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The term Democratic School refers to an alternative school that meets the following criteria:

Summerhill - oldest known Democratic School
  • Classes are voluntary. Learning is self-directed and takes place without a curriculum.
  • The school is run to the greatest possible extent by a direct democracy in which students and teachers have an equal voice in decision-making.
  • Students are free to spend their time as they choose, as long as they do not violate the rules made by the school community.

Democratic Schools provide an environment for 'self-directed learning'.[1]

The term was first used by the Democratic School of Hadera in 1987.[2]

Definition[edit]

There is no common definition of a Democratic School. However, all Democratic Schools refrain from imposing any obligations or unrequested assessment on the learning process of their students, i.e. foster self-directed learning, and are governed democratically. As a rule, the governing body is the school meeting.

The European umbrella organisation EUDEC names three core characteristics of Democratic Schools:

  1. Firm foundations in a values culture of equality and shared responsibility;
  2. Collective decision-making where all members of the community, regardless of age or status, have an equal say over significant decisions such as school rules, curricula, projects, the hiring of staff and even budgetary matters;
  3. Self-directed discovery; Learners choose what they learn, when, how and with whom they learn it. Learning can happen inside or outside of the classroom, through play as well as conventional study. The key is that the learning is following the students’ intrinsic motivation and pursuing their interests.[3]

Typical features of Democratic Schools[edit]

  • No grades or externally determined assessment;
  • Age mix across the whole spectrum of the student body;
  • No general or compulsory curriculum;
  • Classes are voluntary;
  • Self-regulation through democratic bodies such as the school meeting and the Dispute Committee; upholding human rights, especially the equality between teachers and students;
  • Positive attitude towards the heterogeneity of students;
  • Regularly convening school meeting as the school's highest authority;
  • Freedom of movement on the entire school grounds;
  • Comprised of 15 to 150 students, in exceptional cases even more;
  • Play is regarded as positive in all age groups;

[4] [5] [6]

School meeting[edit]

Most Democratic Schools have weekly school meetings open to all children and adults; some schools have no regular schedule of school meetings but call them whenever there is a need.

All kinds of matters concerning the school are decided together – from the hiring of new staff to the introduction or abolition of rules, from finances to what will happen during the school day. Everyone, regardless of their age, has an equal vote.[3]

The school meeting is the highest decision-making body in the school.[3]

Whereas in most schools, especially Sudbury Schools, decisions require a simple majority of those present, in some schools a qualified majority is required. Other schools such as Sociocratic Schools and some Agile Learning Centres strive to achieve consent.[7][8]

In the school meeting, a student's vote counts as much as a teacher's.[3]

Classes[edit]

Classes at Democratic Schools are voluntary. At Sudbury Valley School, even attendance on the school premises is voluntary.[9]

A striking feature of democratic schools is the ubiquity of play. Students of all ages—but especially the younger ones—often spend most of their time either in free play, or playing games (electronic or otherwise). All attempts to limit, control or direct play must be democratically approved before being implemented.[10] Play is seen as activity every bit as worthy as academic pursuits, often even more valuable. Play is considered essential for learning, particularly in fostering creativity.[11]

Interest in learning to read happens at a wide variety of ages.[12] Progressive educators emphasise students' choice in reading selections, as well as topics for writing.

History[edit]

19th century and before[edit]

Since the emergence of democratic state systems there have been schools and children's republics experimenting with student democracy. Among the better-known cases are Léonard Bourdon's boarding school for war orphans Société des jeunes Français (1791-1795)[13] , Heinrich Stephani's student jurisdiction (Schülergerichtsbarkeit) in the German town of Gunzenhausen (1826-1834),[14] Leo Tolstoy's peasant children's school in Yasnaya Polyana (1859-1862) south of Moscow and the George Junior Republic (1895-?) in the State of New York.

The 1920s[edit]

The oldest Democratic school still in existence is the boarding school Summerhill, located in Leiston (Suffolk, England). It was founded in Germany in 1921 by the Scottish educationalist A. S. Neill, then moved to England, and still exists today.[14] Summerhill strongly influenced the Sudbury Valley School (since 1968), numerous alternative schools throughout the world and the Democratic School of Hadera (since 1987), so that the vast majority of Democratic Schools existing today can be directly or indirectly traced back to Summerhill.[15]

Independent of Summerhill, Kees Boecke developed his Consensus Democratic School Werkplaats Kindergemeenschap in Bilthoven, the Netherlands, in 1929,[16][17] leading to the emergence of Sociocracy and Sociocratic Schools,[18] and Janusz Korczak opened the grassroots democratic Warsaw orphanage Dom Sierot (1911-1942), where children could also attend school classes.[19]

Free schools movement[edit]

The Sudbury Valley School was founded in 1968 by Daniel and Hanna Greenberg, among others.[20] Since then, at least 40 schools have been founded on the basis of the Sudbury Valley School concept, mostly in the United States. The Greenbergs' numerous publications about their school have reached a relatively wide audience.[21] As a result, Sudbury schools represent the most widespread Democratic School model.[15]

In the Western world, the 1968 generation founded numerous alternative schools with elements of direct democracy. In the United States, whose laws make it easier to establish alternative schools, it is estimated that hundreds of schools were founded during the 1970s and 1980s.[22] At the same time, the anti-authoritarian movement in Germany and the Éducation Nouvelle in France were discussing Neill's ideas.[23] Subsequently, during the reform period under François Mitterand, two democratic state schools, the Lycée experimental de Saint-Nazaire and the Lycée autogéré de Paris, were founded in 1982 and still exist today.[15] The first official alternative school in Germany was the Demokratische Freie Schule Frankfurt. It was founded in 1975, existed illegally until 1986 and was subsequently legalised by the new red-green government of Hesse.[24]

The name "Democratic School"[edit]

In 1987 Yaacov Hecht founded the Democratic School of Hadera. It was the first Democratic School to use the term Democratic School.[2] In 1993 the first International Democratic Education Conference (IDEC) took place here. Since then, the IDEC has been held annually at different Democratic Schools and has contributed significantly to not only the democratisation of alternative education schools, but also the founding of new Democratic Schools.[25] Today, there are at least 200 Democratic Schools worldwide.[26]

Most of these can be found in the United States, Japan, France[27], Germany and Israel[28]. Relative to its population size, the Netherlands are also significant with 19 schools (as of 2019). Others are in Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Costa Rica (Summerhill Latinoamericano), the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Ireland, Japan, New Zealand, Peru, Poland, Puerto Rico, Romania, Slovakia, South Africa, South Korea, Switzerland, Taiwan, Thailand, Ukraine and the UK.[29][30][31][32]

The International Democratic Education Conference (IDEC) has been held annually since 1993. The European Democratic Education Community (EUDEC) was founded in 2008.[33] In Israel, there is an Institute for Democratic Education[34] and the company Education Cities. Both emerged from the environment of the Democratic School of Hadera and have committed themselves to support the democratisation and innovation of education, educational processes and schools.[35]

Concepts of Democratic Schools[edit]

All Democratic Schools are based on a fundamental respect for children. However, there are clear differences between the various schools in the concrete design of freedom of learning and democratic decision-making structures as well as in everyday school life.[15][36]

Summerhill[edit]

Summerhill is the most famous, first and oldest (founded in 1921) Democratic School. Summerhill's fame significantly influenced the alternative school movement and most Democratic Schools in their conception.[37]

Summerhill is a boarding school. Almost all rules are made jointly by teachers, “the houseparents” (boarding tutors) and students, classes are optional, and students are allowed a great deal of self-determination.[38]

The headmaster and founder of the school, A. S. Neill, was an advocate of free sexuality from the very beginning. He saw many of the problems of children and society as being caused by its suppression. Coeducation was also the norm from the beginning of the school.[39] The practices of swearing, bathing naked on the school grounds were therefore not unusual in Neill's time.[38] The discussion of sexuality was one of the special features of Summerhill, along with the use of paradoxical sanctions, i.e. the rewarding of serious offences. [39]

Zoë Readhead, the current headteacher and Neill's daughter, noted in 2014, alluding to the fact that Summerhill's challenges have changed: “Summerhill often now finds itself in a disciplinarian role because many children today don't have boundaries set in their homes.” In the past, she said, it was often about teaching scared children to trust, but now it's more about getting children to respect the rules of the community.[40]

Sudbury Valley School[edit]

Founded in 1968, the Sudbury Valley School in Framingham (Massachusetts, United States) is influenced by Summerhill but lives an even more radical concept of freedom to learn. Classes and other forms of formal instruction are only offered when students explicitly ask for them. In this sense teachers therefore take a more passive role than in other Democratic Schools.[20]

Meanwhile, various other schools worldwide have adopted the concept oft the Sudbury Valley School. There are currently more than 40 Sudbuy schools, most of which are in the United States.[21]

Sociocratic Schools[edit]

Most Sociocratic Schools are based in the Netherlands and refer to Gerard Endenburg's Sociocratic Method.[41][15][42]

Gerard Endenburg - creator of sociocracy

Endenburg also developed his method through his experiences at the consensus-oriented and former Democratic Quaker school Werkplaats Kindergemeenschap.[16][17] Decisions in sociocracy are made by consent, a weak form of consensus where decisions are reached by accepting proposals once nobody has a justified "serious objection".[18]

Other schools[edit]

There are also other concepts that fulfil the criteria of Democratic Schools but use this term to describe themselves. These include Agile Learning Centres,[8] the state schools Lycée Experimental de Saint-Nazaire and Lycée autogéré de Paris in France,[43] the Schule für Erwachsenenbildung (School for Adult Education) in Berlin, Methodos e.V. in Freiburg as well as some anarchist schools and schools occupied by students. Historically, the orphanage Dom Sierot and its offshoot Nasz Dom by Janusz Korczak as well as Kees Boecke's Werkplaats Kindergemeenschap (in the early years) also count as Democratic Schools.[15]

Graduates of Democratic Schools[edit]

Research results[edit]

  • A study of 12 schools in the United Kingdom by a former school inspector indicates that democratic schooling produces greater motivation to learn and self-esteem among students.[44]
  • A study done in Israel indicates that the decline in interest in science that occurs regularly in conventional schools did not occur in democratic schools.[45]
  • Three studies done on students of Sudbury schools in the United States of America indicate that students "have been highly successful in their higher education (for those who chose that route) and careers. They have gone on to all walks of life that are valued in our society and report that they feel advantaged because of the sense of personal responsibility, self-control, continued interest in learning, and democratic values they acquired at Sudbury Valley."
  • In its 2013 Ofsted inspection, Sands School in the United Kingdom was judged as 'Good' overall with a number of 'Outstanding' features. No area of the education provision was found to be less than 'good', and all of the statutory regulations (the school 'standards') were met in full. This was the same outcome as the previous inspection in 2010. Ofsted observed that pupils' participation in decision-making processes helped them develop 'exceptional qualities of thoughtfulness and the ability to offer balanced arguments'. Good pupil achievements were found to be a 'consequence of the democratic structures'. Personal development was deemed 'outstanding' because of the exceptional impact of the democratic principles. The inspector was particularly impressed with pupils' behaviour, noting that 'lessons took place in an atmosphere of mutual respect' and that 'visitors were greeted with interest and impeccable manners'.[46]

Notable former pupils[edit]

Democratic School of Hadera

  • Gal Fridman (born 1975), Olympic windsurfing champion
  • Sarit Hadad (born 1978), Eurovision Song Contest singer for Israel

Sudbury Valley School

  • Laura Poitras (born 1964), documentary film-maker and Academy Award winner

Summerhill

  • Rebecca De Mornay (born 1959), Hollywood star
  • Zoë Readhead (born 1946), headmistress of Summerhill

Werkplaats Kindergemeenschap

Associations and institutions[edit]

The rapid spread of Democratic Schools since the 1990s and 2000s has been largely driven by the International Democratic Education Conference (IDEC).

In addition, the following associations and lobby organisations exist:

  • APDEC: IDEC branch in the Asia and Pacific region
  • AERO: Association from the United States
  • EUDEC: European Association of Democratic Schools
  • Schools of Trust: German lobby organisation for democratic education

The Kibbutzim College of Education in Tel Aviv[34] in Israel and the Necessary Teacher Training College (DNS)[47] in Denmark train teachers in Self-Determined Learning and for teaching in Democratic Schools.

  1. ^ "IDEC 2005 - Documentation". en.idec2005.org. IDEC - International Democratic Education Conference. 2005. Retrieved 2024-01-13.
  2. ^ a b Geller, Karl (2021). Geschichte der Demokratischen Schule. Leipzig: tologo. p. 180. ISBN 978-3-937797-90-8.
  3. ^ a b c d "What is Democratic Education? – EUDEC". eudec.org. EUDEC. Retrieved 2024-01-13.
  4. ^ Gher, Yonatan (August 23, 2018). "How a democratic school works, and how it improves society". Times of Israel.
  5. ^ "What is democratic education?". idenetwork.org.
  6. ^ "What is democratic education?". EUDEC.
  7. ^ Osório, Marianne; Shread, Charlie. "Sociocracy for Schools". wonderingschools.
  8. ^ a b Oulton, Abby (22 April 2019). "An Agile Approach to Education". Cutter.
  9. ^ Greenberg, Daniel (1995). Free at Last. Sudbury Valley: Sudbury Valley School Press. p. 98. ISBN 978-1888947007.
  10. ^ "Kid Politics". thisamericanlife.org. 14 January 2011. Retrieved 27 December 2017.
  11. ^ Daniel Greenberg. "Underlying Ideas: Worlds in Creation". Sudbury Valley School. Archived from the original on 2017-12-27. Retrieved 27 December 2017.
  12. ^ Mario Montessori, in conversation with A.S. Neill, Redbook Magazine, Dec 1964, reprinted as "Radical Private Schools" in This Magazine is About Schools 1(1), Apr 1966, p17
  13. ^ Vauthier, Gabriel (1912). "Léonard Bourdon et la Société des Jeunes Français". Annales Révolutionnaires: 331–343.
  14. ^ a b Kamp, Johannes-Martin (1994). Children's Republics. History, practice and theory of radical self-government in children's and youth homes. Essen: University of Essen. p. 155, 199.
  15. ^ a b c d e f Geller, Karl (2021). Geschichte der Demokratischen Schule. Leipzig: tologo. ISBN 978-3-937797-90-8.
  16. ^ a b Rawson, Wyatt Trevelyan (1957). The Werkplaats Adventure. Vincent Stuart.
  17. ^ a b Bockelbrink, Bernhard; Priest, James; David, Lilian (2017). "Influences and History of Sociocracy 3.0".
  18. ^ a b Rau, Ted J; Koch-Gonzalez, Jerry (6 August 2023). Many Voices One Song: Shared Power with Sociocracy. Sociocracy For All. ISBN 978-1949183009.
  19. ^ Engel, Liba (2013). "The Democratic School and the Pedagogy of Janusz Korczak". International Journal of Progressive Education. 9 (1): 119.
  20. ^ a b Gray, Peter (5 March 2013). Free to Learn. Basic Books. p. 78-85. ISBN 978-0465025992.
  21. ^ a b "Sudbury Schools in the United States". Hudson Valley Sudbury School.
  22. ^ Kavner, Lucas (9 January 2012). "At Brooklyn Free School, A Movement Reborn With Liberty And No Testing For All". Huffington Post.
  23. ^ Kühn, Axel D. (2002). A. S. Neill und Summerhill: Eine Rezeptions- und Wirkungsanalyse. Tübingen: Eberhard-Karls-Universität Tübingen. p. 72.
  24. ^ Wilke, Martin (2006). Freiheit und Demokratie an Freien Alternativschulen. Berlin: Freie Universität Berlin. pp. 7–10.
  25. ^ Hecht, Yaacov (1 June 2011). Democratic Education - a beginning of a story. Bravura books. p. 325.
  26. ^ Geller, Karl (2021). Geschichte der Demokratischen Schule. tologo academics (1. Auflage ed.). Leipzig: tologo Verlag. p. 241. ISBN 978-3-937797-90-8.
  27. ^ "Members – EUDEC". Retrieved 2024-01-14.
  28. ^ Staff, J. (2006-05-05). "Israels democratic schools, where the students rule". J. Retrieved 2024-01-14.
  29. ^ Geller, Karl (2021). Geschichte der Demokratischen Schule. tologo academics (1. Auflage ed.). Leipzig: tologo Verlag. pp. 230–248. ISBN 978-3-937797-90-8.
  30. ^ "Members – EUDEC". Retrieved 2024-01-14.
  31. ^ "Democratic Schools – Education Revolution – Alternative Education Resource Organization". Retrieved 2024-01-14.
  32. ^ "democratic schools in the world – Educare alla libertà" (in Italian). 2013-06-04. Retrieved 2024-01-14.
  33. ^ "Members – EUDEC". Retrieved 2024-01-14.
  34. ^ a b Hecht, Yaacov (1 June 2011). Democratic Education: A beginning of a story. Bravura books. pp. 250–266. ISBN 978-0974525297.
  35. ^ "EDUCATION CITIES - The art of collaborations". Education Cities. 9 March 2020.
  36. ^ "IDEC 2005 - Documentation". en.idec2005.org. Retrieved 2024-01-14.
  37. ^ Geller, Karl (2021). Geschichte der Demokratischen Schule. tologo academics (1. Auflage ed.). Leipzig: tologo Verlag. p. 38. ISBN 978-3-937797-90-8.
  38. ^ a b Popenoe, Joshua; Maisch, Doris; Popenoe, Joshua (1971). Schüler in Summerhill. Reinbek b. Hamburg: Rowohlt. pp. 81, 82. ISBN 978-3-498-05218-8.
  39. ^ a b Neill, Alexander Sutherland (1960). Summerhill: a radical approach to child rearing. Oxford: Hart Publishing Company. p. 51, 197.
  40. ^ Wilby, Peter (2013-05-27). "Summerhill school: these days surprisingly strict". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2024-01-14.
  41. ^ Onderwijs, Democratisch. "De scholen – Democratisch Onderwijs" (in Dutch). Retrieved 2024-01-14.
  42. ^ "Members – EUDEC". Retrieved 2024-01-14.
  43. ^ "Ecoles et projets". EUDEC France (in French). Retrieved 2024-01-14.
  44. ^ "The Hannam Report" (PDF).
  45. ^ Vedder‐Weiss, Dana; Fortus, David (2011). "Adolescents' Declining Motivation to Learn Science: Inevitable or Not?". Journal of Research in Science Teaching. 48 (2): 199–216. Bibcode:2011JRScT..48..199V. doi:10.1002/tea.20398. ISSN 1098-2736.
  46. ^ Sands School. Ofsted - The Office for Standards in Education. 2013.
  47. ^ "A non-traditional bachelor programme in Education | Teacher Training in Denmark | DNS College". DNS The Necessary Teacher Training College. Retrieved 2024-01-14.
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