Flapping

For other uses, see Flap (disambiguation).

Flapping or tapping, also known as alveolar flapping, intervocalic flapping, or t-voicing, is a phonological process found in many dialects of English, especially North American English, Australian English and New Zealand English, by which the consonant phoneme /t/ or /d/ placed between vowels is pronounced as a voiced flap under certain conditions. In some cases, the effect is perceived by some listeners as the replacement of a /t/ sound with a /d/ sound; for example, the word butter pronounced with flapping may be heard as "budder". In fact, /t/ and sometimes /d/ are pronounced in such positions as an alveolar flap [ɾ], a sound produced by briefly tapping the alveolar ridge with the tongue. Also, in similar positions, the combination /nt/ may be pronounced with a nasalized flap, making winter sound similar or identical to winner.

The flap is also a variant of /r/ in other varieties such as South African English, Scottish English, and older varieties of Received Pronunciation (see Pronunciation of English /r/).

Terminology

The terms flap and tap are often used synonymously, although some authors make a distinction between them. When the distinction is made, a flap involves a rapid backward and forward movement of the tongue tip, while a tap involves an upward and downward movement. Linguists disagree on whether the sound produced in the present process is a flap or a tap, and by extension on whether it is better called flapping or tapping, while flapping has traditionally been more widely used.

Distribution

Flapping is a prominent feature of North American English. Some linguists consider it obligatory for most American dialects to flap /t/ between a stressed and an unstressed vowel. In Australian, Cockney and Irish English, and to a lesser extent in Received Pronunciation, flapping is present but more occasional and restricted to /t/.

The exact conditions for flapping in North American English are unknown, although it is widely understood that it occurs in an alveolar stop, /t/ or /d/, when placed between two vowels, provided the second vowel is unstressed (as in butter, writing, wedding, loader). Across word boundaries, however, it can occur between any two vowels, provided the second vowel begins a word (as in get over [ɡɛɾˈoʊvɚ]). This extends to morphological boundaries within compound words (as in whatever [ˌwʌɾˈɛvɚ]). In addition to vowels, segments that may precede the flap include /r/ (as in party) and occasionally /l/ (as in faulty). Syllabic /l/ may also follow the flap (as in bottle).

Word-medially, the vowel following the flap must not only be unstressed but also be a reduced one (namely /ə/, morpheme-final or prevocalic /i, oʊ/, or /ɪ/ preceding /ŋ/), so words like botox, retail and latex are not flapped in spite of the primary stress on the first syllables, while pity, motto and Keating can be. The second syllables in the former set of words can thus be considered as having secondary stress.

Word-medial flapping is also prohibited in foot-initial positions. This prevents words such as militaristic, spirantization and Mediterranean from flapping, despite capitalistic and alphabetization, for example, being flapped. This is known as the Withgott effect.

Given these intricacies, it is difficult to formulate a phonological rule that accurately predicts flapping. Nevertheless, Vaux (2000) postulates that it applies to alveolar stops:

• after a sonorant other than l, m, or ŋ, but with restrictions on n;
• before an unstressed vowel within words, or before any vowel across a word boundary;
• when not in foot-initial position.

Exceptions include the preposition/particle to and words derived from it, such as today, tonight, tomorrow and together, wherein /t/ may be flapped when intervocalic (as in go to sleep [ˌɡoʊɾəˈslip]). In Australian English, numerals thirteen, fourteen and eighteen are often flapped despite the second vowel being stressed.

The cluster /nt/ (but not /nd/) in the same environment as flapped /t/ may also be flapped, mostly resulting in a nasal flap [ɾ̃]. Intervocalic /n/ is also often realized as a nasal flap, so words like winter and winner can become homophonous. According to Wells (1982), in the United States, Southerners tend to pronounce winter and winner identically, while Northerners, especially those from the east coast, tend to retain the distinction, pronouncing winter [ˈwɪɾ̃ɚ] and winner [ˈwɪnɚ]. In a limited number of words such as seventy, ninety and carpenter, /nt/ is more frequently pronounced as [nd], retaining /n/ and voicing /t/, although it may still become [ɾ̃] in fast speech.

Homophony

Flapping is a specific type of lenition, specifically intervocalic weakening. It leads to the neutralization of the distinction between /t/ and /d/ in appropriate environments, a partial merger of the two phonemes, provided that both /t/ and /d/ are flapped. Some speakers, however, flap only /t/ but not /d/. For speakers with the merger, the following utterances sound the same or almost the same:

Homophonous pairs

/-t-, -nt-/	/-d-, -n-/	IPA	Notes
at 'em	Adam	ˈæɾəm
at 'em	add 'em	ˈæɾəm
atom	Adam	ˈæɾəm
atom	add 'em	ˈæɾəm
banter	banner	ˈbæɾ̃əɹ
batter	badder	ˈbæɾəɹ
beating	beading	ˈbiːɾɪ̈ŋ
betting	bedding	ˈbɛɾɪ̈ŋ
bitter	bidder	ˈbɪɾəɹ
boating	boding	ˈboʊɾɪ̈ŋ, ˈboːɾɪ̈ŋ
butting	budding	ˈbʌɾɪ̈ŋ
catty	caddy	ˈkæɾi
center	sinner	ˈsɪɾ̃əɹ	With pen–pin merger.
cited	sided	ˈsaɪɾɪ̈d
coating	coding	ˈkoʊɾɪ̈ŋ, ˈkoːɾɪ̈ŋ
cuttle	cuddle	ˈkʌɾəɫ
cutty	cuddy	ˈkʌɾi
debtor	deader	ˈdɛɾəɹ
don't it	doughnut	ˈdoʊɾ̃ət	With weak-vowel merger and toe-tow merger.
futile	feudal	ˈfjuːɾəɫ, ˈfɪuɾəɫ	With weak-vowel merger before /l/.
greater	grader	ˈɡɹeɪɾəɹ, ˈɡɹeːɾəɹ
hearty	hardy	ˈhɑɹɾi
heated	heeded	ˈhiːɾɪ̈d	With meet-meat merger.
hurting	herding	ˈhɜɹɾɪ̈ŋ	With fern-fir-fur merger.
inter-	inner	ˈɪɾ̃əɹ
jointing	joining	ˈdʒɔɪɾ̃ɪ̈ŋ
kitty	kiddie	ˈkɪɾi
knotted	nodded	ˈnɒɾɪ̈d
ladder	latter	ˈlæɾəɹ
liter	leader	ˈliːɾəɹ	With meet-meat merger.
manta	manna	ˈmæɾ̃ə
manta	manner	ˈmæɾ̃ə	In non-rhotic accents.
manta	manor	ˈmæɾ̃ə	In non-rhotic accents.
Marty	Mardi	ˈmɑɹɾi	In the term Mardi Gras.
matter	madder	ˈmæɾəɹ
meant it	minute	ˈmɪɾ̃ɪ̈t	With pen–pin merger.
metal	medal	ˈmɛɾəɫ
metal	meddle	ˈmɛɾəɫ
mettle	medal	ˈmɛɾəɫ
mettle	meddle	ˈmɛɾəɫ
minty	many	ˈmɪɾ̃i	With pen–pin merger.
minty	mini	ˈmɪɾ̃i
minty	Minnie	ˈmɪɾ̃i
neater	kneader	ˈniːɾəɹ
neuter	nuder	ˈnuːɾəɹ, ˈnjuːɾəɹ, ˈnɪuɾəɹ
otter	odder	ˈɒɾəɹ
painting	paining	ˈpeɪɾ̃ɪ̈ŋ
parity	parody	ˈpæɹəɾi	With weak-vowel merger
patty	paddy	ˈpæɾi
petal	pedal	ˈpɛɾəɫ
petal	peddle	ˈpɛɾəɫ
pettle	pedal	ˈpɛɾəɫ
pettle	peddle	ˈpɛɾəɫ
phantom	fan 'em	ˈfæɾ̃əm
planter	planner	ˈplæɾ̃əɹ
potted	podded	ˈpɒɾɪ̈d
rated	raided	ˈɹeɪɾɪ̈d	With pane-pain merger.
rattle	raddle	ˈɹæɾəɫ
righting	riding	ˈɹaɪɾɪ̈ŋ
router	ruder	ˈɹuːɾəɹ	With yod-dropping after /ɹ/.
Saturday	sadder day	ˈsæɾəɹdeɪ
satyr	seder	ˈseɪɾəɹ
seating	seeding	ˈsiːɾɪ̈ŋ	With meet-meat merger.
sent it	senate	ˈsɛɾ̃ɪ̈t
set it	said it	ˈsɛɾɪ̈t
shutter	shudder	ˈʃʌɾəɹ
sighted	sided	ˈsaɪɾɪ̈d
sited	sided	ˈsaɪɾɪ̈d
title	tidal	ˈtaɪɾəɫ
traitor	trader	ˈtɹeɪɾəɹ	With pane-pain merger.
Tudor	tutor	ˈtuːɾəɹ, ˈtjuːɾəɹ, ˈtɪuɾəɹ
waiter	wader	ˈweɪɾəɹ	With pane-pain merger.
wetting	wedding	ˈwɛɾɪ̈ŋ
winter	winner	ˈwɪɾ̃əɹ
whiter	wider	ˈwaɪɾəɹ	With wine–whine merger.
writing	riding	ˈɹaɪɾɪ̈ŋ

In accents characterized by Canadian raising, such words as riding and writing may be flapped yet still distinguished by the quality of the vowel: riding [ˈɹaɪɾɪŋ], writing [ˈɹʌɪɾɪŋ]. Vowel duration may also be different, with a longer vowel before /d/ than before /t/, due to pre-fortis clipping.

Other languages

A similar process also occurs in other languages, such as the Western Apache language (and other Southern Athabaskan languages). In Western Apache, intervocalic /t/ similarly is realized as [ɾ] in intervocalic position. The process occurs even between words. However, tapping is blocked when /t/ is the initial consonant of a stem so tapping occurs only when /t/ is stem-internal or in a prefix. Unlike English, tapping is not affected by suprasegmentals (stress or tone). Another important example is Tagalog, where the two phonemes used the same Baybayin character, but was separated into two distinct letters, namely ⟨d⟩ (for [d]) and ⟨r⟩ (for [ɾ]) during its transition into the Spanish-based Latin alphabet. Similarly, some speakers of Finnish flap /d/ to [ɾ].

See also

• Phonological history of English consonants
• Regional accents of English

References

Bérces, Katalin Balogné (2011). "Weak and semiweak phonological positions in English". Journal of English Studies. 9: 75–96. doi:10.18172/jes.160. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

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de Jong, Kenneth (1998). "Stress-related variation in the articulation of coda alveolar stops: flapping revisited". Journal of Phonetics. 26 (3): 283–310. doi:10.1006/jpho.1998.0077. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Fox, Kirsten (2011). VCE English Language: Exam Guide (2nd ed.). Insight Publications. ISBN 978-1-92141193-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Goldsmith, John (2011). "The Syllable". In Goldsmith, John; Riggle, Jason; Yu, Alan C. L. (eds.). The Handbook of Phonological Theory (2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 164–196. doi:10.1002/9781444343069.ch6. ISBN 978-1-4051-5768-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Gussenhoven, Carlos; Jacobs, Haike (2017). Understanding Phonology (4th ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-35197471-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Hayes, Bruce (1995). Metrical Stress Theory: Principles and Case Studies. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-22632104-5. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

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Horvath, Barbara M. (2004). "Australian English: phonology". In Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Upton, Clive (eds.). A Handbook of Varieties of English. Vol. Volume 1: Phonology. Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 625–644. doi:10.1515/9783110175325.1.625. ISBN 3-11-017532-0. {{cite book}}: |volume= has extra text (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |editorlink2= ignored (|editor-link2= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |editorlink4= ignored (|editor-link4= suggested) (help)

Hualde, José Ignacio (2011). "Sound Change". In van Oostendorp, Marc; Ewen, Colin J.; Hume, Elizabeth; Rice, Keren (eds.). The Blackwell Companion to Phonology: Volume IV – Phonological Interfaces. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 2214–2235. ISBN 978-1-40518423-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |editorlink1= ignored (|editor-link1= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |editorlink3= ignored (|editor-link3= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |editorlink4= ignored (|editor-link4= suggested) (help)

Iverson, Gregory K.; Ahn, Sang-Cheol (2007). "English voicing in dimensional theory". Language Sciences. 29 (2–3): 247–269. doi:10.1016/j.langsci.2006.12.012. PMC 2390816. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Jones, Daniel (2011). Roach, Peter; Setter, Jane; Esling, John (eds.). Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (18th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-15255-6.

Ladefoged, Peter; Johnson, Keith (2010). A Course in Phonetics (6th ed.). Wadsworth. ISBN 978-1-42823126-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Ogden, Richard (2009). An Introduction to English Phonetics. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-2541-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Shockey, Linda (2003). Sound Patterns of Spoken English. Blackwell. ISBN 0-63123079-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Vaux, Bert (2000). "Flapping in English" (PDF). Linguistic Society of America. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 June 2001. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Wells, John C. (1982). Accents of English. Vol. 1: An Introduction (pp. i–xx, 1–278). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-52129719-2 .