Psychological abuse: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
→‎Bancroft's common myths about domestic abusers: remove this section from here, to be moved to Domestic violence
Line 14: Line 14:
Several studies have argued that, unlike physical and sexual maltreatment, an isolated incident ''does not'' constitute emotional abuse. Tomison and Tucci write, "emotional abuse is characterised by a climate or pattern of behaviour(s) occurring over time [...] Thus, 'sustained' and 'repetitive' are the crucial components of any definition of emotional abuse."<ref>Tomison, Adam M and Joe Tucci. 1997. [http://www.aifs.gov.au/nch/pubs/issues/issues8/issues8.html Emotional Abuse: The Hidden Form of Maltreatment]. Issues in Child Abuse Prevention Number 8 Spring 1997</ref>
Several studies have argued that, unlike physical and sexual maltreatment, an isolated incident ''does not'' constitute emotional abuse. Tomison and Tucci write, "emotional abuse is characterised by a climate or pattern of behaviour(s) occurring over time [...] Thus, 'sustained' and 'repetitive' are the crucial components of any definition of emotional abuse."<ref>Tomison, Adam M and Joe Tucci. 1997. [http://www.aifs.gov.au/nch/pubs/issues/issues8/issues8.html Emotional Abuse: The Hidden Form of Maltreatment]. Issues in Child Abuse Prevention Number 8 Spring 1997</ref>


==Pathology==
==Pathology==H.B.C./Holsum Boy Clique
===Prevalence===
===Prevalence===
====Emotional abuse and intimate relationships====
====Emotional abuse and intimate relationships====

Revision as of 18:33, 5 November 2009

Psychological abuse, also referred to as emotional abuse, is a form of abuse characterized by a person subjecting or exposing another to behavior that is psychologically harmful. Such abuse is often associated with situations of power imbalance, such as abusive relationships, bullying, child abuse and in the workplace.

Definitions

As of 1996,[1] there were "no consensus views about the definition of emotional abuse.” As such, clinicians and researchers have offered sometimes divergent definitions of emotional abuse. However, the widely-used Conflict Tactics Scale measures roughly 20 distinct acts of "psychological aggression" in three different categories: Verbal aggression (e.g.,"Your partner has said something to upset/annoy you"); dominant behaviors (e.g., "I have tried to prevent my partner from seeing/speaking to their family"); and jealous behaviors (e.g., "Your partner has accused you of maintaining other parallel relations.").

The U.S. Department of Justice defines emotionally abusive traits as including causing fear by intimidation, threatening physical harm to self, partner, children, or partner's family or friends, destruction of pets and property, forcing isolation from family, friends, or school or work.[2]

In 1996, Health Canada argues that emotional abuse is motivated by urges for "power and control",[3] and defines emotional abuse as including rejecting, degrading, terrorizing, isolating, corrupting/exploiting and "denying emotional responsiveness" as characteristic of emotional abuse.

Andrew Vachss, an author, attorney and former sex crimes investigator, defines emotional abuse as "the systematic diminishment of another. It may be intentional or subconscious (or both), but it is always a course of conduct, not a single event."[4]

Subtler emotionally abusive tactics include insults, putdowns, arbitrary and unpredictable inconsistency, and gaslighting (the denial that previous abusive incidents occurred). Modern technology has led to new forms of abuse, by text messaging and online cyber-bullying.

Several studies have argued that, unlike physical and sexual maltreatment, an isolated incident does not constitute emotional abuse. Tomison and Tucci write, "emotional abuse is characterised by a climate or pattern of behaviour(s) occurring over time [...] Thus, 'sustained' and 'repetitive' are the crucial components of any definition of emotional abuse."[5]

==Pathology==H.B.C./Holsum Boy Clique

Prevalence

Emotional abuse and intimate relationships

Main article: Domestic abuse

Domestic abuse—defined as chronic mistreatment in marriage, families, dating and other intimate relationships —- can include emotionally abusive behavior. Psychological abuse does not always lead to physical abuse, but physical abuse in domestic relationships is nearly always preceded and accompanied by psychological abuse.[6] Murphy and O'Leary[7] report that psychological aggression by one partner is the most reliable predictor of the other partner's likelihood of first exhibiting physical aggression.

A 2005 study by Hamel[8] reports that "[M]en and women physically and emotionally abuse each other at equal rates." Basile[9] found that psychological aggression was effectively bidirectional in cases where heterosexual and homosexual couples went to court for domestic disturbances. A 2007 study of Spanish college students (n = 1,886) aged 18–27 [10] found that psychological aggression (as measured by the Conflict Tactics Scale) is so pervasive in dating relationships that it can be regarded as a normalized element of dating, and that women are substantially more likely to exhibit psychological aggression. Similar findings have been reported in other studies.[11] Strauss et al. [12] found that female intimate partners in heterosexual relationships were more likely than males to use psychological aggression, including threats to hit or throw an object. A study of young adults (N = 721) by Giordano et al. [13] found that females in intimate heterosexual relationships were more likely than males to threaten to use a knife or gun against their partner. Numerous studies [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] report that lesbian relationships have higher overall rates of interpersonal aggression (including psychological aggression/emotional abuse) than heterosexual or gay male relationships. In 1996, the National Clearinghouse on Family Violence,[21] for Health Canada, reported that 39% of married women or common-law wives suffered emotional abuse by husbands/partners; and a 1995 survey of women 15 and over (n = 1000) 36-43% reported emotional abuse during childhood or adolescence, and 39% experienced emotional abuse in marriage/dating; this report does not address boys or men suffering emotional abuse from families or intimate partners. A BBC radio documentary on domestic abuse, including emotional maltreatment, reports that 20% of men and 30% of women have been abused by a spouse or other intimate partner.[22]

Straus and Field[23] report that psychological aggression is a pervasive trait of American families: "verbal attacks on children, like physical attacks, are so prevalent as to be just about universal." A 2008 study by English, et. al[24] found that fathers and mothers were equally likely to be verbally aggressive towards their children.

In the workplace

Rates of reported emotional abuse in the workplace vary, with studies showing 10%[25] 24%[26] and 36%[27] of respondents indicating persistent and substantial emotional abuse from coworkers.

Keashly and Jagatic[28] found that males and females commit “emotionally abusive behaviors” in the workplace at roughly similar rates. In a web-based survey, Namie[29] found that women were more likely to engage in workplace bullying, such as name-calling, and that the average length of abuse was 16.5 months

Characteristics of abusers

In their review of data from the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study (a longitudinal birth cohort study; n = 941) Moffitt et al.[30] report that while men exhibit more aggression overall, sex is not a reliable predictor of interpersonal aggression, including psychological aggression. The study found that whether male or female, aggressive people share a cluster of traits, including high rates of suspicion and jealousy; sudden and drastic mood swings; poor self-control; and higher than average rates of approval of violence and aggression. Moffitt et al. also argue that antisocial men exhibit two distinct types of interpersonal aggressive (one against strangers, the other against intimate female partners), while antisocial women are rarely aggressive against anyone other than intimate male partners.

Male and female perpetrators of emotional and physical abuse exhibit high rates of personality disorders.[31] [32] [33]

Abusers may aim to avoid household chores or exercise total control of family finances. Abusers can be very manipulative, often recruiting friends, law officers and court officials, even the victim's family to their side, while shifting blame to the victim.[34][35]

Effects of emotional abuse

English, et al.[36] report that children whose families are characterized by interpersonal violence, including psychological aggression and verbal aggression, may exhibit a range of serious disorders, including chronic depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, dissociation and anger. Additionally, English et. al report that the impact of emotional abuse "did not differ significantly" from that of physical abuse. Johnson et al.[37] report that, in a survey of female patients (n = 825), 24% suffered emotional abuse, and this group experienced higher rates of gynecological problems. In their study of men emotionally abused by a wife/partner (n = 116), Hines and Malley-Morrison[38] report that victims exhibit high rates of post traumatic stress disorder and alcoholism.

Namie's study[39] of workplace emotional abuse found that 31% of women and 21% of men who reported workplace emotional abuse exhibited three key symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (hypervigilance, intrusive imagery, and avoidance behaviors). A 1998 study of male college students (n = 70) by Simonelli & Ingram[40] found that men who were emotionally abused by their female partners exhibited higher rates of chronic depression than the general population.

A study of college students (N = 80) by Goldsmith and Freyd[41] report that many who have experienced emotional abuse do not characterize the mistreatment as abusive. Additionally, Goldsmith and Freyd show that these people also tend to exhibit higher than average rates of alexithymia (difficulty identifying and processing their own emotions).

Jacobson et al.[42] found that women report markedly higher rates of fear during marital conflicts. However, a rejoinder[43] argued that Jacobson's results were invalid due to men and women's drastically differing interpretations of questionnaires. Coker et al.[44] found that the effects of mental abuse were similar whether the victim was male or female. Pimlott-Kubiak and Cortina[45] found that severity and duration of abuse were the only accurate predictors of aftereffects of abuse; sex of perpetrator or victim were not reliable predictors.

Analysis of large survey (N = 25,876) by LaRoche[46] found that women abused by men were slightly more likely to seek psychological help than were men abused by women (63% vs. 62%).

In a 2007 study, Laurent, et al.,[47] report that psychological aggression in young couples (n = 47) is associated with decreased satisfaction for both partners: "psychological aggression may serve as an impediment to couples development because it reflects less mature coercive tactics and an inability to balance self/other needs effectively." A 2008 study by Walsh and Shulman[11] reports that psychological aggression by females is more likely to be associated with relationship dissatisfaction for both partners, while withdrawal by men is more likely to be associated with relationship dissatisfaction for both partners.

Popular and clinical perception of emotional abuse

Several studies found double-standards in how people tend to view emotional abuse by men versus emotional abuse by women. Follingstad et al. found that,[48] when rating hypothetical vignettes of psychological abuse in marriages, professional psychologists tend to rate male abuse of females as more serious than identical scenarios describing female abuse of males: "the stereotypical association between physical aggression and males appears to extend to an association of psychological abuse and males" (Follingstad et al., p. 446) Similarly, Sorenson and Taylor randomly surveyed a group of Los Angeles, California residents for their opinions of hypothetical vignettes of abuse in heterosexual relationships.[49] Their study found that abuse committed by women, including emotional and psychological abuse such as controlling or humiliating behavior, was typically viewed as less serious or detrimental than identical abuse committed by men. Additionally, Sorenson and Taylor found that respondents had a broader range of opinions about female perpetrators, representing a lack of clearly-defined mores when compared to responses about male perpetrators.

According to Walsh and Shluman, "The higher rates of female initiated aggression [including psychological aggression] may result, in part, from adolescents' attitudes about the unacceptability of male aggression and the relatively less negative attitudes toward female aggression."[11]

Hamel's 2007 study found that "prevailing patriarchal conception of intimate partner violence" led to a systematic reluctance to study women who psychologically and physically abuse their male partners.[50]

Dutton found that men who are emotionally or physically abused often encounter victim blaming that erroneously presumes the man either provoked or deserved the mistreatment of their female partners.[51] Similarly, domestic violence victims will often blame their own behavior, rather than the violent actions of the abuser. Victims may try continually to alter their behavior and circumstances in order to please the abuser.[52]

Cultural causes

It is argued that hundreds or thousands of years of male dominated societies have created negative attitudes towards women among many men, leading boys to grow up with a deeply engrained sense of entitlement that women will do all the work of looking after them, even if the woman is also going out to work. While some women are aggressive and dominating to male partners the majority of abuse in heterosexual partnerships, at about 80% in the USA, is by men.[53] (Note that critics[54] have disputed the accuracy and methodology of this Department of Justice study, arguing that men and women tend to commit emotional and physical abuse in roughly equal rates.) A 2002 study reports that ten percent of violence in the UK, overall, is by females against males.[55] However, more recent data specifically regarding domestic abuse (including emotional abuse) report that 3 in 10 women, and 2 in 10 men, have experienced domestic abuse.[56]

Some argue that fundamentalist views of religions, which have developed in male-dominated cultures, tend to reinforce emotional abuse. These critics contend that all the major world religions historically taught the dominance of men over women, citing the Book of Genesis as an example of a text that has been used to justify men abusing women: "in sorrow thou shalt bring forth children: and thy desire shall be to thy husband, and he shall rule over thee."[34] Fundamentalist religious prohibitions against divorce make it more difficult for religious women to leave an abusive marriage: A 1980s survey of Methodist clergy found that 21% of them agreed that no amount of abuse would justify a woman's leaving her husband.[57]

Many older and some not so old children's stories contain gender stereotyping, and music videos and computer games for children and teenagers have been criticised for continuing to portray men as aggressive and in control, while the females are there only for their sexual allure; women are portrayed as wanting to be chased and caught when they run away.[34]

Critics[34] argue that legal systems have in the past endorsed these traditions of male domination and it is only in recent years that abusers have begun to be punished for their behaviour. However, rebuttals note that some laws in past centuries have specifically prohibited punitive wife-beating.[58]

Emotional abuse can be in the following ways

  • Always/frequently being yelled/shouted at.
  • Always/frequently spoken to in a unfriendly way and with disrespect.
  • Name calling e.g. bitch, nag, cow, slag, liar, stupid, idiot,dumbass,
 and any other offensive words e.g. smartarse.
  • Shunning and ignoring, turning away from someone, room goes silent when the person appears.
  • Rejection
  • Invalidating someone's feelings e.g. turn on the tears all you want, i'm not interested and phrases such as
 big boys/big girls don't cry.
  • Dismissing e.g. doubting your word and not listening to you.
  • Not giving real and honest explanations why wrong has been done e.g. using empty answers e.g. because it's wrong, it's a sin
I don't have to discuss that, because it is, it's just not right and that's final etc.
  • Showing dislike and/or unfairly treating someone because of the way they are e.g. disability, race, sexual
 orientation, etc.
  • Destructive and/or constant criticism and put-downs
  • Ridiculing
  • Belittling e.g. saying an idiot or a dog can do this better than you.
  • Guilt-tripping/Blaming e.g. if you didn't make my life a misery or you've been more careful, I wouldn't get angry.
  • Mocking
  • Frightening acts e.g. driving recklessly to frighten
  • Intimidation e.g. standing too close/looming over a person to invade personal space and make him/her feel uneasy. Also

interrogation can be a form of intimidation.

  • Hiring others to 'keep an eye on and watch the person' in order to make him/her feel like a prisoner and have a restricted

life.

  • Mimicking and imitating.
  • Being cheated and set up to get you into trouble and/or make your reputation bad for no reason.
  • Being sworn at and any words that contain expletives, perjoratives, cuss words, etc. e.g. You known Damn well what I mean!
  • Gossiping, spreading rumours, talking/whispering/laughing behind backs
  • Telling lies and/or spreading stories.
  • Being laughed and/or smirked at.
  • Threatening victim with reports to social services, authorities etc.
  • Saying disparaging and/or unkind remarks
  • Isolation e.g. not allowing victim to contact and/or see friends and relatives, not being allowed to leave

the house without your permission.

  • Controlling e.g. being told what to wear, how to have your hairstyle, where you can/cannot go to etc.
  • Being asked intrusive and/or probing questions to make you feel you are guilty and you have done something wrong
  • Invasion of privacy e.g. going through personal effects, reading your mail without your consent and being asked intrusive

personal questions.

  • Treating an adult (especially those with disabilities, who have medical conditions and the elderly) in a
 patronising way and as though they are a child and cannot make decisions themselves.   One example can be
 using baby talk.
  • Made to feel like an outcast and unwanted e.g. by telling you that no one likes you

and no one wants to be with you etc.

See also

References

  1. ^ Thompson AE, Kaplan CA. "Childhood emotional abuse." British Journal of Psychiatry. 1996 Feb;168(2):143-8. PMID: 8837902
  2. ^ US Department of Justice
  3. ^ "[www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/ncfv-cnivf/familyviolence/pdfs/emotion.pdf Emotional Abuse]". 1996. ISBN 0-662-24593-8
  4. ^ Vachss, Andrew. 1994. "You Carry the Cure In Your Own Heart." Parade, 28 August 1994.
  5. ^ Tomison, Adam M and Joe Tucci. 1997. Emotional Abuse: The Hidden Form of Maltreatment. Issues in Child Abuse Prevention Number 8 Spring 1997
  6. ^ Maiuro, Roland D.; O'Leary, K. Daniel (2000). Psychological Abuse in Violent Domestic Relations. New York:Springer Publishing Company. p. 197. ISBN 0-8261-1374-5. {{cite book}}: External link in |title= (help)
  7. ^ Murphy, C. M., & O'Leary, K. D. (1989). Psychological aggression predicts physical aggression in early marriage. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 579-582.
  8. ^ Hamel, J. (2005). Gender Inclusive Treatment of Intimate Partner Abuse. New York: Springer.
  9. ^ Basile, S. (2004). Comparison of abuse by same and opposite-gender litigants as cited in requests for abuse prevention orders. Journal of Family Violence, 19, 59-68; "[M]ale and female defendants, who were the subject of a complaint in domestic relations cases, while sometimes exhibiting different aggressive tendencies, measured almost equally abusive in terms of the overall level of psychological and physical aggression.”
  10. ^ Muñoz-Rivas, Marina J., Graña Gómez, José Luis, O’Leary, Daniel K, and González Lozano, Pilar. (2007) “Physical and psychological aggression in dating relationships in Spanish university students” Psicothema Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 102-107.
  11. ^ a b c Welsh, Deborah P. and Shmuel Shulman. 2008. Directly observed interaction within adolescent romantic relationships: What have we learned? . Journal of Adolescence. Volume 31, Issue 6, December 2008, Pages 877-891
  12. ^ Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Boney-McCoy, S., & Sugarman, D. B. (1996). "The revised Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS-2)." Journal of Family Issues, 17, pp. 283-317.
  13. ^ Giordano, P. C., Millhonin, T. J., Cernokovich, S. A., Pugh, M. D., & Rudolph, J. L. (1999). "Delinquency, identity and womens' involvement in relationship violence." Criminology, 37, pp. 17-40.
  14. ^ Brand, P.A. & Kidd, A.H. 1986. Frequency of physical aggression in heterosexual and female homosexual dyads. Psychological Reports. 59, 1307-1313.
  15. ^ Loulan, I. 1987. Lesbian passion. San Francisco: Spinsters
  16. ^ Coleman, V.E. 1990. Violence between lesbian couples: a between-groups comparison. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology. University microfilm 9109022
  17. ^ Kelly, E.E. & Warshafsky, L. 1987, July. Partner abuse in gay male and lesbian couples. Paper presented at the Third National Conference for Family Violence Researchers, Durham, North Carolina.
  18. ^ Lie, G. & Gentlewarrior, S. 1991. Intimate violence in lesbian relationships: discussion of survey findings and practice implications. Journal of Social Research, 15, 41-59.
  19. ^ Lie, G., Schilit, R., Bush, L., Montagne, M., & Reyes, L. 1991. Lesbians in currently aggressive relationships: how frequently do they report aggressive past relationships? Violence and Victims, 6, 121-135
  20. ^ Dutton, D. G. (1994). Patriarchy and wife assault: The ecological fallacy. Violence and Victims, 9, 125-140.
  21. ^ "[www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/ncfv-cnivf/familyviolence/pdfs/emotion.pdf Emotional Abuse]". 1996. ISBN 0-662-24593-8
  22. ^ "Boys Don't Cry", a BBC radio documentary, updated 27 Feb 2009; URL accessed 06 July 2009
  23. ^ Straus, Murray A. and Carolyn J. Field. 2003. Psychological Aggression by American Parents: National Data on Prevalence, Chronicity, and Severity. Journal of Marriage and Family 65 (November 2003): 795–808
  24. ^ English, Diana J, J. Christopher Graham, Rae R. Newton, Terri L. Lewis, Richard Thompson, Jonathan B. Kotch, and Cindy Weisbart. 2008. Child Maltreat, 14 (2)
  25. ^ Burnazi, L., Keashly, L., & Neuman, J. H. (2005, August). “Aggression revisited: Prevalence, antecedents, and outcomes." Paper presented at the Academy of Management Annual Conference, Honolulu.
  26. ^ Jagatic, K., Keashly, L. (2000, September). “The nature, extent, and impact of emotional abuse in the workplace: Results of a statewide survey.” Paper presented at the Academy of Management Conference, Toronto.
  27. ^ Keashly, L., & Neuman, J. H. (2002, August). “Exploring persistent patterns of workplace aggression.” Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Denver, CO.
  28. ^ Keashly, L., & Jagatic, K. (2003). “By any other name: American perspectives on workplace bullying.” In S. Einarsen, H. Hoel, D. Zapf, & C. Cooper (Eds.),Workplace Emotional Abuse Bullying and emotional abuse in the workplace: International perspectives in research and practice (pp. 31–61). London: Taylor Francis.
  29. ^ Namie, G. (2000, October). U.S. Hostile Workplace Survey 2000. Paper presented at the New England Conference on Workplace Bullying, Suffolk University Law School, Boston.
  30. ^ Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Rutter, M., & Silva, P. A. (2001). "Sex differences in antisocial behavior." Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  31. ^ Dutton D, Bodnarchuk M. Through a psychological lens: Personality disorder and spouse assault. In Loseke D, Gelles R, Cavanaugh M (eds.). Current Controversies on Family Violence, Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications 2005.
  32. ^ Carney MM, Buttell FP. A multidimensional evaluation of a treatment program for female batterers: A pilot study. Research on Social Work Practice Vol. 14, No. 4, 2004. pp. 249-258.
  33. ^ Henning K, Feder L. A comparison of men and women arrested for domestic violence: Who presents the greater risk? Journal of Family Violence, Vol. 19, No. 2, 2004.
  34. ^ a b c d Bancroft, L (2002). Why does he do that? Inside the minds of angry and controlling men. Berkley Books. ISBN 0-339-14844-2. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help); External link in |title= (help)
  35. ^ Moore, Thomas Geoffrey; Marie-France Hirigoyen; Helen Marx (2004). Stalking the Soul: Emotional Abuse and the Erosion of Identity. New York: Turtle Point Press. pp. 196. ISBN 1-885586-99-X.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  36. ^ English, Diana J, J. Christopher Graham, Rae R. Newton, Terri L. Lewis, Richard Thompson, Jonathan B. Kotch, and Cindy Weisbart. 2008. Child Maltreat, 14 (2)
  37. ^ K Johnson, R John, A Humera, S Kukreja, M Found, S W Lindow. 2007. The prevalence of emotional abuse in gynaecology patients and its association with gynaecological symptoms. European journal of obstetrics, gynecology, and reproductive biology. 01/08/2007; 133(1):95-9.
  38. ^ Hines, D. A., & Malley-Morrison, K. (2001, August). Effects of emotional abuse against men in intimate relationships. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, San Francisco, CA
  39. ^ Namie, G. (2000, October). U.S. Hostile Workplace Survey 2000. Paper presented at the New England Conference on Workplace Bullying, Suffolk University Law School, Boston.
  40. ^ Simonelli, C. J. & Ingram, K. M. (1998). Psychological distress among men experiencing physical and emotional abuse in heterosexual dating relationships. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13, 667-681
  41. ^ Goldsmith, R. E. and Freyd, J. 2005. [dynamic.uoregon.edu/~jjf/articles/gf05.pdf EFFECTS OF EMOTIONAL ABUSE IN FAMILY AND WORK ENVIRONMENTS]. Journal of Emotional Abuse, 5(1).
  42. ^ Jacobson, N. S., Gottman, J. M., Waltz, J., Rushe, R., Babcock, J., & Holtzworth-Munroe, A. (1994). Affect, verbal content, and psychophysiology in the arguments of couples with a violent husband. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 982-988.
  43. ^ Dutton, D. G. (2006). Rethinking domestic violence. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press.
  44. ^ Coker, A. L., Davis, K. E., Arias, I., Desai, S., Sanderson, M., Brandt, H. M., et al. (2002). “Physical and mental health effects of intimate partner violence for men and women.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine, Vol. 23, pp. 260-268.
  45. ^ Pimlott-Kubiak, S., & Cortina, L. M. (2003). Gender, victimization, and outcomes: Reconceptualizing risk. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 528-539.
  46. ^ Laroche, D. (2005). "Aspects of the context and consequences of domestic violence. Situational couple violence and intimate terrorism in Canada in 1999." Quebec City: Government of Quebec.
  47. ^ Heidemarie K. Laurent, Hyoun K. Kima, & Deborah M. Capaldi. 2007. Interaction and relationship development in stable young couples: Effects of positive engagement, psychological aggression, and withdrawal. Journal of Adolescence. Volume 31, Issue 6, December 2008, Pages 815-835 l
  48. ^ Follingstad, D. R., DeHart, D. D., & Green, E. P. (2004). "Psychologists' judgments of psychologically aggressive actions when perpetrated by a husband versus a wife." Violence and Victims, 19, pp. 435-452.
  49. ^ Sorenson, S. B., & Taylor, C. A. (2005). "Female aggression toward male intimate partners: An examination of social norms in a community-based sample." Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, pp. 79-96.
  50. ^ Hamel, J. (2007). Toward a gender-inclusive conception of intimate partner violence research and theory: Part 1-traditional perspectives. International Journal of Men's Health, 6, 36-54.
  51. ^ Dutton, D. G. (2006). Rethinking domestic violence. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press.
  52. ^ Tjaden, Patricia & Thoennes, Nancy. National Institute of Justice and the Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, "Extent, Nature and Consequences of Intimate Partner Violence: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey." (2000). U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, "Intimate Partner Violence in the United States," December 2006.
  53. ^ Rennison, Callie Marie (2003). "Intimate Partner Violence, 1993-2001" (PDFNCJ 197838). Bureau of Justice Statistics. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); External link in |format= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  54. ^ Straus, M. A. (1999). The controversy over domestic violence by women: A methodological, theoretical, and sociology of science analysis. In X. P. Arrage & S. Oskamp (Eds.), Violence in intimate relationships (pp. 17-44). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  55. ^ Crime in England and Wales, Home Office, July 2002
  56. ^ "Boys Don't Cry", a BBC radio documentary, updated 27 Feb 2009; URL accessed 06 July 2009
  57. ^ Jones, Ann When Love Goes Wrong by Ann Jones and Susan Schechter 1987 ISBN 0-06-016306-2
  58. ^ "The Body of Liberties adopted in 1641 by the Massachusetts Bay colonists states, 'Every married woman shall be free from bodily correction or stripes by her husband, unless it be in his own defense from her assault.'” [www.mediaradar.org/docs/RADARreport-50-DV-Myths.pdf]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psychological_abuse&oldid=324124864"