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===Collaboration by Polish Jews===
===Collaboration by Polish Jews===
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-270-0298-11, Polen, Ghetto Warschau, Drahtzaun.jpg|thumb|Two members of the [[Jewish Ghetto Police]] guarding the gates of the [[Warsaw Ghetto]], June 1942]]
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-270-0298-11, Polen, Ghetto Warschau, Drahtzaun.jpg|thumb|Two members of the [[Jewish Ghetto Police]] guarding the gates of the [[Warsaw Ghetto]], June 1942]]
According to historian [[:pl:Leszek Pietrzak|Leszek Pietrzak]], Jews collaborated with the Germans oftener than ethnic Poles, even after the Holocaust began.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.uwazamrze.pl/artykul/995313/jak-zydzi-kolaborowali-z-niemcami|title=Jak Żydzi kolaborowali z Niemcami|access-date=2018-04-24}}</ref>
The ''[[Judenrat]]'' (Jewish council) was a Jewish-run governing body set up by the Nazi authorities in Jewish [[ghettos]] across German-occupied Poland. The Judenrat functioned as a self-enforcing intermediary, and was used by the Germans to control the Jewish population and to manage the ghetto's day-to-day administration. Also, the Judenrat collected information on the Jewish population and supervised the Jewish policemen in the ghettos in helping the Germans load Jews onto transport trains bound for concentration camps.<ref>{{Cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Mf9NAAAAQBAJ&lpg=PA207&pg=PA207#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Extension of Life|last=Bauman|first=Robert J.|date=2012-04-19|publisher=Xlibris Corporation|isbn=9781469192451|language=en}}</ref> <ref name="Arendt117">{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yGoxZEdw36oC&lpg=PT118&pg=PT114#v=onepage | title=Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil |work=The Wannsee Conference, or Pontius Pilate | publisher=Penguin | ISBN=1101007168 | date=2006 | accessdate=16 June 2015 | author=[[Hannah Arendt]] | pages=117–118}}</ref> In some cases, Judenrat members exploited their positions to engage in bribery and other abuses. In the [[Łódź Ghetto]], the reign of Judenrat head [[Chaim Rumkowski]] was particularly inhumane, as he was known to get rid of his political opponents by submitting their names for deportation to concentration camps, hoard food rations, and sexually abuse Jewish girls.<ref>[[Laurence Rees|Rees, Laurence]],''Auschwitz: The Nazis and the "Final Solution"'', especially the testimony of [[Lucille Eichengreen]], pp. 105-131. BBC Books. {{ISBN|978-0-563-52296-6}}.</ref><ref name="originsandinitiatives">Rees, Laurence.[https://www.pbs.org/auschwitz/about/transcripts_2.html "Auschwitz: Inside the Nazi state"]. ''[[BBC]]/[[KCET]]'', 2005. Retrieved: 01.10.2011.</ref><ref name="Arendt117" /> Political theorist [[Hannah Arendt]] stated that without the assistance of the Judenrat, the German authorities would have encountered considerable difficulties in drawing up detailed lists of the Jewish population, thus allowing for at least some Jews to avoid deportation.<ref name="Arendt117"/>
The ''[[Judenrat]]'' (Jewish council) was a Jewish-run governing body set up by the Nazi authorities in Jewish [[ghettos]] across German-occupied Poland. The Judenrat functioned as a self-enforcing intermediary, and was used by the Germans to control the Jewish population and to manage the ghetto's day-to-day administration. Also, the Judenrat collected information on the Jewish population and supervised the Jewish policemen in the ghettos in helping the Germans load Jews onto transport trains bound for concentration camps.<ref>{{Cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Mf9NAAAAQBAJ&lpg=PA207&pg=PA207#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Extension of Life|last=Bauman|first=Robert J.|date=2012-04-19|publisher=Xlibris Corporation|isbn=9781469192451|language=en}}</ref> <ref name="Arendt117">{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yGoxZEdw36oC&lpg=PT118&pg=PT114#v=onepage | title=Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil |work=The Wannsee Conference, or Pontius Pilate | publisher=Penguin | ISBN=1101007168 | date=2006 | accessdate=16 June 2015 | author=[[Hannah Arendt]] | pages=117–118}}</ref> In some cases, Judenrat members exploited their positions to engage in bribery and other abuses. In the [[Łódź Ghetto]], the reign of Judenrat head [[Chaim Rumkowski]] was particularly inhumane, as he was known to get rid of his political opponents by submitting their names for deportation to concentration camps, hoard food rations, and sexually abuse Jewish girls.<ref>[[Laurence Rees|Rees, Laurence]],''Auschwitz: The Nazis and the "Final Solution"'', especially the testimony of [[Lucille Eichengreen]], pp. 105-131. BBC Books. {{ISBN|978-0-563-52296-6}}.</ref><ref name="originsandinitiatives">Rees, Laurence.[https://www.pbs.org/auschwitz/about/transcripts_2.html "Auschwitz: Inside the Nazi state"]. ''[[BBC]]/[[KCET]]'', 2005. Retrieved: 01.10.2011.</ref><ref name="Arendt117" /> Political theorist [[Hannah Arendt]] stated that without the assistance of the Judenrat, the German authorities would have encountered considerable difficulties in drawing up detailed lists of the Jewish population, thus allowing for at least some Jews to avoid deportation.<ref name="Arendt117"/>


Revision as of 14:02, 26 April 2018

Throughout World War II Poland was a member of the Allied coalition that fought Nazi Germany. During the German occupation of Poland, some Polish citizens of diverse ethnicities collaborated with the Germans. Estimates of the number of collaborators vary from several thousands to about a million. The main collaborators were members of Poland's German minority.[1]: 166  During and after the war, the Polish State and the Resistance movement executed collaborators.

Due to differences in Nazi Germany's aims in Western, Central and Eastern Europe, and due to Germany's historical Drang nach Osten ("Drive to the East") and Lebensraum ("living space") policies, collaboration in Poland was much less widespread and institutionalized than in Western Europe. Compared to the situations in other German-occupied countries, collaboration in Poland was marginal.[2]

Background

Main articles: History of Poland (1939–1945) and Invasion of Poland

Following the German occupation of Czechoslovakia in March 1939, Hitler sought to establish Poland as a client state, proposing a multilateral territorial exchange and an extension of the German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact. The Polish government, fearing subjugation to Nazi Germany, instead chose to form an alliance with Britain (and later with France). In response, Germany withdrew from the non-aggression pact and, shortly before invading Poland, signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Soviet Union, safeguarding Germany against Soviet retaliation if it invaded Poland, and prospectively dividing Poland between the two Totalitarian powers.

On 1 September 1939 Germany invaded Poland. The German army quickly overran Polish defenses while inflicting heavy civilian losses, and by 13 September had conquered most of western Poland. On 17 September the Soviet Union invaded the country from the east, conquering most of eastern Poland, along with the Baltic states and parts of Finland. Some 140,000 Polish soldiers and airmen escaped to Romania and Hungary, and later many soon joining the Polish Armed Forces in France. Poland's government crossed over into Romania, later forming a government-in-exile in France and then in London, following the French capitulation. Poland as a polity never surrendered to the Germans.[3]

Nazi authorities annexed the westernmost parts of Poland and the former Free City of Danzig, incorporating it directly to Nazi Germany, and placed the remaining German-occupied territory under the administration of the newly formed General Government. The Soviet Union annexed the rest of Poland, incorporating its territories into the Belorussian and Ukrainian republics.[4] Germany’s primary aim in Eastern Europe was the expansion of the German Lebensraum which necessitated according to Nazi views the elimination or deportation of all non-Germanic ethnicities, including Poles; the areas controlled by the General Government were to become "free" of Poles within 15–20 years.[5] This resulted in harsh policies which targeted the Polish population, in addition to the explicit goal of exterminating the Jewish people, which was carried out by Nazi Germany in the occupied Polish territories.

Individual collaboration

German recruitment poster—"Let's do agricultural work in Germany: report immediately to your Vogt"

Estimates regarding the number of Polish collaborators vary from several thousand to about a million,[6][dubious – discuss] depending on the one's definition of "collaboration".[7] The main group of Polish citizens who activley collaborated with Nazi Germany were members of the German minority living in Poland,[1]: 166  which before the war numbered approximately 741,000.

Historian Leszek Gondek estimates the number of Polish collaborators at about 17,000, relying on the number of death sentences for treason issued by Special Courts of the Polish Underground State, and describes the phenomena as "marginal".[8] Also, historian John Connelly writes that "only a relatively small percentage of the Polish population engaged in activities that may be described as collaboration, when seen against the backdrop of European and world history."[8] According to Gondek, the courts heard at least 5,000 collaboration cases and sentenced 3,500 (according to historian Czesław Madajczyk over 10,000) people to death for collaboration.[6]

Prewar Poland had a population of over 35 million inhabitants, including over 3 million Polish Jews.[6][8][9] Postwar statistics of the Israeli War Crimes Commission[who?] gave the number of Polish collaborators at around 7,000.[10]: 13 [11]: 128 

Varying interpretations of what constitutes collaboration account for the broad range of estimates of Poles' collaboration with the Germans in World War II.[8] The higher collaboration estimates can include workers in slave-labor camps (Baudienst), low-ranking Polish bureaucrats, the Polish Blue Police, Poland's prewar German minority (former Polish citizens who declared themselves to be Volksdeutsche), and even all of Poland's peasants, whose agricultural produce fed the German military and administration.[6] Polish labor-camp workers were sometimes used in rounding up Jews for transportation to ghettos, or to dig graves for massacre victims; evasion of such service was punishable by death, and the individual's family could suffer reprisals.[12]

Ethnographic groups

Wacław Krzeptowski, prominent Goralenvolk collaborator, visiting German governor Hans Frank during a celebration held in honor of Hitler's birthday

The Germans also singled out, as potential collaborators, two ethnographic groups in Poland which had some limited separatist interests. The scheme was directed at the Kashubians in the north and the Gorals in the south. The German attempt to reach out to the Kashubians proved a "complete failure", but in the south the Germans met with limited success, and Katarzyna Szurmiak has called the resulting Goralenvolk movement "the most extensive case of collaboration in Poland during the Second World War."[13]: 86–87  Still, Szurmiak writes, "when talking about numbers, the attempt to create Goralenvolk was a failure... a mere 18 percent of the population took up Goralian IDs... Goralian schools [were] consistently boycotted, and... attempts to create Goralian police or a Goralian Waffen-SS Legion... failed miserably."[13]: 98 

Security forces

A German General Government poster requiring former Polish Police officers (Blue Police) to report for duty under the German Ordnungspolizei, or face "severe" punishment.

In October 1939, the Nazi authorities ordered the mobilization of pre-war Polish police, to serve under the command of the German Ordnungspolizei, creating the "Blue Police". The policemen were to report for duty by 10 November 1939[14] or face the death penalty.[15] At its peak in May 1944, the Blue Police numbered some 17,000 men.[16] Their primary task was to act as a regular police force dealing with criminal activities, but they were also used by the Germans in combating smuggling and resistance, rounding up random civilians (łapanka) for forced labor or for execution in reprisal for Polish resistance activities (e.g., the Polish underground's execution of Polish traitors or egregiously brutal Germans), patrolling for Jewish ghetto escapees, and in support of military operations against the Polish resistance.[6][17]

The German General Government also tried to create additional Polish auxiliary police—Schutzmannschaft Battalion 202 in 1942 and Schutzmannschaft Battalion 107 in 1943. Very few people volunteered and the Germans were forced to forcefully conscript them to fill up the ranks. Subsequently, most of the men deserted, and the two units were disbanded.[18] Schutzmannschaft Battalion 107 mutinied against its German officers, disarmed them, and joined the Home Army resistance.[19]

In 1944, Nazi Germany in General Government tried to recruit 12,000 Polish volunteers to "join the fight against Bolshevism". The campaign failed and only 699 men were recruited, 209 of whom either deserted or were disqualified for health reasons[20].

Poles in the Wehrmacht

Main article: Poles in the Wehrmacht

Following the German invasion of Poland in 1939, many former citizens of the Second Polish Republic from across the Polish territories annexed by Nazi Germany were forcibly conscripted into the Wehrmacht in Upper Silesia and in Pomerania. They were declared citizens of the Third Reich by law and therefore subject to drumhead court-martial in case of draft evasion. Professor Ryszard Kaczmarek of the University of Silesia in Katowice, author of a monograph, Polacy w Wehrmachcie (Poles in the Wehrmacht), noted that the scale of this phenomenon was much larger than previously assumed, because 90% of the inhabitants of these two westernmost regions of prewar Poland were ordered to register on the German People's List (Volksliste), regardless of their wishes. The exact number of these conscripts is not known; no data exist beyond 1943.[21]

In June 1946, the British Secretary of State for War reported to Parliament that, of the pre-war Polish citizens who had involuntarily signed the Volksliste and subsequently served in the German Wehrmacht, 68,693 men were captured or surrendered to the Allies in northwest Europe. The overwhelming majority, 53,630 subsequently enlisted in the Polish Army in the West and fought against Germany to the end of World War II.[22][21]

Collaboration and the resistance

See also: Polish resistance in World War II

The main armed resistance organization in Poland was the Home Army (Armia Krajowa, or AK), numbering some 400,000 members, including Jewish fighters.[11][23][24] AK command rejected any talks with the German authorities,[11]: 88  but some AK units in eastern Poland did maintain contacts with the Germans, to "gain intelligence on German morale and preparedness and perhaps to acquire some badly needed weapons. At times the Poles were able to acquire arms and the two sides observed an occasional ceasefire."[25] The AK anti-Soviet counter-intelligence unit in the area worked in close cooperation with the Germans,[11]: 88  and the organization often spared German spies "for no apparent reason."[11]: 89  The Germans made several attempts at arming regional partisan units belonging to the Armia Krajowa to encourage them to act against Soviet partisans operating around Nowogrodek and Vilnius; the local units accepted the armaments but used them for their own purposes, disregarding the Germans' intents and even turning them against them,[26][27][11] although only about a third of the available AK forces in the area fought in the ensuing battle against the Germans.[11]: 89–90  Tadeusz Piotrowski concludes that "[these deals] were purely tactical, short term arrangements"[11]: 88 , and quotes Joseph Rothschild as saying that "the Polish Home Army was by and large untainted by collaboration."[11]: 90 

The National Armed Forces (Narodowe Siły Zbrojne, or NSZ) persecuted Jewish refugees, and from time to time attacked or took as prisoner Jewish partisans, who were part of the communist People's Army (Armia Ludowa, or AL), which was a Polish partisan militia that included Jewish detachments.[28][29]: 149  The NSZ operated with the approval and occasional cooperation of the Germans.[29]: 149  The "Holy Cross Mountains Brigade" of the NSZ, numbering 800-1,500 fighters, decided to cooperate with the Germans in late 1944.[30][31][32] It ceased hostile operations against the Germans for a few months, accepted logistical help, and—late in the war, with German approval, to avoid capture by the Soviets—withdrew from Poland into Czechoslovakia. Once there, the unit resumed hostilities against the Germans and on 5 May 1945 liberated the Holýšov concentration camp,[33] saving several hundred Jewish women[34] NSZ in general did not have an uniform view about Jews, and although generally considered antisemitic and involved in killing and handing out Jews, at the same time it included Jewish fighters, including ones in higher commanding positions, some members and units of NSZ were also involved in rescue of Jews and awarded Righteous Among Nation awards post-war[35]

The Holocaust

See also: The Holocaust in Poland and Rescue of Jews by Poles in World War II
Part of the core exhibition dedicated to Jedwabne pogrom at the Museum of the History of Polish Jews in Warsaw.

Thousands of Jews who were in hiding received organized[36] or individual[37] help from the Poles, despite the fact that it was dangerous for anyone Polish to even to talk to a Jew. Help from ethnic Poles ranged from acts of heroism to minor acts of kindness, involving hundreds of thousands of Polish helpers, often acting anonymously.[38] This rescue effort occurred even though ethnic Poles were, from October 1941, subject to execution by the Germans if found offering help to a person of Jewish background. Poland was the only German-occupied European country where the death penalty was imposed as punishment.[39][better source needed] On 10 November 1941 Hans Frank expanded the death penalty to apply to Poles who helped Jews "in any way: by taking them in for a night, giving them a lift in a vehicle of any sort" or "feeding runaway Jews or selling them foodstuffs." The law was publicized with posters in all major cities. Capital punishment, meted out to the entire family of any Pole who helped a Jew, was the most draconian penalty ever imposed anywhere in Europe by the Germans.[8][40] Up to 50,000 ethnic Poles were executed by the Nazis for hiding Jews.[10]

Poster issued by the General Government announcing the implementation of the death penalty for Jews captured outside the ghettos, and for any Poles caught helping Jews.

Szymon Datner estimated that between 80,000 and 100,000 Jews were saved from the Holocaust thanks to help from "hundreds of thousands" of Poles who "risked their lives".[41][42] Other estimates of Poles who helped Jews range between 160,000 to 360,000 and between 80,000 to 120,000 Jews.[43] Wartime historian Emanuel Ringelblum, in his 1944 diary, estimated that, in Warsaw alone, 40,000 to 60,000 Poles were responsible for saving up to 15,000 Jews.[43]

According to historian Gunnar S. Paulsson, in occupied Warsaw (a city of 1.3 million, including 350,000 Jews before the war),[44] some 3,000 to 4,000 Poles acted as blackmailers (szmalcownik), exploiting Jews and their Polish rescuers, or denouncing both to the Germans.[45] On the other hand, in Warsaw alone the Żegota organization saved some 20,000 Jews from certain death, and scores of individual rescuers across the city also helped Jews survive. About 2,000 Poles who paid with their lives for saving Jews are known by their full names and their cases documented by Warsaw's Jewish Historical Institute and Poland's Institute of National Memory.[43] The number of individual rescuers, who saved around 15,000 Jews in Warsaw, has been estimated at between 40,000-60,000 Poles.[46]

Historian John Connelly writes that the vast majority of ethnic Poles showed indifference to the fate of the Jews; and that "Polish historiography has hesitated to view [complicity in the Jewish Holocaust] as collaboration."[8] On the other hand, Klaus-Peter Friedrich writes that "most [Poles] adopted a policy of wait-and-see... In the eyes of the Jewish population, [this] almost inevitably had to appear as silent approval of the [German] occupier's actions."[6]

Collaboration by ethnic minorities

Germans used the divide and rule method to create tensions within the Polish society, by targeting several non-Polish ethnic groups for preferential treatment or the opposite, in the case of the Jewish minority.[13]

Ethnic Germans

Meeting of the German minority (Volksdeutsche) in occupied Warsaw, 1940

During the invasion of Poland in September 1939, members of the ethnic German minority in Poland assisted Nazi Germany in its war effort. They committed sabotage, diverted regular forces and committed numerous atrocities against civilian population.[47][48]

Shortly after the German invasion of Poland, an armed ethnic-German militia, called the Selbstschutz, numbering around 100,000 members, was formed.[49] It organized the Operation Tannenberg mass murder of Polish elites. At the beginning of 1940, the Selbstschutz was disbanded, and its members transferred to various units of SS, Gestapo, and German police. The Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle organized large-scale looting of property, and redistributed goods to Volksdeutsche. They were given apartments, workshops, farms, furniture, and clothing confiscated from Jewish Poles and ethnic Poles.[50]

During the German occupation of Poland, Nazi authorities established the German People's List (Deutsche Volksliste, DVL), whereby former Polish citizens of German ethnicity were registered as Volksdeutsche. The German authorities encouraged registration of ethnic Germans, and in many cases made it mandatory. Those who joined were given benefits, including better food and better social status. However, Volksdeutsche were required to perform military service for the Third Reich, and hundreds of thousands joined the German military, either willingly or under compulsion.[51] People who became Volksdeutsche were treated by Poles with special contempt, and their having signed the Volksliste constituted high treason according to Polish underground law.[citation needed]

Parade of Ukrainian recruits form Galicia joining the SS-Galizien division in Lwów (Lviv), 18 July 1943

Collaboration by Ukrainians and Belorussians

Main articles: Ukrainian collaboration with Nazi Germany and Byelorussian collaboration with Nazi Germany

Before the war, Poland had a substantial population of Ukrainian and Belorussian minorities living in her eastern, Kresy regions. After the Soviet invasion of eastern Poland on 17 September 1939, those territories were annexed by the USSR. Following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, German authorities recruited Ukrainians and Belorussians who had been citizens of Poland before September 1939 for service in Waffen-SS and auxiliary-police units. In District Galicia, the SS Galicia division and Ukrainian Auxiliary Police, made up of ethnic-Ukrainian volunteers, took part in widespread massacres and persecution of Poles and Jews.[52][53]

Collaboration by Polish Jews

Two members of the Jewish Ghetto Police guarding the gates of the Warsaw Ghetto, June 1942

The Judenrat (Jewish council) was a Jewish-run governing body set up by the Nazi authorities in Jewish ghettos across German-occupied Poland. The Judenrat functioned as a self-enforcing intermediary, and was used by the Germans to control the Jewish population and to manage the ghetto's day-to-day administration. Also, the Judenrat collected information on the Jewish population and supervised the Jewish policemen in the ghettos in helping the Germans load Jews onto transport trains bound for concentration camps.[54] [55] In some cases, Judenrat members exploited their positions to engage in bribery and other abuses. In the Łódź Ghetto, the reign of Judenrat head Chaim Rumkowski was particularly inhumane, as he was known to get rid of his political opponents by submitting their names for deportation to concentration camps, hoard food rations, and sexually abuse Jewish girls.[56][57][55] Political theorist Hannah Arendt stated that without the assistance of the Judenrat, the German authorities would have encountered considerable difficulties in drawing up detailed lists of the Jewish population, thus allowing for at least some Jews to avoid deportation.[55]

The Jewish Ghetto Police (Jüdischer Ordnungsdienst) were volunteers recruited from among Jews living in the ghettos who could be relied on to follow German orders. They were issued batons, official armbands, caps, and badges, and were responsible for public order in the ghetto. Also, the policemen were used by the Germans for securing the deportation of other Jews to concentration camps.[58][59] The numbers of Jewish police varied greatly depending on the location, with the Warsaw Ghetto numbering about 2,500, Łódź Ghetto 1,200 and smaller ghettos such as that at Lwów about 500.[60] The Jewish ghetto police distinguished themselves by their shocking corruption and immorality.[61] Historian and Warsaw Ghetto archivist Emanuel Ringelblum described the cruelty of the ghetto police as "at times greater than that of the Germans."[59]

Group 13, a Jewish collaborationist organization in the Warsaw Ghetto, which reported directly to the German Gestapo, 1941

Some Polish Jews, belonging to the collaborationist groups Żagiew and "Group 13", colloquially known as the "Jewish Gestapo", inflicted considerable damage on both Jewish and Polish underground resistance movements. [62] Over a thousand of these Jewish Nazi collaborators, some armed with firearms,[11]: 74  served under the direction of the German Gestapo as informers on Polish resistance efforts to hide Jews,[62] and engaged in racketeering, blackmail, and extortion in the Warsaw Ghetto.[63][64] A group composed of 70 members led by Jewish collaborator called Hening was tasked with operations aimed at the Polish resistance, and was located on Szucha Street in Warsaw.[11]: 74  Similar groups and individuals operated in towns and cities across German-occupied Poland — Abraham Gancwajch and Alfred Nossig in Warsaw,[65][66] Józef Diamand in Kraków,[67] and Szama Grajer in Lublin.[68] One of the Jewish collaborationist groups' baiting techniques was to send agents out as supposed ghetto escapees who would ask Polish families for help; if a family agreed to help, it was reported on to the Germans, who (as a matter of announced policy) executed the entire family.[69][70][71][unreliable source?] It is estimated that at the end of 1941 and the start of 1942 there were approximately 15,000 "Jewish Gestapo" agents in the General Government.[11]: 74 

Some members of the Jewish Social Self-Help (Jüdische Soziale Selbsthilfe), also known as the Jewish Social Assistance Society, collaborated with Nazi authorities in the deportation of Warsaw Jews to death camps.[72] The group was formed as a humanitarian organization funded by the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, which also supplied it with legal cover,[73] and was allowed to operate in the territories of the General Government. Concerned with its lack of effectiveness, and seeing it as a cover for Nazi atrocities, both Jewish and Polish underground movements actively resisted the the organization.[74]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Ryszard Kaczmarek Kolaboracja na terenach wcielonych do Rzeszy Niemieckiej Pamięć i Sprawiedliwość 7/1 (12), 2008
  2. ^ Wojciechowski, Marian (2004). "Czy istniała kolaboracja z Rzeszą Niemiecką i ZSRR podczas drugiej wojny światowej?". Rocznik Towarzystwa Naukowego Warszawskiego (in Polish). 67. Retrieved 2018-04-12.
  3. ^ Adam Galamaga (21 May 2011). Great Britain and the Holocaust: Poland's Role in Revealing the News. GRIN Verlag. p. 15. ISBN 978-3-640-92005-1. Retrieved 30 May 2012.
  4. ^ Hugo Service (11 July 2013). Germans to Poles: Communism, Nationalism and Ethnic Cleansing After the Second World War. Cambridge University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-107-67148-5.
  5. ^ Berghahn, Volker R. (1999). "Germans and Poles 1871–1945". In Bullivant, K.; Giles, G. J.; Pape, W. (eds.). Germany and Eastern Europe: Cultural Identities and Cultural Differences. Rodopi. p. 32. ISBN 9042006889.
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  7. ^ "Estimates of the number of Polish collaborators vary from seven thousand to about one million. Those willing and ready to fight the German occupier possibly made up one-quarter of the population. The bulk of the Poles cooperated and collaborated with the Germans as much as survival in the abnormal life of occupation required or allowed. In view of the persecution of the Jews, most of them adopted a policy of wait-and-see. This passivity did not keep some from profiting from the plight of their Jewish competitors. Wyka thought that 'The manner in which the Germans liquidated the Jews becomes a burden on their conscience. How we [Poles] reacted to this is a thing we have to sort out for ourselves.' In the eyes of the Jewish population, these Polish reactions almost inevitably had to appear as silent approval of the occupiers' actions."
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  10. ^ a b Lukas, Richard C. (1989). Out of the Inferno: Poles Remember the Holocaust. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 0813116929.
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  12. ^ Klaus-Peter Friedrich. "Collaboration in a 'Land without a Quisling': Patterns of Cooperation with the Nazi German Occupation Regime in Poland during World War II", Slavic Review, vol. 64, no. 4, (Winter 2005), pp. 711-746. JSTOR
  13. ^ a b c Anton Weiss Wendt (11 August 2010). Eradicating Differences: The Treatment of Minorities in Nazi-Dominated Europe. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4438-2449-1.
  14. ^ Böhler, Jochen; Gerwarth, Robert (2016-12-01). The Waffen-SS: A European History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192507822.
  15. ^ Hempel, Adam (1987). Policja granatowa w okupacyjnym systemie administracyjnym Generalnego Gubernatorstwa: 1939–1945 (in Polish). Warsaw: Instytut Wydawniczy Związków Zawodowych. p. 83.
  16. ^ "Policja Polska w Generalnym Gubernatorstwie 1939-1945 – Policja Panstwowa". policjapanstwowa.pl (in Polish). Retrieved 2018-03-29.
  17. ^ "'Orgy of Murder': The Poles Who 'Hunted' Jews and Turned Them Over to the Nazis". Haaretz.
  18. ^ Andrzej Solak (17–24 May 2005). "Zbrodnia w Malinie – prawda i mity (1)". Nr 29-30. Myśl Polska: Kresy. Archived from the original (Internet Archive) on October 5, 2006. Retrieved 2013-06-23. Reprint: Zbrodnia w Malinie (cz.1) Głos Kresowian, nr 20. {{cite web}}: External link in |quote= (help); Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  19. ^ Józef Turowski, Pożoga: Walki 27 Wołyńskiej Dywizji AK, PWN, ISBN 83-01-08465-0, pp. 154-155.
  20. ^ Jacek Andrzej Młynarczyk, Pomiędzy współpracą a zdradą. Problem kolaboracji w Generalnym Gubernatorstwie – próba syntezy, Pamięć i Sprawiedliwość: biuletyn Głównej Komisji Badania Zbrodni przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej, 1427-7476, 2009, no. 1, p. 113.
  21. ^ a b Kaczmarek, Ryszard (2010), Polacy w Wehrmachcie [Poles in the Wehrmacht] (in Polish), Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie, first paragraph, ISBN 978-83-08-04494-0, archived from the original on November 15, 2012, retrieved June 28, 2014, Paweł Dybicz for Tygodnik "Przegląd" 38/2012. {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  22. ^ German Army Service (Volume 423 ed.). Hansard. 4 June 1946. p. cc307-8W. Retrieved 28 July 2011.
  23. ^ Edward Kossoy Zydzi w Powstaniu Warszawskim
  24. ^ Powstanie warszawskie w walce i dyplomacji - page 23 Janusz Kazimierz Zawodny, ‎Andrzej Krzysztof Kunert - 2005 Był również czterdziestoosobowy pluton żydowski, dowodzony przez Samuela Kenigsweina, który walczył w batalionie AK „Wigry"
  25. ^ Review by John Radzilowski of Yaffa Eliach's There Once Was a World: A 900-Year Chronicle of the Shtetl of Eishyshok, Journal of Genocide Research, vol. 1, no. 2 (June 1999), City University of New York.
  26. ^ Bubnys, Arūnas (1998). Vokiečių okupuota Lietuva (1941-1944). Vilnius: Lietuvos gyventojų genocido ir rezistencijos tyrimo centras. ISBN 9986-757-12-6.
  27. ^ Template:Lt icon Rimantas Zizas. Armijos Krajovos veikla Lietuvoje 1942–1944 metais (Activities of Armia Krajowa in Lithuania in 1942–1944). Armija Krajova Lietuvoje, pp. 14–39. A. Bubnys, K. Garšva, E. Gečiauskas, J. Lebionka, J. Saudargienė, R. Zizas (editors). Vilnius – Kaunas, 1995.
  28. ^ Bauer, Yehuda. "Jewish Resistance and Passivity in the Face of the Holocaust". Unanswered Questions: Nazi Germany and the Genocide of the Jews: 235–251.
  29. ^ a b Cooper, Leo (2000). In the shadow of the Polish eagle: the Poles, the Holocaust, and beyond. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire; New York, N.Y.: Palgrave. ISBN 978-0-333-99262-3 978-1-280-24918-1. Retrieved 2018-03-26. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: length (help)
  30. ^ Instytut Pamięci Narodowej--Komisja Ścigania Zbrodni przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu. Biuro Edukacji Publicznej (2007). Biuletyn Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej. Instytut. p. 73.
  31. ^ Wozniak, Albion (2003). The Polish Studies Newsletter. Albin Wozniak.
  32. ^ Żebrowski, Leszek (1994). Brygada Świętokrzyska NSZ (in Polish). Gazeta Handlowa.
  33. ^ Korbonski, Stefan (1981). The polish underground state: a guide to the underground 1939 - 1945. New York: Hippocrene Books. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-88254-517-2.
  34. ^ Na dwa fronty: szkice z walk Brygady Świętokrzyskiej NSZ Jerzy Jaxa-Maderski Wydawn. Retro, 1995, page 19
  35. ^ Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918-1947 Tadeusz Piotrowsk, page 96-97
  36. ^ Tomaszewski, Irene; Werbowski, Tecia (2010). Code Name Żegota: Rescuing Jews in Occupied Poland, 1942-1945 : the Most Dangerous Conspiracy in Wartime Europe. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780313383915.
  37. ^ Marrus, Michael Robert (1989-01-01). The Nazi Holocaust. Part 5: Public Opinion and Relations to the Jews in Nazi Europe. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110970449.
  38. ^ Righteous Among Nations. How Poles Helped the Jews, 1939-1945. Ed. by W. Bartoszewski and Z. Lewin. [With contribs. from W. Bartoszewski, A. Berman ("Borowski"), Ph. Friedman A.o.]. Earlscourt Publications. 1969.
  39. ^ Magdalena Ruta (19 June 2017). Without Jews?: Yiddish literature in the People’s Republic of Poland on the Holocaust, Poland and Communism. Wydawnictwo UJ. p. 142. ISBN 978-83-233-9491-4.
  40. ^ Chodakiewicz, Marek Jan (2004). Between Nazis and Soviets: Occupation Politics in Poland, 1939-1947. Lexington Books. ISBN 9780739104842.
  41. ^ Biuletyn Żydowskiego Instytutu Historycznego, Wydania 73-80, 1970, p. 29.
  42. ^ Biuletyn Głównej Komisji Badania Zbrodni Hitlerowskich w Polsce, vol. 16.
  43. ^ a b c Krochmal, Anna (2006). "Challenge of Jewish rescue in World War II, pertaining to research" [Problem pomocy Żydom w czasie II wojny światowej, jako postulat badawczy]. 15–18. Archiwum Państwowe w Rzeszowie: 215–223. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  44. ^ "Warsaw". www.ushmm.org. Retrieved 2018-03-02.
  45. ^ Marci Shore. "Gunnar S. Paulsson Secret City: The Hidden Jews of Warsaw 1940–1945". The American Association for Polish-Jewish Studies. Retrieved 17 February 2014.
  46. ^ Prace historyczno-archiwalne, Tomy 15-18 Przednia okładka Archiwum Państwowe w Rzeszowie, 2005, page 219
  47. ^ Maria Wardzyńska, Był rok 1939 Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce. Intelligenzaktion, IPN Instytut Pamięci Narodowej, 2009 ISBN 978-83-7629-063-8
  48. ^ Browning, Christopher R. The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939-March 1942, 2007 p. 33
  49. ^ Michael Geyer, Sheila Fitzpatrick, Beyond Totalitarianism: Stalinism and Nazism Compared, Cambridge University Press, 2009, p. 155.
  50. ^ August Frank, "Memorandum, September 26, 1942, Utilization of property on the occasion of settlement and evacuation of Jews" in NO-724, Pros. Ex. 472. United States of America v. Oswald Pohl, et al. (Case No. 4, the "Pohl Trial). V. pp. 965–967.
  51. ^ Historia Encyklopedia Szkolna, Warsaw, Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1993, pp. 357–58.
  52. ^ Czesław Partacz, Krzysztof Łada, Polska wobec ukraińskich dążeń niepodległościowych w czasie II wojny światowej, (Toruń: Centrum Edukacji Europejskiej, 2003)
  53. ^ Timothy Snyder. (2004) The Reconstruction of Nations. New Haven: Yale University Press: pp. 165–166
  54. ^ Bauman, Robert J. (2012-04-19). Extension of Life. Xlibris Corporation. ISBN 9781469192451.
  55. ^ a b c Hannah Arendt (2006). Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil. Penguin. pp. 117–118. ISBN 1101007168. Retrieved 16 June 2015. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  56. ^ Rees, Laurence,Auschwitz: The Nazis and the "Final Solution", especially the testimony of Lucille Eichengreen, pp. 105-131. BBC Books. ISBN 978-0-563-52296-6.
  57. ^ Rees, Laurence."Auschwitz: Inside the Nazi state". BBC/KCET, 2005. Retrieved: 01.10.2011.
  58. ^ "Judischer Ordnungsdienst". Museum of Tolerance. Simon Wiesenthal Center. Retrieved 14 January 2008.
  59. ^ a b Collins, Jeanna R. "Am I a Murderer?: Testament of a Jewish Ghetto Policeman (review)". Mandel Fellowship Book Reviews. Kellogg Community College. Retrieved 13 January 2008.
  60. ^ Raul Hilberg: The Destruction of the European Jews, Quadrangle Books, Chicago 1961, p. 310.
  61. ^ Ringelblum, Emmanuel (2015-11-06). Notes From The Warsaw Ghetto: The Journal Of Emmanuel Ringelblum. Pickle Partners Publishing. ISBN 9781786257161.
  62. ^ a b Piecuch, Henryk (1999). Syndrom tajnych służb: czas prania mózgów i łamania kości. Agencja Wydawnicza CB. ISBN 83-86245-66-2.
  63. ^ Israel Gutman, The Jews of Warsaw, 1939–1943: Ghetto, Underground, Revolt, Indiana University Press, 1982, ISBN 0-253-20511-5, pp. 90–94.
  64. ^ Itamar Levin, Walls Around: The Plunder of Warsaw Jewry during World War II and Its Aftermath, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004, ISBN 0-275-97649-1, pp. 94–98.
  65. ^ Marrus, Michael Robert (1989-01-01). The Nazi Holocaust. Part 6: The Victims of the Holocaust. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110968736.
  66. ^ "Nossig, Alfred". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 2018-03-02.
  67. ^ Dąbrowa-Kostka, Stanisław (1972). W okupowanym Krakowie: 6.IX.1939 - 18.I.1945 (in Polish). Wydaw. Min. Obrony Nar.
  68. ^ Radzik, Tadeusz (2007). Extermination of the Lublin ghetto (in Polish). Wydawn. Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej.
  69. ^ Pietrzak, Leszek. "Jak Żydzi Kolaborowali z Niemcami" Uważam Rze Retrieved 2018-04-25.
  70. ^ Bodakowski, Jan, "Żydowscy kolaboranci Hitlera" "Żydowscy agenci gestapo z Żagwi udawali poza gettem żydowskich uciekinierów, by wydawać Niemcom Polaków pomagających Żydom, partyzantów i autentycznych uciekinierów żydowskich", Salon24. Retrieved 2018-02-19.
  71. ^ Woydak, Mark. "Jak Żydzi Kolaborowali z Niemcami" Money.pl. Retrieved 2018-02-19.
  72. ^ "In Warsaw, participants in the organization of deportations to the death camps included not only Jewish policemen, but also members of the Żydowska służba ratunkowa (Jewish medical service), part of the Judenrat, and even some members of Jewish Social Self-Help." ("Do zachowań jednoznacznie kolaboracyjnych ze strony przedstawicieli żydowskich instytucji "samorządowych" dochodziło podczas wysiedleń do obozów zagłady w ramach "akcji Reinhard", gdy niemieckie oddziały wysied­leńcze wymagały od żydowskich funkcyjnych czynnego wspomagania akcji. W Warszawie przy organizowaniu deportacji do obozu zagłady uczestniczyli nie tylko żydowscy policjanci, lecz także członkowie żydowskiej służby ratun­ kowej, część judenratu, a nawet niektórzy członkowie Żydowskiej Samopomocy Społecznej" Unambigious acts of collaboration from the side of Jewish "self-rule" institutions happened during deportations to extermination camps in "Reinhard action" when German units involved in expulsions demanded from Jewish functionaries active support. In Warsaw deporations to extermination camp were organized not only by Jewish police, but also Jewish rescue service, part of Judenrat, and even some members of Jewish Self-Help" )
  73. ^ Alexandra Garbarini, Jewish Responses to Persecution: 1938–1940, p. 198.
  74. ^ "Jewish Historical Institute". www.jhi.pl.

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