Books Limited, 1997, ISBN 1-85375-355-6
^ Milady, Milady's Standard Esthetics: Advanced, page 614, Cengage Learning, 2012, ISBN 9781111139094
^ "Keira Knightley is furious about her "bigger breast"". 2006-07-14.
^ "Enlarging Keira Knightley's Breasts". Posterwire.com. July 18, 2006. Retrieved 2012-05-29.
^ ^a ^b Taffy Brodesser-Akner, "Fighting Cleavage Wrinkles", New York Times, August 9, 2011
^ Milady, Milady's Standard Esthetics: Advanced, page 244, Cengage Learning, 2012, ISBN 9781111139094
^ Rapini, Ronald P.; Bolognia, Jean L.; Jorizzo, Joseph L. (2007). Dermatology: 2-Volume Set. St. Louis: Mosby. ISBN 1-4160-2999-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ ^a ^b Murad Alam and Marisa Pongprutthipan, Body Rejuvenation, page 39, Springer Science & Business Media, 2010, ISBN 9781441910936
^ American Osteopathic College of Dermatology "Dermatologic Disease Database", aocd.org, referenced July 22, 2011.
^ Alan Menter and Benjamin Stoff, Psoriasis, page 25, CRC Press, 2010, ISBN 9781840765908
^ Alikhan, Ali; Lynch, Eisen (2009). "Hidradenitis suppurativa: a comprehensive review". J Am Acad Derm. 60 (4): 539–561. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2008.11.911. PMID 19293006.
^ ^a ^b Faye Lyons, Dermatology for the Advanced Practice Nurse, pages 118-121, Springer Publishing Company, 2014, ISBN 9780826136435
^ James, William; Berger, Timothy; Elston, Dirk (2005). Andrews' Diseases of the Skin: Clinical Dermatology. (10th ed.). page 57, Saunders. ISBN 0-7216-2921-0.
^ Q Ashton Acton, Issues in Dermatology and Cosmetic Medicine (2013 Edition), page 432, Scholarly Editions, 2013, ISBN 9781490109114

External links

"Sargent's Portraits", an article including a mention of the scandal caused by the portrayal of cleavage in John Singer Sargent's "Portrait of Madame X".
The Great Divide, a NY Times article on the cleavage

[scoop-1] Dr. Ted Eisenberg and Joyce K. Eisenberg, ‘’ The Scoop on Breasts: A Plastic Surgeon Busts the Myths’’, eBooks2go, 2012, ISBN 9780985724931

[2] Heide Schatten and Gheorghe M. Constantinescu, Comparative Reproductive Biology, page 17, John Wiley & Sons, 2008, ISBN 9780470390252

[3] Genaro Andres Contreras, The Use of Tylosin to Treat Intramammary Infections , page 22, ProQuest, 2008, ISBN 9780549607625

[4] Charles Wesley Turner, The mammary gland (vol. 1), page 80, Lucas Bros., 1952

[5] West's federal supplement (First Series), p. 994, West Publishing Co, 1990

[bust-6] Oliver, Rob (August 29, 2007). "I'll boost your boobs or go bust!". Retrieved 13 April 2013.

[divide-7] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Daphne Merkin, "The Great Divide", New York Times, August 28, 2005

[8] Leonard J. Swidler, Women in Judaism: The Status of Women in Formative Judaism, page 160, Scarecrow Press, 1976, ISBN 9780810809048

[9] secondary sex characteristics

[10] Kinsey, Alfred C. et al. Sexual Behavior in the Human Male. Saunders, 1948.

[11] Dr. Ted Eisenberg and Joyce K. Eisenberg, The Scoop on Breasts: A Plastic Surgeon Busts the Myths, eBooks2go, 2012, ISBN 9780985724931

[Ashlea-12] Ashlea Worrel, An Examination of Women's Body Image and Sexual Satisfaction, page 15, ProQuest, 2008, ISBN 9780549651444

[WONDERBRA-13] "National Cleavage Day" on Wonderbra.co.za

[ggf2003-14] Glazier & Flowerday 2003, p. 58

[15] Salmansohn, Karen (October 29, 2007). "The Power of Cleavage". The Huffington Post.

[16] D. Leder, The Body in Medical Thought and Practice, page 223, Springer Science & Business Media, 1992, ISBN 9780792316572

[17] Carter, Michael Fashion classics from Carlyle to Barthes, page 732, Berg Publishers, 2003, ISBN 1-85973-606-8

[18] Barnhart, edited by Robert K. (1994). Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology (1st ed. ed.). New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-270084-1. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help); |first= has generic name (help)

[19] Rudofsky, Bernard (1984). The Unfashionable Human Body (Repr. d. Ausg. ed.). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. ISBN 978-0-442-27636-2.

[Dun-20] Dunlap, Elizabeth. "The glossary: can't pronounce the ingredient, the makeup artist's name, or even the product? Read our guide!", Marie Claire, 2007-10-01

[lot-21] Lott, Tim. "A boob too far", The Guardian, 2006-08-06

[22] Imogen Fox, The side cleavage: a new trend is born", The Guardian, 29 May 2012

[23] Staff writer, "Trend Watch: The Side Cleavage", US Weekly, June 27, 2011

[24] Armand Limnander, "The Talk", New York Times, April 13, 2008

[25] Tom Dalzell and Terry Victor, Sex Slang, page 51, Routledge, 2007, ISBN 9781134194926

[26] Lisa Guerin, Smart Policies for Workplace Technologies, page 215, Nolo, 2013, ISBN 9781413318432

[27] Anil Aggrawal, Forensic and Medico-legal Aspects of Sexual Crimes and Unusual Sexual Practices, page 134, CRC Press, 2008, ISBN 9781420043099

[28] Arthur Asa Berger, Media and Society: A Critical Perspective, page 194, Rowman & Littlefield, 2012, ISBN 9781442217805

[29] Morris (1977)

[30] Sean Curtis, Steal This Book Too!, page 287, Authorhouse, May 2004, ISBN 9781418418755

[31] Michael Shermer (editor), The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience (vol. 1), page 629, ABC-CLIO, November 14, 2002, ISBN 978-1576076538

[32] Crawford, Charles B. and Krebs, Dennis (eds.) "How Mate Choice Shaped Human Nature", Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology: Ideas, Issues, and Applications, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates (1998)

[33] Morris (1997) pp. 236,240

[34] Morris (2004), pp. 156-159

[35] Craik, Jennifer. The Face of Fashion, page 122, Routledge, 1993, ISBN 0-203-40942-6

[36] Boye De Mente, The Origins of Human Violence, page 61, Cultural-Insight Books, 2010, ISBN 9781452858463

[37] DNA: Daily News & Analysis, "Flesh Flashing Fashion", February 13, 2014

[38] "Breast taboo in North American society". Retrieved 2009-5-6.

[harari-39] Herbert Harari and Robert Malcolm Kaplan, Social Psychology: Basic and Applied, page 271, Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1982, ISBN 9780818504815

[40] An-Nur:Ayat 31

[41] L.S. Cahill and M.A. Farley, Embodiment, Morality, and Medicine, page 47, Springer Science & Business Media, 1995, ISBN 9780792333425

[Haideh-42] Haideh Moghissi, Women and Islam: Social conditions, obstacles and prospects, page 77, Taylor & Francis, 2005, ISBN 9780415324205

[43] Reina Lewis and Sara Mills, Feminist Postcolonial Theory: A Reader, page 589, Routledge, 2003, ISBN 9780415942744

[44] Ziauddin Sardar, Reading the Qur'an: The Contemporary Relevance of the Sacred Text of Islam, page 332, Oxford University Press, 2011, ISBN 9780199911493

[45] Reina Lewis and Sara Mills, Feminist Postcolonial Theory: A Reader, page 590, Routledge, 2003, ISBN 9780415942744

[46] Ziauddin Sardar, Reading the Qur'an: The Contemporary Relevance of the Sacred Text of Islam, page 333, Oxford University Press, 2011, ISBN 9780199911493

[47] Mary Zeiss Stange, Carol K. Oyster and Jane E. Sloan, Encyclopedia of Women in Today's World (Volume 1), page 235, SAGE, 2011, ISBN 9781412976855

[48] Lynne Hume, The Religious Life of Dress: Global Fashion and Faith, page 71, A&C Black, 2013, ISBN 9781472567475

[49] Sylvia Tamale, African Sexualities: A Reader, page 229, Fahamu/Pambazuka, 2011, ISBN 9780857490162

[olson-50] James S. Olson, Bathsheba's Breast: Women, Cancer, and History, page 324, JHU Press, 2005, ISBN 9780801880643

[fors-51] Carl Fors, Hens: Why Women Are Different, page 312, Infinity Publishing, 2006, ISBN 9780741429544

[ava-52] Dr. Ava Cadell, "Why Men Are Fascinated with Big Breasts", Loveology University

[Gernsheimpp-53] Gernsheim, Alison. Victorian and Edwardian Fashion. A Photographic Survey. pp. 25-26, 43, 53, 63, Dover Publications, Mineola, N.Y., 1981 (Reprint of 1963 edition). ISBN 0-486-24205-6 Cite error: The named reference "Gernsheimpp" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).

[DesmondMorris-54] Desmond Morris. The Naked Woman. A Study of the Female Body, p. 156. New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2004. ISBN 0-312-33853-8. Cite error: The named reference "DesmondMorris" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).

[histoire_mode-55] Monique Canellas-Zimmer, Histoires de mode, Les Dossiers d'Aquitaine - 2005, ISBN 9782846221191.

[56] Cunnington, C. Willett and Cunnington, Phillis E. The History of Underclothes. London: Faber & Faber, 1981. ISBN 978-0-486-27124-8

[57] "French Caricature". University of Virginia Health System. Retrieved 2010-01-13.

[Nigel_Llewellyn_1660-58] Gent, Lucy and Llewellyn, Nigel (eds.) Renaissance Bodies: The Human Figure in English Culture c. 1540–1660. London: Reaktion Books, 1990

[59] S. Devadas Pillai. Indian sociology through Ghurye, a dictionary, p. 68, Popular Prakashan, 1997, ISBN 81-7154-807-5.

[Jackson-60] "Historian Reveals Janet Jackson's 'Accidental' Exposing of Her Breast was the Height of Fashion in the 1600s". University of Warwick. 5 May 2004. Archived from the original on 3 August 2004.

[61] The History of Underclothes. London: Faber & Faber. 1981. ISBN 978-0-486-27124-8. {{cite book}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help)

[62] Terry Breverton, Everything You Ever Wanted to know about the tudors but were afraid to ask, page 186, Amberley Publishing Limited, 2014, ISBN 9781445638454

[63] Carl Fors, Hens: Why Women Are Different, page 308, Infinity Publishing, 2006, ISBN 9780741429544

[64] Schama, Simon. Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution, p. 147. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1989. ISBN 0-394-55948-7

[65] Gernsheim, p. 43

[Elaine_Kilmurray_1998,_p._114-66] Richard Ormand and Elaine Kilmurray, Sargent: The Early Portraits, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998, p. 114, ISBN 0-300-07245-7

[Fairbrother_2001_139,_Note_4-67] Fairbrother, Trevor (2001). John Singer Sargent: The Sensualist. p. 139, Note 4. ISBN 0-300-08744-6.

[68] "Sargent's Portraits", an article including a mention of the scandal caused by the portrayal of cleavage in John Singer Sargent's "Portrait of Madame X".

[69] Sherrie A. Inness, Delinquents and Debutantes: Twentieth-century American Girls' Cultures, page 117, New York University Press, 1998, ISBN 9780814737651

[70] Gernsheim, p. 94

[71] Johnson, Kim K. P.; Torntore, Susan J. and Eicher, Joanne Bubolz. Fashion foundations, p. 716, Berg Publishers, 2003, ISBN 1-85973-619-X

[72] Doherty, Thomas (2007). Hollywood's Censor: Joseph I. Breen and the Production Code Administration. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-14358-3.

[73] Allan Mazur, "U.S. trends in feminine beauty and overadaptation", Journal of Sex Research, pp. 281-303, Volume 22, Issue 3, 1986, The Society for the Scientific Study of Sexuality, Pennsylvania, USA. DOI: 10.1080/00224498609551309

[74] Patricia Baker, Fashions of a Decade, page 51, Infobase Publishing, 2006, ISBN 9781438118918

[75] Wayne Koestenbaum, Cleavage: essays on sex, stars, and aesthetics, page 125, Ballantine Books, 2000, ISBN 9780345434609

[76] "Sixties City – Bringing on back the good times". Retrieved 2010-01-14.

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v t e Anatomy of the breast
Structure	Areola Areolar gland (gland of Montgomery) Cooper's ligaments Tail of Spence Mammary gland Lactiferous duct Terminal end bud Mammary alveolus Inframammary fold Intermammary cleft Nipple Retromammary space
Other	Dense breast tissue Mammary ridge