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Warlord

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For other uses, see Warlord (disambiguation).

A warlord is a person who has both military and civil[1] control over a subnational area due to the presence of armed forces who are loyal to the warlord rather than to a central authority.

Description

The term can also mean one who espouses the ideal that war is necessary, and has the means and authority to engage in war. Today, the word has a strong connotation that the person exercises far more power than their official title or rank legitimately permits. Under feudalism, by contrast, the local military leader may enjoy great autonomy and a personal army, and still derive legitimacy from formal fealty to a central authority.

Warlordism is a term coined to describe chaos at the end of the Qing Dynasty and the birth of the Republic of China, from the death of Yuan Shikai in 1916 until 1928. This period is called the warlord era of China. It can however be used to describe similar periods in other countries or epochs such as in Japan during the Sengoku period, or in China during the Three Kingdoms.

The word "warlord" entered the English language as a translation from the German word "Kriegsherr", which was an official title of the German Emperor. Its use for Chinese military commanders who had a regional power base and ruled independently of the central government dates from the early 1920s, with Bertram Lenox Simpson being one source, according to the Oxford English Dictionary.

Modern usage

Warlordism frequently appears in failed states, states in which central government and nationwide authorities have collapsed or exist merely formally without actual control over the state territory. They are usually defined by a high level of clientelism, low bureaucratic control, and a high motivation to prolong war for the maintenance of their economic system. Sometimes, for example - in the case of Afghanistan, the central state cooperates with warlords to govern the territories which it doesn't de facto control.[2]

Examples:

Afghanistan

Present-day Afghanistan is a multiethnic, multilingual territory occupied by distinct and often competing tribal societies, where national borders were defined only following decolonization in 1919,[5][6] when the British signed the Treaty of Rawalpindi. The territory, which sits at the crossroads of the Silk Road, has been conquered and occupied by powerful neighboring civilizations throughout history and had no lasting central state government prior to the termination of Britain's military presence in Afghanistan following the relinquishment of the British Raj, and Partition of India and Pakistan. Historically, power in Afghanistan has been decentralized and governance resigned locally to ethnic tribal leadership. Tribal leaders act as local Warlords, representing either a tribal confederacy, a tribal kinship group, or a smaller tribal lineage grouping, and are expected to provide security, justice, and social services to their respective constituencies.[7][8][9] There are four dominant ethnic tribes in Afghanistan (Pashtun, Tajik, Hazara, Uzbek), as well as a number of lesser tribes.[10] The Pashtuns are the largest and most dominant ethnic tribe in Afghanistan, the nation whose name translates to "Land of the Pashtuns" [see: Afghan (ethnonym)]. One of the lingering geopolitical crises stemming from British colonialism is the challenge to Pashtun society posed by the Durand Line, the border between Afghanistan and Pakistan demarcated by the British, which dissects the traditional tribal territory of the Pashtuns.[11] The severing of their tribal lands is viewed by Pashtun leaders as a threat to their dominance within Afghanistan, emboldening rival ethnic tribes, and has provoked cross-border tensions between Afghanistan and Pakistan.[12] While having significant political, economic, and social impact on Afghanistan, the intervention of the Soviet Union (1979 - 1989), Afghan Civil War (1989 - 1996), Taliban Regime (1996 - 2001), and United States invasion and occupation (2001–Present) have not noticeably disrupted the primacy of ethnic tribal authority, and thus the power and influence of warlords, in ordering Afghan society. Although the United States and its coalition allies have expended a considerable amount of time, effort, and resources attempting to foment the centralization of government and consolidation of power in the state with its seat of power in Kabul[13][14] l,[15][16] tribal warlords continue to maintain political influence and power throughout the country outside of Kabul. While most warlords have power invested in them through traditional tribal customs, some hold formal regional government positions, but in both cases, cooperation with the central government remains voluntary and reliant on incentives.[17] Beginning in 2008, as it became increasingly evident that the central government in Kabul was incapable of extend its power and control to much of the country, the US military and diplomatic corps began exploring the option of engaging ethnic tribal warlords in negotiations, a strategy which has continued through the Obama Administration.[18][19][20]

China

Warlords exercised widespread rule in China several times in Chinese history — notably in the period starting from the Xinhai Revolution, when numerous provinces rebelled and declared their independence from the Qing Dynasty in 1911, and especially after Yuan Shikai's death, until the Northern Expedition in 1927. This was a period known as the Warlord Era. Despite the superficial unification of China in 1927 under the rule of the Kuomintang (KMT) under Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, warlordism remained a problem until the victory of the Communist Party of China in 1949. Below are the examples of warlords in Chinese history:

Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms 190–280

Tang dynasty 618–907

The end of the Tang Dynasty brought the highest number of warlords in Chinese history, and it is known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.

Song and Jin dynasties 1115–1234

Ming dynasty 1368–1644

Qing Dynasty 1644–1911

Republic of China 1916–1928

Main article: Warlord Era

There were twelve warlords who served as Area Commanders officially:

Europe

Warlordism in Europe is usually connected to various mercenary companies and their chieftains, which often were de facto power-holders in the areas where they resided. Such free companies would arise in a situation when the recognized central power had collapsed, such as in the Great Interregnum in Germany (1254–1278) or in France during the Hundred Years' War after the Battle of Poitiers; and in the Kingdom of Scotland during the Wars of Scottish Independence.

Free company mercenary captains, such as Sir John Hawkwood, Roger de Flor of Catalan Company or Hugh Calveley could be considered as warlords. Several condottieri in Italy can also be classified as warlords.

Ygo Gales Galama was a famous Frisian warlord, and so was his cousin Pier Gerlofs Donia, who was the leader of the Arumer Black Heap.

The Imperial commanders-in-chief during the reign of Emperor Maximilian I did hold the title Kriegsherr of which the direct translation was "warlord", but they were not warlords in sense of the word defined.

Russian Civil War and Chechen conflicts

Warlordism was widespread in Civil War-era Russia (1918–1922). Many territories weren't under control of either Red government in Petrograd (later in Moscow) or White governments in Omsk and Rostov. These territories were controlled by warlords of various political colors. Anarchist warlords Nestor Makhno, leader of Free Territory, and his ally Maria Nikiforova operated in Ukraine. The Cossack ataman Semyonov held territories in Transbaikalia region, and the Bloody Baron Ungern von Sternberg was the dictator of Mongolia for a short time. Note that the White generals such as Kolchak or Denikin are not considered warlords, because they created a legitimate, though troubled government and military command.

The term "warlord" was frequently used when Russia and Chechen conflicts that were reignited in the 1990s. (See Chechen warlords.)

Korea

During the last years of the Kingdom of Silla, also known as the Later Three Kingdoms, various warlords rebelled against the government and were in de facto control of the Korean Peninsula. The warlordism in Korea plagued the nation until Goryeo Dynasty finally defeated and merged all the warlords and united the country once again.

Vietnam

Twelve warlords war

A historical era between 945 AD to 967 AD ended by Đinh Bộ Lĩnh, a retainer of the warlord Trần Lãm.

  • Ngô Xương Xí (吳昌熾) held Bình Kiều, now Khoái Châu, Hung Yen Province.
  • Đỗ Cảnh Thạc (杜景碩) referred himself as the Duke Đỗ Cảnh, held Đỗ Động Giang, now Thanh Oai, Ha Tay Province.
  • Trần Lãm (陳覽) referred himself as the Duke Trần Minh, held Bố Hải Khấu, Kỳ Bố, Thai Binh Province.
  • Kiều Công Hãn (矯公罕) referred himself as Kiều Tam Chế, held Phong Châu – Bạch Hạc, Phu Tho Province
  • Nguyễn Khoan (阮寬) referred himself as Nguyễn Thái Bình, held Tam Đái - Vĩnh Tường, Vinh Phuc Province
  • Ngô Nhật Khánh (吳日慶) referred himself as the Duke Ngô Lãm, held Đường Lâm, Ha Tay Province
  • Lý Khuê (李奎) referred himself as Lý Lãng, held Siêu Loại - Thuận Thành, Bac Ninh Province.
  • Nguyễn Thủ Tiệp (阮守捷) referred himself as Duke Nguyễn Lệnh, held Tiên Du, Bac Ninh Province
  • Lã Đường (呂唐) referred himself as the Duke Lã Tá, held Tế Giang - Văn Giang, Hung Yen Province
  • Nguyễn Siêu (阮超) referred himself as the Duke Nguyễn Hữu, held Tây Phù Liệt - Thanh Trì, Hà Nội
  • Kiều Thuận (矯順) referred himself as the Duke Kiều Lệnh, held Hồi Hồ - Cẩm Khê, Ha Tay Province
  • Phạm Bạch Hổ (範白虎) referred himself as Phạm Phòng Át, held Đằng Châu, Hung Yen Province.

Lý dynasty

Toward the end of the Lý dynasty, the central government failed to execute its legitimate authority, giving rise to many local warlords, later conquered by chancellor Trần Thủ Độ of the Trần clan.

Lê dynasty

Years of unrest and civil war between Lê and Mạc courts during the 16th century saw many warlords' rise and fall. The Vũ clan in Tuyên Quang enjoyed their autonomy for 200 years before subdued by Lê force. The Nguyễn clan took control of Thuan Hua, paved way for the Dang Trong entity.

Mongolia

After the fall of the Mongol Empire, Mongolia was divided between the Eastern and Western Mongols. At the time of disintegration, many warlords tried to enthrone themselves or rule the khanate jointly, however, there had been powerful de factos in all parts of the Mongol Empire before.

Mongol Empire

Yuan Dynasty

Golden Horde

Ilkhanate

Chagatai Khanate

Northern Yuan Dynasty

Bogd Khanate Mongolia

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ "warlord - definition of warlord by the Free Online Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia". Thefreedictionary.com. Retrieved 2010-06-25.
  2. ^ Mukhopadhyay, Dipali (2014). Warlords, strongman governors, and the state in Afghanistan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–5. ISBN 1107023920.
  3. ^ Grono, Nick; Rondeaux, Candace (2010-01-17). "Dealing with brutal Afghan warlords is a mistake". Boston.com. Retrieved 2010-06-25.
  4. ^ Malalai Joya "The big lie of Afghanistan - My country hasn't been liberated: it's still under the warlords' control, and Nato occupation only reinforces their power"
  5. ^ "The World Factbook". www.cia.gov. Retrieved 2016-02-15.
  6. ^ "Afghanistan: The Legacy of the British Empire. A Brief History". Global Research. Retrieved 2016-02-15.
  7. ^ Diplomat, Sohrab Rahmaty, The. "Afghanistan: Warlords and Democracy". The Diplomat. Retrieved 2016-02-15.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ^ Kfir, Isaac. "The Role of the Pashtuns in Understanding the Afghan Crisis". Perspectives on Terrorism. 3 (4). ISSN 2334-3745.
  9. ^ "The warlords of Afghanistan". Washington Post. Retrieved 2016-02-15.
  10. ^ "The World Factbook". www.cia.gov. Retrieved 2016-02-15.
  11. ^ agency, united states. central intelligence. "Afghanistan ethnic groups". The Library of Congress. Retrieved 2016-02-15.
  12. ^ Siddique, Abubakar. "The Durand Line: Afghanistan's Controversial, Colonial-Era Border". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2016-02-15.
  13. ^ "United States Agency for International Development - U.S. FOREIGN ASSISTANCE FOR AFGHANISTAN POST PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT PLAN" (PDF). www.usaid.gov. Joint Task Force, US Mission - Afghanistan. 2010-02-01. Retrieved 2016-02-16.
  14. ^ "U.S. Backs Karzai's Efforts to Strengthen Afghan Central Government | IIP Digital". iipdigital.usembassy.gov. Retrieved 2016-02-15.
  15. ^ "U.S. Commitment to Afghanistan". georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov. Retrieved 2016-02-15.
  16. ^ "Strengthening the Strategic Partnership of the United States and Afghanistan". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 2016-02-15.
  17. ^ Mukhopadhyay, Dipali (2016). Warlords, Strongman Governors, and the State in Afghanistan. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–75. ISBN 9781107595859.
  18. ^ "A Tribal Strategy for Afghanistan". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 2016-02-15.
  19. ^ "Decentralization - Decentralization in Afghanistan". web.worldbank.org. Retrieved 2016-02-15.
  20. ^ Goldstein, Mujib Mashal, Joseph; Sukhanyar, Jawad (2015-05-24). "Afghans Form Militias and Call on Warlords to Battle Taliban". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2016-02-15.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ Atwood, Christopher P. "Dayan Khan." Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. New York: Facts On File, Inc., 2004.

Further reading

  • Lezhnev, Sasha. Crafting Peace: Strategies to Deal with Warlords in Collapsing States. Plymouth 2005, ISBN 978-0-7391-1765-1.
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