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Proto-Kra–Dai language

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Proto-Kra–Dai
PKD
Reconstruction ofKra–Dai languages
RegionPearl River region
Lower-order reconstructions

Proto-Kra–Dai (typically abbreviated as PKD) is the proposed reconstructed ancestor of the Kra–Dai languages.

Background

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No full reconstruction of Proto-Kra–Dai has been published to date, although tentative reconstructions of many Proto-Kra–Dai roots have been attempted from time to time. Some preliminary Proto-Kra–Dai forms have been reconstructed by Benedict (1975)[1] and Wu (2002). Wu (2002) presents a reconstruction of Proto-Kra–Dai phonemes, which is based on data from the Tai, Kam-Sui, Hlai, and Kra branches.[2]

Liang & Zhang (1996) propose a reconstruction of Proto-Kra–Dai (Chinese: 原始侗台语) initials and finals, using data from all Kra–Dai branches except for Kra and Jiamao.[3]

Phonology

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Proto-Kra–Dai has the finals *-l and *-c, which have been lost in most present-day Kra–Dai languages.[4] It also has the final stops *-p, *-t, *-k and final nasals *-m, *-n, *-ŋ.[4]

Ostapirat (2023) proposes the following consonant inventory for Proto-Kra–Dai, which is relatively simple compared to that of Proto-Tai and other lower-level reconstructions.[5]

Proto Kra-Dai consonants
Ostapirat (2023)
Labial Coronal Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal
Nasal m n ɲ ŋ
Plosive Voiceless p t, ts c k q ʔ
Voiced b d ɟ ɡ
Fricative θ, s
Approximant w r, l j

Norquest (2020) proposes the preglottalized sonorants *ʔb, *ʔd, *ʔɖ, *ʔɟ for Proto-Kra–Dai, as part of a four-way phonation distinction in Kra-Dai sonorants consisting of preaspirated, voiceless, plain, and preglottalized sonorants. Norquest (2020) also reconstructs velarized initial consonants (*Cˠ-) in Proto-Kra–Dai.[6]

Below is a table of Proto-Kra–Dai pre-syllables and their developments as proposed by Norquest (2020).[6]

p-Kra-Dai p-Lakkja p-Kam-Sui p-Ong-Be p-Tai p-Hlai
*C-b *w̥ *C-b *ʔb *C-b
*C-d *l̥ *C-ʔɖ *r̥ *C-d
*C-ɖ *j̊ (< *r̥) *C-ʔɖ *r *C-ɖ
*C-ɟ *l̥ *ʔj *j̊ *ʔj *hj
*Cəʔb *ʔb *ʔb *ʔb *ʔb
*Cəʔd *l̥ *ʔd *r̥ *ʔd
*Cəʔɖ *l̥ *ʔɖ *r̥ *ʔd
*Cəʔɟ *j̊ *ʔɟ *j̊ *ʔɟ *tɕ
*Cəm *m̥ *ʔm *m̥ *m̥ *ʔm
*Cən *n̥ *ʔn *n̥ *n̥ *ʔn
*Cəȵ *ȵ̥ *ʔȵ *ȵ̥ *ȵ̥ *ʔȵ
*Cəŋ *ŋ̊ *ʔŋ *ŋ̊ *ŋ̊ *ʔŋ
*Cəl *l̥ *l̥ *l̥ *l̥ *ʔl
*Cər *j̊ (< *r̥) *ʔr *Cr *hr
*Cəʀ (*j̊) *ʔʀ (*ʃ) (*ʀ̥) (*hr)
*Cəw *w̥ *ʔw *w̥ *ʔw (*ʔw)
*Cəj *j̊ *ʔj *j̊ *ʔj (*ʔj)

Ostapirat (2023) considers many Proto-Tai spirants and rhotics to have developed from the intervocalic lenition of Proto-Kra–Dai medial obstruents. Voicing in the Proto-Tai initial is determined by the voicing of the preceding consonant in the Proto-Kra–Dai form.[5]

p-Kra–Dai p-Tai
*(C)-p- *v- [β]
*(C̥)-p- *f- [βʰ]
*(C)-t- *r-
*(C̥)-t- *rʰ-
*(C)-ts- *z- [ɮ]
*(C̥)-ts- *s-
*(C)-k- *ɣ-
*(C̥)-k- *x-
*-q- *-ɢ-

Some Proto-Kra–Dai sesquisyllabic consonant onsets reconstructed by Ostapirat (2023) are:[5]

Gloss p-Kra–Dai p-Tai p-Kam–Sui
taro *b.r- *prɨak D *ʔraːk D
thin *b.r- *proːm A *ʔruːm A
forehead *p.r- *praːk D *praːk D
hair *p.r- *prom A *pram A
ribs *g.r- *kraːŋ C
"Kra"; slave *k.r- *kraː C

Liang & Zhang (1996)

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Liang & Zhang (1996) propose the following reconstructions of Proto-Kra–Dai (Chinese: 原始侗台语) initials and finals, using data from all Kra–Dai branches except for Kra and Jiamao.[3]

Initial consonants
  • Plain stop initials
    • *p, *pw, *pl, *plw, *pr
    • *t, *tl, *tr
    • *k, *kw, *kl, *klw, *kr, *krw
    • *q, *ql, *qr, *ʔ
    • *b, *bw, *bl, *blw, *br
    • *d, *dl, *dr
    • *g, *gw, *gl, *glw, *gr, *grw, *ɢ
  • Voiced aspirated initials
    • *bɦ, *bwɦ, *brɦ
    • *dɦ, *ndlɦ
    • *gɦ, *gwɦ
    • *ɣɦ, *ɣwɦ, *ɢɦ, *ʁɦ, *sɢrɦ
  • Preglottalized initials
    • *ʔb, *ʔbw, *ʔbl, *ʔblw
    • *ʔd, *ʔdl, *ʔdr
    • *ʔm, *ʔml, *ʔmr
    • *ʔn, *ʔnl, *ʔnr, *ʔȵ, *ʔŋ, *ʔŋw
  • Voiceless nasal initials
    • *m̥, *m̥w, *m̥l, *m̥r, *m̥rw
    • *n̥, *n̥l, *ȵ̥, *ȵ̥w, *ŋ̥, *ŋ̥w
  • Plain nasal initials
    • *m, *mw, *ml, *mr
    • *n, *nr, *ȵ, *ŋ, *ŋw, *ŋr, *ɴl
  • Prenasalized initials
    • *mp, *mpl, *mpr
    • *nt, *ntl, *ntr
    • *ŋk, *ŋkw, *ŋkl
    • *mb, *mbl, *mbr
    • *nd, *ndl, *ndr
    • *ŋg, *ŋgl, *ŋgr
  • Glide and liquid initials
    • *ʔw, *ʔr, *ʔj
    • *w̥, *l̥, *r̥, *j̥
    • *w, *l, *r, *j
  • Fricative initials
    • *s, *sw, *sl, *sr, *ɕ, *x, *xw, *xl, *xr, *h
    • *z, *zl, *zr, *ʑ, *ɣ, *ɣw, *ɣl, *ʁ, *ɦ
  • Initial clusters beginning with fricatives
    • *xp, *xpl, *xpr, *xt, *xk, *xkw, *xkl, *xklw, *xkr, *xkrw, *xq, *xql
    • *sp, *spw, *spl, *st, *stl, *str, *sk, *skw, *skl, *skr, *skrw, *sq, *sqr
    • *zb, *zd, *zdw, *zgr
Vowels and diphthongs
  • *a, *a, *i̯a, *u̯a, *ɯ̯a
  • *ə̯, *i̯ə, *u̯ə
  • *ɛ, *i̯ɛ, *e, *i̯e
  • *ɔ, *u̯ɔ, *ɯ̯ɔ, *o, *i̯o, *u̯o, *ɯ̯o
  • *i̯, *u̯i, *ie ,iə, *ia, *iɛ
  • *u, *i̯u, *ɯ̯u, *ue, *uə, *ua, *uo, *uɔ, *uɯ
  • *ɯ, *ɯe, *ɯə, *ɯa, *ɯɔ, *ɯu

Lexicon

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Ostapirat (2018, 2023)

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Weera Ostapirat (2018a)[7] reconstructs disyllabic forms for Proto-Kra–Dai, rather than sesquisyllabic or purely monosyllabic forms. His Proto-Kra–Dai reconstructions also contains the finals */-c/ and */-l/.[8] Ostapirat (2018b:113)[9] lists the following of his own Proto-Kra–Dai reconstructions.

Notes:

  • */K-/: either /k-/ or /q-/
  • */C-/: unspecified consonant
  • */T-/ and */N-/ are distinct from */t-/ and */n-/.
Gloss Proto-Kra–Dai
blood *pɤlaːc
bone *Kudɤːk
ear *qɤrɤː
eye *maTaː
hand *(C)imɤː
nose *(ʔ)idaŋ
tongue *(C)əmaː
tooth *lipan
dog *Kamaː
fish *balaː
horn *paquː
louse *KuTuː
fire *(C)apuj
stone *KaTiːl
star *Kadaːw
water *(C)aNam
I (1.SG) *akuː
thou (2.SG) *isuː; amɤː
one *(C)itsɤː
two *saː
die *maTaːj
name *(C)adaːn
full *pətiːk
new *(C)amaːl

Some additional tentative Proto-Kra–Dai reconstructions by Ostapirat (2023) include the following.[5]

Gloss Proto-Kra–Dai
chin *ləqaːŋ A
shoulder pole *ləqaːn A
person *niqun A
bitter *təqam A[a]
excrement *taqiː C[b]
rice *rəquː C
young chicken *rəqaːŋ B
fire *apuy A
tooth *ipan A
rain *kipun A
millet *kipaːŋ C
vomit *utaːk D
we (incl.) *atuː A
carry on pole *kətaːp D
break *kətak D
pestle *tsaːk D
sour *qatsum C
wash *(C)atsak D
left *(C)itsaːy
thatch grass *ikaː A
field dike *ikal A
knee *tukuː B
to crow *tikal A
moon *bulaːn A
flower *baluːk D
to weed *bəlaːy A[c]
spotted *bəlaːŋ B[d]

Norquest (2020)

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Norquest (2020) lists the following of his own Proto-Kra–Dai and other lower-level reconstructions.[6]

Gloss p-Kra-Dai p-Lakkja p-Kam-Sui p-Ong-Be p-Tai p-Hlai
thin *C-báːŋ *w̥aːŋ *C-baːŋ *ˀbjaŋ *C-baːŋ
bone *Cudə́ːk *C-ˀɖaːk *r̥ɯk *C-dwoːk *Cuɾɯːk
boat *Cuɖáː *j̊waː *C-ˀɖrwaː *rwaː *C-ɖwaː *Cuɾaː
borrow *C-ɟáːm *l̥aːm *ˀjaːm *ˀjɯːm
village *Cəˀbáːnʔ *ˀbaːnʔ *ˀbaːnʔ *ˀbaːnʔ
winnow basket *Cəˀdóŋʔ *l̥oŋʔ *ˀdɔŋʔ *r̥oːŋ X *ˀdoŋʔ *ɗoŋʔ
to stand *Cəˀɟún *j̊uːn *ˀɟun *j̊un *ˀɟɯn *tɕuːn
dog *kʰ[u]máː *kʰ-mwaː *k-hmaː *m̥aː *m̥aː *hmaː
ditch *[t]-m̥ˠáːŋ *T-m̥jaːŋ *m̥aŋ *m̥ɯəŋ
ant *r-móȶ *mot *r-mət *muːʔ *moc *hmuȶ
bear *kəˀmˠúj *k-Nuːj *ˀmjeː *m̥wiː *ˀmuj
thick *tsəˀnáː *ts-Naː *ˀɳaː *n̥aː *n̥aː *ˀnaː
cold *kəˀȵít *k-Niːt *ˀȵit *n̥iːt *n̥it
stupid *Cəˀŋáːŋh *ˀŋaːŋh *ˀŋaːŋh *ŋ̊əːŋ X
gills *Cəˀŋˠáːk *ˀȵaːk *ŋaːk *ŋ̊ɯək *ˀŋaːk
taro *pəˀrˠáːk *j̊aːk (< *r̥aːk) *ˀrjaːk *ʃaːk *prɯək *hraːk
moan *gəˀráːŋ *j̊aːŋ (< *r̥aːŋ) *ˀraːŋ *graːŋ
hungry *məˀjáːk *m-ˀjaːk *j̊ak *ˀjaːk
stupid *Cəˀwáːʔ *ˀwaːʔ *ˀwaːʔ

Lower-level reconstructions

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Norquest (2021) provides the following lower-level reconstructions for each branch of Kra–Dai.[10]

Gloss p-BiaoLakkja p-Kam–Sui p-Kra p-Hlai p-Be p-Tai
house *ljaːk *r̥aːn *qran *hrɯːn *raːn *rɤːn
road *tsaːŋ *qʰwən *qron *kuːn *ʃwən *r̥wɤn
heavy *N-tsak *C-dʑan *qχəl *kʰɯn *xən *n̥ak
leg *puk *p-qaː *C-qaː *kʰok *kok *f-qaː
neck *ʔən *ʔdənʔ *C-joː *hljoŋʔ *liəŋX *ɣoː
beard *m-luːt *m-nrut *mumʔ *hmɯːmʔ *mumX *mumh
wet field *raːh *ʔraːh *naː *hnaːɦ *njaː *naː
crow *kaː *qaː *ʔak *ʔaːk *ʔak *kaː
needle *tɕʰəm *tɕʰəm *ŋot *hŋuc *ŋaːʔ *qjem
mortar *krˠəm *ʔdru *ɾəw *ɦoːk *grok
tongue *m-laː *maː *l-maː *hliːnʔ *liːnX *linʔ
wing *C-faːh *ʀwaː *pʰiːk *pik *piːk
skin *ŋʀaː *taː *n̥əːŋ *n̥aŋ *n̥aŋ
to shoot *pɛŋh *hɲɯː *ɲəː *ɲɯː
to fly *[C-]pənh *C-pˠənʔ *ɓin *ʔbjən *ʔbil
bee *mlet *luk *reː *kəːj *ʃaːŋX *prɯŋʔ
vegetable *ʔmaː *ʔop *ɓɯː ʈʂʰəj *ʃak *prak
red *hlaːnʔ *hraːnʔ *r̥iŋ *C-djeːŋ
to bite *kat *klət *ʈajh *hŋaːɲʔ *gap *ɢɦap
to descend *lojʔ *C-ɭuːjh *caɰʔ *l̥uːj *roːŋ *N-ɭoŋ

Note that like Jiamao, Proto-Be does not distinguish between tone categories B and C, but rather only has an X category, which Chen (2018) names as tone category BC.[11]

See also

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Further reading

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  • Sagart, Laurent. 2019. A model of the origin of Kra-Dai tones. Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale, 48(1), 1–29. doi:10.1163/19606028-04801004
  • Sagart, Laurent. 2020. "Labial fortitions in Kra-Dai." In Sino-Tibetan-Austronesian.
  • Norquest, Peter (2021). "Classification of (Tai-)Kadai/Kra-Dai languages". The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia. De Gruyter. pp. 225–246. doi:10.1515/9783110558142-013. ISBN 9783110558142. S2CID 238672319.

Notes

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  1. ^ cf. Biao tʰam¹ < *t-qam
  2. ^ cf. Biao tʰai³ < *t-q-
  3. ^ The proto-tone is from Pittayaporn's (2009) Proto-Tai reconstruction.
  4. ^ The proto-tone is from Pittayaporn's (2009) Proto-Tai reconstruction.

References

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  1. ^ Benedict, Paul K. 1975. Austro-Thai: language and culture, with a glossary of roots. New Haven: Human Relations Area Files Press.
  2. ^ Wu, Anqi 吴安其. 2002. Hanzangyu tongyuan yanjiu 汉藏语同源研究. Beijing: Minzu University Press 中央民族大学出版社. ISBN 7-81056-611-3
  3. ^ a b Liang Min 梁敏 & Zhang Junru 张均如. 1996. Dongtai yuzu gailun 侗台语族概论 / An introduction to the Kam–Tai languages. Beijing: China Social Sciences Academy Press 中国社会科学出版社. ISBN 9787500416814
  4. ^ a b Ostapirat, Weera. 2009. Proto-Tai and Kra-Dai Finals *-l and *-c. Journal of Language and Culture, 28(2), 41–56.
  5. ^ a b c d Ostapirat, Weera (2023). Proto-Kra–Dai consonants: an outline and outstanding issues. 32nd Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society (SEALS 2023), May 18, 2023. Chiang Mai University.
  6. ^ a b c Norquest, Peter. 2020. A Hypothesis on the Origin of Preglottalized Sonorants in Kra-Dai. 38th West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics. Vancouver: Department of Linguistics, University of British Columbia. doi:10.14288/1.0389866
  7. ^ Ostapirat, Weera. 2018a. Reconstructing Disyllabic Kra-Dai. Paper presented at the 28th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society, held May 17–19, 2018 in Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
  8. ^ Ostapirat, Weera. 2009. Proto-Tai and Kra–Dai finals *-l and *-c. Journal of Language and Culture Vol. 28 No. 2 (July – December 2009).
  9. ^ Ostapirat, Weera. 2018b. "Macrophyletic Trees of East Asian Languages Re examined." In Let's Talk about Trees, ed. by Ritsuko Kikusawa and Lawrence A. Reid. Osaka: Senri Ethnological Studies, Minpaku. doi:10.15021/00009006
  10. ^ Norquest, Peter (2021). "Classification of (Tai-)Kadai/Kra-Dai languages". The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia. De Gruyter. pp. 225–246. doi:10.1515/9783110558142-013. ISBN 9783110558142. S2CID 238672319.
  11. ^ Chen, Yen-ling (2018). Proto-Ong-Be (PDF) (Ph.D. dissertation). University of Hawaii at Manoa. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2023-06-05. Retrieved 2023-04-27.