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==References==
==References==

Revision as of 14:43, 27 October 2011

Roundup
Manufacturing status
Leading manufacturerMonsanto
TypeHerbicide
Introduced to market1976[1]
Purposes
Agriculturenon-selective post-emergence weed control
GovernmentDestruction of illegal drugs, cosmetic purposes, and invasive species control
Consumer / homeCosmetic purposes
Herbicide properties
SurfactantPolyethoxylated tallow amine(most common)
Main active ingredientisopropylamine salt of Glyphosate
Mode of action5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase(EPSPS) inhibitor

Roundup is the brand name of a systemic, broad-spectrum herbicide produced by the U.S. company Monsanto, and contains the active ingredient glyphosate. Glyphosate is the most widely used herbicide in the USA,[2] and Roundup has been the number one selling herbicide worldwide since at least 1980.[3] As of 2009, sales of Roundup herbicides represent about 10% of Monsanto's revenue due to competition from Chinese producers of other glyphosate-based herbicides;[4] the overall Roundup line of products (which includes GM seeds) represents about half of Monsanto's yearly revenue.[5]

Monsanto developed and patented the glyphosate molecule in the 1970s, and marketed Roundup from 1973. It retained exclusive rights in the US until its US patent expired in September, 2000, and maintained a predominant marketshare in countries where the patent expired earlier. Pesticides based on these poisonous chemicals, including Roundup have been banned in various countries due to their toxic effects on humans and wildlife.

The main active ingredient of Roundup is the isopropylamine salt of glyphosate. Another important ingredient of Roundup is the surfactant POEA (polyethoxylated tallow amine), which is known for its toxicity in wildlife.[6] It increases herbicide penetration in plant[7] and animal[8][9] cells.

Several weed species, known as superweeds, have developed Roundup resistance largely because of repeated exposure.[10]

Monsanto also produces seeds which grow into plants genetically engineered to be tolerant to glyphosate, which are known as Roundup Ready crops. The genes contained in these seeds are patented. Such crops allow farmers to use glyphosate as a post-emergence herbicide against most broadleaf and cereal weeds. Soy was the first Roundup Ready crop, and was produced at Monsanto's Agracetus Campus located in Middleton, Wisconsin.

Regulation

Roundup commercial formulations were never submitted to test by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA); its main active ingredient, glyphosate, received EPA Toxicity Class of III for oral and inhalation exposure.[11]

Beyond the glyphosate salts content, commercial formulations of Roundup contain surfactants, which vary in nature and concentration. As a result, human poisoning with this herbicide is not with the main active ingredient alone, but with complex and variable mixtures.[12]

Health effects

Toxicity

Laboratory studies have shown teratagenic effects of Roundup in animals[13] [14]. These reports have proposed that the teratogenic effects are caused by impaired retinoic acid signaling[15]. A 2011 report by Earth Open Source asserts that the Roundup active ingredient - glyphosate - has caused birth defects in laboratory animal tests[16]. News reports have supposed that regulators have been aware of these studies since 1980[17].

The United States Environmental Protection Agency‎ (EPA) considers glyphosate to be relatively low in toxicity, and without carcinogenic or teratagenic effects.[18] The EPA considered a "worst case" dietary risk model of an individual eating a lifetime of food entirely from glyphosate-sprayed fields, and with residue levels remaining at their maximum levels, and concluded no adverse effects would exist under these conditions.[18]

A 2000 review concluded that "under present and expected conditions of new use, there is no potential for Roundup herbicide to pose a health risk to humans".[19] The 2000 review has been criticized because it reviewed mostly experiments in which glyphosate and POEA were used alone, not as a mixture as in Roundup, and for only one or two years.[20] They did not review toxicity studies of Roundup treatments (as a mixture) in rats or rabbits lasting more than 22 days[20] and Roundup's potential as an endocrine disruptor was not assessed with a Roundup mixture at all.[20]

A 2008 scientific study has shown that Roundup formulations and metabolic products cause the death of human embryonic, placental, and umbilical cells in vitro, even at low concentrations. The effects were not proportional to the main active ingredient concentrations (glyphosate), but dependent on the nature of the adjuvants used in the Roundup formulation.[21]

Deliberate ingestion of Roundup herbicide in quantities ranging from 85 to 200 ml has resulted in death within hours of ingestion, although it has also been ingested in quantities as large as 500 ml with only mild or moderate symptoms following ingestion.[22] There is a reasonable correlation between the amount of Roundup ingested and the likelihood of serious systemic sequelae or death. Ingestion of >85 mL of the concentrated formulation is likely to cause significant toxicity in adults. Gastrointestinal corrosive effects, with mouth, throat and epigastric pain and dysphagia are common. Renal and hepatic impairment are also frequent and usually reflect reduced organ perfusion. Respiratory distress, impaired consciousness, pulmonary oedema, infiltration on chest x-ray, shock, arrythmias, renal failure requiring haemodialysis, metabolic acidosis and hyperkalaemia may occur in severe cases. Bradycardia and ventricular arrhythmias often present prior to death. Dermal exposure to ready-to-use glyphosate formulations can cause irritation, and photo-contact dermatitis has been reported occasionally; these effects are probably due to the preservative Proxel (benzisothiazolin-3-one).Inhalation is a minor route of exposure, but spray mist may cause oral or nasal discomfort, an unpleasant taste in the mouth, tingling and throat irritation. Eye exposure may lead to mild conjunctivitis, and superficial corneal injury is possible if irrigation is delayed or inadequate.[12]

Glyphosate is toxic to human skin cells, through causing oxidative damage; antioxidants such as Vitamin C and E were found to provide some protection to such damage, leading the authors of the study to recommend that these chemicals be added to formulations including glyphosate.[23] Severe skin burns are very rare.[12]

Endocrine disruptor

A 2000 in vitro study on mouse MA-10 cells concluded that Roundup inhibited progesterone production by disrupting StAR protein expression.[24] Further studies demonstrated this was not caused by glyphosate but to surfactants used as inactive ingredients in Roundup formulations.[25]

A 2005 in vitro study on human placental JEG3 cells concluded that the glyphosate disruption of aromatase is facilitated by adjuvants of the Roundup formulation.[9][26]

A 2009 in vitro experiment with glyphosate formulations on human liver HepG2 cells has observed endocrine disruption at sub-agricultural doses, where a Roundup formulation showed to be the most active formulation. The effects were more dependent on the formulation than on the glyphosate concentration.[27]

A 2009 study on rats has found that Roundup is a potent endocrine disruptor causing disturbances in the reproductive development when the exposure was performed during the puberty period.[28]


Genetic damage

A 1998 study on mice concluded that Roundup is able to cause genetic damage. The authors concluded that the damage was "not related to the active ingredient, but to another component of the herbicide mixture".[29]

A 2005 study raised concerns over the effects of Roundup in transcription.[30]

A 2009 study on mice has found that a single intraperitoneal injection of Roundup in concentration of 25 mg/kg caused chromosomal aberrations and induction of micronuclei.[31]

A 2009 in vitro experiment with glyphosate formulations on human liver cells has observed DNA damages at sub-agricultural doses, where a Roundup formulation showed to be the most active formulation. The effects were more dependent on the formulation than on the glyphosate concentration.[27]

Ecologic effects

A 2000 review of the toxicological data on Roundup concluded that "for terrestrial uses of Roundup minimal acute and chronic risk was predicted for potentially exposed nontarget organisms". It also concluded that there were some risks to aquatic organisms exposed to Roundup in shallow water.[32]

Toxicity

A 2009 study has concluded that while physiological pH decreases glyphosate uptake in animal cells, Roundup formulation contains surfactants that increase membrane permeability allowing cellular uptake at physiological pH.[8]

Aquatic effects

Fish and aquatic invertebrates are more sensitive to Roundup than terrestrial organisms.[32] Glyphosate is generally less persistent in water than in soil, with 12 to 60 day persistence observed in Canadian pond water, yet persistence of over a year have been observed in the sediments of ponds in Michigan and Oregon.[11]
The EU classifies Roundup as R51/53 Toxic to aquatic organisms, may cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic environment.[33]

Although Roundup is not registered for aquatic uses[34] and studies of its effects on amphibians indicate it is toxic to them,[35] scientists have found that it may wind up in small wetlands where tadpoles live, due to inadvertent spraying during its application. A recent study found that even at concentrations one-third of the maximum concentrations expected in nature, Roundup still killed up to 71 percent of tadpoles raised in outdoor tanks.[36]

A 2010 study has found that long-term exposition to environmental relevant concentrations of a Roundup formulation causes metabolic disruption in the fish leporinus obtusidens.[37]

Environmental degradation and effects

When glyphosate comes into contact with the soil, it can be rapidly bound to soil particles and be inactivated.[11] Unbound glyphosate can be degraded by bacteria.[38] Glyphosphate has been shown to increase the infection rate of wheat by fusarium head blight in fields that have been treated with glyphosphate.[39] A 2009 study using a RoundUp formulation has concluded that absorption into plants delays subsequent soil-degradation, and can increase glyphosate persistence in soil from two to six times.[40]

In soils, half lives vary from as little as 3 days at a site in Texas, to as much as 141 days at a site in Iowa.[41] In addition, the glyphosate metabolite aminomethylphosphonic acid was shown to persist up to 2 years in Swedish forest soils.[42]

A recent study concluded that certain amphibians may be at risk from glyphosate use.[43] One study has shown an effect on growth and survival of earthworms.[44] The results of this study are in conflict with other data, and have been criticized on methodological grounds.[32] In other studies, nitrogen fixing bacteria have been impaired, and also crop plant susceptibility to disease has been increased.[39][45][46][47][48][49][50]

False advertising and scientific fraud

False advertising

In 1996, Monsanto was accused of false and misleading advertising of glyphosate products, prompting a law suit by the New York State attorney general.[51] Monsanto had made claims that its spray-on glyphosate based herbicides, including Roundup, were safer than table salt and "practically non-toxic" to mammals, birds, and fish.[52]

Environmental and consumer rights campaigners brought a case in France in 2001 for presenting Roundup as biodegradable and claiming that it left the soil clean after use; glyphosate, Roundup's main ingredient, is classed by the European Union as "dangerous for the environment" and "toxic for aquatic organisms". In January 2007, Monsanto was convicted of false advertising.[53] The result was confirmed in 2009.[54]

Scientific fraud

On two occasions, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has caught scientists deliberately falsifying test results at research laboratories hired by Monsanto to study glyphosate.[55][56][57] In the first incident involving Industrial Biotest Laboratories, an EPA reviewer stated after finding "routine falsification of data" that it was "hard to believe the scientific integrity of the studies when they said they took specimens of the uterus from male rabbits".[58][59][60] In the second incident of falsifying test results in 1991, the owner of the lab (Craven Labs), and three employees were indicted on 20 felony counts, the owner was sentenced to 5 years in prison and fined $50,000, the lab was fined 15.5 million dollars and ordered to pay 3.7 million dollars in restitution.[41][61][62] Craven laboratories performed studies for 262 pesticide companies including Monsanto.

Monsanto has stated that the studies have been repeated, and that Roundup's EPA certification does not now use any studies from Craven Labs or IBT. Monsanto also said that the Craven Labs investigation was started by the EPA after a pesticide industry task force discovered irregularities.[63]

Difference between regulatory registered and commercialized formulations

In November 2009, a French environment group (MDRGF) accused Monsanto of using chemicals in Roundup formulations not disclosed to the country's regulatory bodies, and demanded the removal of those products from the market.[64][65]

Resistance to Roundup

Resistance evolves after a weed population has been subjected to intense selection pressure in the form of repeated use of a single herbicide.[66][67] These weeds resistant to the herbicide have been called "Superweeds".[68][69] In the US 7 to 10 million acres (40,000 km2) of soil is afflicted by those superweeds.[70]

The first documented cases of weed resistance to glyphosate were found in Australia, involving rigid ryegrass near Orange, New South Wales.[71] Some farmers in the United States have expressed concern that weeds are now developing with glyphosate resistance, with 13 states now reporting resistance, and this poses a problem to many farmers, including cotton farmers, that are now heavily dependent on glyphosate to control weeds.[72][73] Farmers associations are now reporting 103 biotypes of weeds within 63 weed species with herbicide resistance.[72][73] This problem is likely to be exacerbated by the use of Roundup Ready crops.[74] Fifteen weed species have been confirmed as resistant to glyphosate.[66]

Palmer amaranth

In 2004, a glyphosate-resistant variation of palmer amaranth, commonly known as pigweed, was found in Georgia and confirmed by a 2005 study.[75] In 2005 resistance was also found in North Carolina.[76] Glyphosate resistance followed the widespread use of Roundup Ready crops, which lead to an unprecedented selection pressure to glyphosate.[76] The weed variation is now widespread in southeast US.[77] Cases are also reported in Texas[77] and Virginia.[78]

Conyza biotypes

Conyza bonariensis (also known as hairy fleabane and buva) and Conyza canadensis (known as horseweed or marestail), are other weed species that had lately developed glyphosate resistance.[79][80][81] A 2008 study on the current situation of glyphosate resistance in South America concluded that "resistance evolution followed intense glyphosate use" and the utilization of glyphosate-resistant soybean crops is a factor encouraging increase in glyphosate use.[82]

Ryegrass

Glyphosate resistant ryegrass (Lolium) has occurred in most of the Australian agricultural area and other areas of the world. All cases of evolution of resistance to glyphosate in Australia were characterized by intensive use of the herbicide while no other effective weed control practices were used. Studies indicate that resistant ryegrass does not compete well against non-resistant plants and their numbers decrease when not grown under conditions of glyphosate application.[83]

Johnsongrass

Glyphosate resistant Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense) has occurred in Roundup Ready soybean culture in Argentina.[84]

Genetically modified crops

In 1996, genetically modified Roundup Ready soybeans resistant to Roundup became commercially available, followed by Roundup Ready corn in 1998.[85] Roundup Ready soybeans patent is due to expire in 2014.[86] Current Roundup Ready crops include soy, maize (corn), canola,[87] sugar beet[88] and cotton, with wheat[89] and alfalfa[90] still under development. As of 2005, 87% of U.S. soybean fields were planted with glyphosate resistant varieties.[91][92]

While the use of Roundup Ready crops has increased the usage of herbicides measured in pounds applied per acre,[93] the use of Roundup Ready crops has changed the herbicide use profile away from atrazine, metribuzin, and alachlor[citation needed] which are more likely to be present in run off water.[94]

An injunction in Center for Food Safety v. USDA in September, 2010 prevented farmers from planting Roundup Ready sugar beets across the United States until a remedial environmental impact report could be filed, prompting some fear of a sugar shortage.[95]

Genetic engineering

Some microorganisms have a version of 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS: EC 2.5.1.19, 3-phosphoshikimate 1-carboxyvinyltransferase; 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthetase; phosphoenolpyruvate:3-phosphoshikimate 5-O-(1-carboxyvinyl)-transferase) that is resistant to glyphosate inhibition. The version used in genetically modified crops was isolated from Agrobacterium strain CP4 (CP4 EPSPS) that was resistant to glyphosate.[96][97] The CP4 EPSPS gene was cloned and inserted into soybeans. The CP4 EPSPS gene was engineered for plant expression by fusing the 5' end of the gene to a chloroplast transit peptide derived from the petunia EPSPS. This transit peptide was used because it had shown previously an ability to deliver bacterial EPSPS to the chloroplasts of other plants. The plasmid used to move the gene into soybeans was PV-GMGTO4. It contained three bacterial genes, two CP4 EPSPS genes, and a gene encoding beta-glucuronidase (GUS) from Escherichia coli as a marker. The DNA was injected into the soybeans using the particle acceleration method or gene gun. Soybean cultivar A54O3 was used for the transformation. The expression of the GUS gene was used as the initial evidence of transformation. GUS expression was detected by a staining method in which the GUS enzyme converts a substrate into a blue precipitate. Those plants that showed GUS expression were then taken and sprayed with glyphosate and their tolerance was tested over many generations.

Productivity claims

In 1999, a review of Roundup Ready soybean crops found that, compared to the top conventional varieties, they had a 6.7% lower yield.[93] This so called "yield drag" follows the same pattern observed when other traits are introduced into soybeans by conventional breeding.[98] Monsanto claims later patented varieties yield 7-11% higher than their poorly performing initial varieties, closer to those of conventional farming, although the company refrains from citing actual yields.[99] Monsanto's 2006 application to USDA states that RR2 (mon89788) yields 1.6 bu less than A3244, the conventional variety that the trait is inserted into.[100]

Tradenames

The Roundup trademark is registered with the US Patent Office and still extant. However, glyphosate is no longer under patent, so similar products use it as an active ingredient.[101]

Other uses

Glyphosate is one of a number of herbicides used by the United States government to spray Colombian coca fields through Plan Colombia. There are reports that widespread application of glyphosate in attempts to destroy coca crops in South America have resulted in the development of glyphosate-resistant strains of coca known as Boliviana negra, which have been selectively bred to be both "Roundup Ready" and larger and higher yielding than the original strains of the plant.[102][103] However, there are no reports of glyphosate-resistant coca in the peer-reviewed literature.[104] In addition, since spraying of herbicides is not permitted in Colombian national parks, this has encouraged coca growers to move into park areas, cutting down the natural vegetation, and establishing coca plantations within park lands.

Cosmetic purposes

In many cities, Roundup is sprayed along the sidewalks and streets, as well as crevices in between pavement where weeds often grow. However, up to 24% of the glyphosate from a Roundup formulation applied to hard surfaces can be run off by water.[105] Glyphosate contamination of surface water is highly attributed to urban use.[106]

In many Canadian cities Roundup use for cosmetic purposes is either banned or restricted.[107][108]

See also

References

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Further reading

  • Baccara, Mariagiovanna, et al. Monsanto's Roundup, NYU Stern School of Business: August 2001, Revised July 14, 2003.
  • Pease W S et al. (1993) Preventing pesticide-related illness in California agriculture: Strategies and priorities. Environmental Health Policy Program Report. Berkeley, CA: University of California. School of Public Health. California Policy Seminar.
  • Marie-Monique Robin. (2008) Le monde selon Monsanto. Arte Editions (book written in French). ISBN 978-2-7071-4918-3. An overview of Monsanto products: PCB, Dioxine, Roundup, Bovine Growth Hormone, OGM.
  • Wang Y, Jaw C and Chen Y (1994) Accumulation of 2,4-D and glyphosate in fish and water hyaacinth. Water Air Soil Pollute. 74:397-403

External links

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