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'''Precognition''' (from the [[Latin]] ''prae-'', "before" and ''cognitio'', "acquiring knowledge"), also called '''prescience''', '''future vision'''{{cn|date=January 2022|reason='Prescience' often means accurate forecasting without actual foreknowledge, 'future vision' often means an idea of rather than direct sight of}} or '''future sight''', is a claimed ability by [[psychic]]s and others to see, or have knowledge of events in the future.
'''Precognition''' (from the [[Latin]] ''prae-'', "before" and ''cognitio'', "acquiring knowledge"), also called '''prescience''', '''future vision'''{{cn|date=January 2022|reason='Prescience' often means accurate forecasting without actual foreknowledge, 'future vision' often means an idea of rather than direct sight of}} or '''future sight''', is a claimed ability by [[psychic]]s and others to see, or have knowledge of events in the future.


As with other [[paranormal]] phenomena, there is no accepted scientific evidence that precognition is a real effect, and it is widely considered to be [[pseudoscience]]. Precognition also appears to violate the principle of classical [[causality]], that an effect cannot occur before its cause. In recent decades the classical model as applied to mind is challenged by rapid discoveries in [[Quantum mechanics]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Seager |first1=William |title=The Philosophical and Scientific Metaphysics of David Bohm |url=https://www.mdpi.com/1099-4300/20/7/493/htm |website=mdpi.com |publisher=MDPI |access-date=26 January 2022}}</ref>
As with other [[paranormal]] phenomena, there is no accepted scientific evidence that precognition is a real effect, and it is widely considered to be [[pseudoscience]]. Precognition also appears to violate the principle of classical [[causality]], that an effect cannot occur before its cause. In recent decades the classical model as applied to mind is challenged by rapid discoveries in [[Quantum mechanics]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Seager |first1=William |title=The Philosophical and Scientific Metaphysics of David Bohm |journal=Entropy |year=2018 |volume=20 |issue=7 |page=493 |publisher=MDPI |doi=10.3390/e20070493 |pmid=33265583 |pmc=7513019 |doi-access=free }}</ref>


Precognition has been widely believed throughout history. Despite the lack of scientific evidence, many people believe it to be real; it is widely reported and remains a topic of research and discussion within the [[parapsychology]] community.
Precognition has been widely believed throughout history. Despite the lack of scientific evidence, many people believe it to be real; it is widely reported and remains a topic of research and discussion within the [[parapsychology]] community.
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Precognition would violate the principle of antecedence ([[causality]]), that an effect does not happen before its cause.<ref>[[Mario Bunge|Bunge, Mario]]. (1983). ''Treatise on Basic Philosophy: Volume 6: Epistemology & Methodology II: Understanding the World''. Springer. pp. 225–226. {{ISBN|978-9027716347}}</ref><ref name="hyman217" /> Experimental evidence from high-energy physics suggests that this cannot happen except for states of special equilibrium where [[T-symmetry]] or 'time reversal' is shown. There is no evidence for such [[retrocausality]] operating in the human brain, therefore no direct justification for precognition from physics."<ref>[[John G. Taylor|Taylor, John]]. (1980). ''Science and the Supernatural: An Investigation of Paranormal Phenomena Including Psychic Healing, Clairvoyance, Telepathy, and Precognition by a Distinguished Physicist and Mathematician''. Temple Smith. p. 83. {{ISBN|0-85117-191-5}}.</ref>
Precognition would violate the principle of antecedence ([[causality]]), that an effect does not happen before its cause.<ref>[[Mario Bunge|Bunge, Mario]]. (1983). ''Treatise on Basic Philosophy: Volume 6: Epistemology & Methodology II: Understanding the World''. Springer. pp. 225–226. {{ISBN|978-9027716347}}</ref><ref name="hyman217" /> Experimental evidence from high-energy physics suggests that this cannot happen except for states of special equilibrium where [[T-symmetry]] or 'time reversal' is shown. There is no evidence for such [[retrocausality]] operating in the human brain, therefore no direct justification for precognition from physics."<ref>[[John G. Taylor|Taylor, John]]. (1980). ''Science and the Supernatural: An Investigation of Paranormal Phenomena Including Psychic Healing, Clairvoyance, Telepathy, and Precognition by a Distinguished Physicist and Mathematician''. Temple Smith. p. 83. {{ISBN|0-85117-191-5}}.</ref>


Precognition contradicts "most of the neuroscience and psychology literature, from electrophysiology and neuroimaging to temporal effects found in psychophysical research."<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Schwarzkopf | first1 = Samuel | year = 2014 | title = We Should Have Seen This Coming | journal = Frontiers in Human Neuroscience | volume = 8 | page = 332 | pmc=4034337 | pmid=24904372 | doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00332| doi-access = free }}</ref> It is considered a [[delusion]] by mainstream [[psychiatry]],<ref name="Greenaway Louis Hornsey 2013 p=e71327">{{cite journal | last1=Greenaway | first1=Katharine H. | last2=Louis | first2=Winnifred R. | last3=Hornsey | first3=Matthew J. | editor-last=Krueger | editor-first=Frank | title=Loss of Control Increases Belief in Precognition and Belief in Precognition Increases Control | journal=PLOS ONE | publisher=Public Library of Science (PLoS) | volume=8 | issue=8 | date=7 August 2013 | issn=1932-6203 | pmid=23951136 | pmc=3737190 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0071327 | page=e71327| bibcode=2013PLoSO...871327G | doi-access=free }}</ref> while others call for more research.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Franklin |first1=Michael S |last2=Baumgart |first2=Stephen L |last3=Schooler |first3=Jonathon W |title=Future directions in precognition research |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4141237/ |website=ncbi |publisher=Frontiers in Psychology |access-date=25 January 2022}}</ref>
Precognition contradicts "most of the neuroscience and psychology literature, from electrophysiology and neuroimaging to temporal effects found in psychophysical research."<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Schwarzkopf | first1 = Samuel | year = 2014 | title = We Should Have Seen This Coming | journal = Frontiers in Human Neuroscience | volume = 8 | page = 332 | pmc=4034337 | pmid=24904372 | doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00332| doi-access = free }}</ref> It is considered a [[delusion]] by mainstream [[psychiatry]],<ref name="Greenaway Louis Hornsey 2013 p=e71327">{{cite journal | last1=Greenaway | first1=Katharine H. | last2=Louis | first2=Winnifred R. | last3=Hornsey | first3=Matthew J. | editor-last=Krueger | editor-first=Frank | title=Loss of Control Increases Belief in Precognition and Belief in Precognition Increases Control | journal=PLOS ONE | publisher=Public Library of Science (PLoS) | volume=8 | issue=8 | date=7 August 2013 | issn=1932-6203 | pmid=23951136 | pmc=3737190 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0071327 | page=e71327| bibcode=2013PLoSO...871327G | doi-access=free }}</ref> while others call for more research.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Franklin |first1=Michael S |last2=Baumgart |first2=Stephen L |last3=Schooler |first3=Jonathon W |title=Future directions in precognition research |year=2014 |volume=5 |page=907 |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00907 |pmid=25202289 |pmc=4141237 |doi-access=free }}</ref>


===Lack of evidence===
===Lack of evidence===

Revision as of 05:27, 27 January 2022

Not to be confused with Precognition (Scots law). "Premonition" redirects here. For other uses, see Premonition (disambiguation).

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"Complex Presentiment: Half-Figure in Yellow Shirt" by Kazimir Malevich

Precognition (from the Latin prae-, "before" and cognitio, "acquiring knowledge"), also called prescience, future vision[citation needed] or future sight, is a claimed ability by psychics and others to see, or have knowledge of events in the future.

As with other paranormal phenomena, there is no accepted scientific evidence that precognition is a real effect, and it is widely considered to be pseudoscience. Precognition also appears to violate the principle of classical causality, that an effect cannot occur before its cause. In recent decades the classical model as applied to mind is challenged by rapid discoveries in Quantum mechanics[1]

Precognition has been widely believed throughout history. Despite the lack of scientific evidence, many people believe it to be real; it is widely reported and remains a topic of research and discussion within the parapsychology community.

History

Antiquity

Since ancient times, precognition has been associated with trance and dream states involved in phenomena such as prophecy, fortune telling and second sight, as well as waking premonitions. These phenomena were widely accepted and reports have persisted throughout history, with most instances appearing in dreams.[2]

Such claims of seeing the future have never been without their sceptical critics. Aristotle carried out an inquiry into allegedly prophetic dreams in his On Divination in Sleep. He accepted that "it is quite conceivable that some dreams may be tokens and causes [of future events]" but also believed that "most [so-called prophetic] dreams are, however, to be classed as mere coincidences...". Where Democritus had suggested that emanations from future events could be sent back to the dreamer, Aristotle proposed that it was, rather, the dreamer's sense impressions which reached forward to the event.[3]

17th–19th centuries

The term "precognition" first appeared in the 17th century but did not come into common use among investigators until much later.[2]

An early investigation into claims of precognition was published by the missionary Fr. P. Boilat in 1883. He claimed to have put an unspoken question to an African witch-doctor whom he mistrusted. Contrary to his expectations, the witch-doctor gave him the correct answer without ever having heard the question.[2]

Early 20th century

In the early 20th century J. W. Dunne, a British soldier and aeronautics engineer, experienced several dreams which he regarded as precognitive. He developed techniques to record and analyse them, identifying any correspondences between his future experiences and his recorded dreams. He reported his findings in his 1927 book An Experiment with Time. In it he alleges that 10% of his dreams appeared to include some element of future experience. He also persuaded some friends to try the experiment on themselves, with mixed results. Dunne concluded that precognitive elements in dreams are common and that many people unknowingly have them.[4][5] He suggested also that dream precognition did not reference any kind of future event, but specifically the future experiences of the dreamer. He was led to this idea when he found that a dream of a volcanic eruption appeared to foresee not the disaster itself but his subsequent misreading of an inaccurate account in a newspaper.[4] Edith Lyttelton, who became President of the Society for Psychical Research (SPR), regarded his theory as consistent with her own idea of the superconscious.[6] In 1932 he helped the SPR to conduct a more formal experiment, but he and the Society's lead researcher Theodore Besterman failed to agree on the significance of the results.[7][8] Nevertheless, the Philosopher C. D. Broad remarked that, "The only theory known to me which seems worth consideration is that proposed by Mr. Dunne in his Experiment with Time."[9]

In 1932 Charles Lindbergh's infant son was kidnapped, murdered and buried among trees. Psychologists Henry Murray and D. R. Wheeler used the event to test for dream precognition, by inviting the public to report any dreams of the child. A total of 1,300 dreams were reported. Only five percent envisioned the child dead and only 4 of the 1,300 envisioned the location of the grave as amongst trees.[10]

The first ongoing and organized research program on precognition was instituted by Husband-and-wife team Joseph Banks Rhine and Louisa E. Rhine in the 1930s at Duke University's Parapsychology Laboratory. J. B. Rhine used a method of forced-choice matching in which participants guessed the order of a deck of 25 cards, each five of which bore one of five geometrical symbols. Although his results were positive and gained some academic acceptance, his methods were later shown to be badly flawed and subsequent researchers using more rigorous procedures were unable to reproduce his results. His mathematics was sometimes flawed, the experiments were not double-blinded or even necessarily single-blinded and some of the cards to be guessed were so thin that the symbol could be seen through the backing.[11][12][13]

Samuel G. Soal, another leading member of the SPR, was described by Rhine as one of his harshest critics, running many similar experiments with wholly negative results. However, from around 1940 he ran forced-choice ESP experiments in which a subject attempted to identify which of five animal pictures a subject in another room was looking at. Their performance on this task was at chance, but when the scores were matched with the card that came after the target card, three of the thirteen subjects showed a very high hit rate.[14] Rhine now described Soal's work as "a milestone in the field".[14] However analyses of Soal's findings, conducted several years later, concluded that the positive results were more likely the result of deliberate fraud.[15] The controversy continued for many years more.[14] In 1978 the statistician and parapsychology researcher Betty Markwick, while seeking to vindicate Soal, discovered that he had tampered with his data.[15] The untainted experimental results showed no evidence of precognition.[14][16]

Late 20th century

As more modern technology became available, more automated techniques of experimentation were developed that did not rely on hand-scoring of equivalence between targets and guesses, and in which the targets could be more reliably and readily tested at random. In 1969 Helmut Schmidt introduced the use of high-speed random event generators (REG) for precognition testing, and experiments were also conducted at the Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Lab.[17] Once again, flaws were found in all of Schmidt's experiments, when the psychologist C. E. M. Hansel found that several necessary precautions were not taken.[18]

In 1963 the BBC television programme Monitor broadcast an appeal by the writer J.B. Priestley for experiences which challenged our understanding of Time. He received hundreds of letters in reply and believed that many of them described genuine precognitive dreams.[19][20] In 2014 the BBC Radio 4 broadcaster Francis Spufford revisited Priestley's work and its relation to the ideas of J.W. Dunne.[21]

David Ryback, a psychologist in Atlanta, used a questionnaire survey approach to investigate precognitive dreaming in college students. His survey of over 433 participants showed that 290 or 66.9 percent reported some form of paranormal dream. He rejected many of these reports, but claimed that 8.8 percent of the population was having actual precognitive dreams.[22]

G. W. Lambert, a former Council member of the SPR, proposed five criteria that needed to be met before an account of a precognitive dream could be regarded as credible:[2]

  1. The dream should be reported to a credible witness before the event.
  2. The time interval between the dream and the event should be short.
  3. The event should be unexpected at the time of the dream.
  4. The description should be of an event destined literally, and not symbolically, to happen.
  5. The details of dream and event should tally.

21st century

In 2011 the psychologist Daryl Bem, a Professor Emeritus at Cornell University, published findings showing statistical evidence for precognition in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.[23] The paper was heavily criticised and the criticism widened to include the journal itself and the validity of the peer review process.[24][25] Public controversy over the paper continued until in 2012 an independent attempt to reproduce Bem's results was published, but it failed to do so.[26][27][28][29][30]

Scientific criticism

Claims of precognition are, like any other claims, open to scientific criticism. However the nature of the criticism must adapt to the nature of the claim.[31]

Claims of precognition are criticised on two main grounds:

  • There is no known scientific mechanism which would allow precognition. It appears to require either action-at-a-distance or telepathic effects.[32]
  • A large body of experimental work has produced no accepted scientific evidence that precognition exists.

Consequently, precognition is widely considered to be pseudoscience.[33][34][35]

Violation of the Laws of Physics

Precognition would violate the principle of antecedence (causality), that an effect does not happen before its cause.[36][31] Experimental evidence from high-energy physics suggests that this cannot happen except for states of special equilibrium where T-symmetry or 'time reversal' is shown. There is no evidence for such retrocausality operating in the human brain, therefore no direct justification for precognition from physics."[37]

Precognition contradicts "most of the neuroscience and psychology literature, from electrophysiology and neuroimaging to temporal effects found in psychophysical research."[38] It is considered a delusion by mainstream psychiatry,[39] while others call for more research.[40]

Lack of evidence

A great deal of evidence for precognition has been put forward, both as witnessed anecdotes and as experimental results, but none has been accepted as rigorous scientific proof of the phenomenon. Even the most prominent pieces of evidence for precognition have been repeatedly rejected due to errors in those precognition studies, as well as follow-on studies contradicting the original evidence, suggesting that that evidence was not valid in the first place.[41][42]

Alternative explanations

Various known psychological processes have been put forward to explain experiences of apparent precognition. These include:

  • Déjà vu or identifying paramnesia, where people conjure up a false memory of a vision having occurred before the actual event.
  • Unconscious perception, where people unconsciously infer, from data they have unconsciously learned, that a certain event will probably happen in a certain context. When the event occurs, the former knowledge appears to have been acquired without the aid of recognized channels of information.
  • Self-fulfilling prophecy and unconscious enactment, where people unconsciously bring about events which they have previously imagined.
  • Memory biases, where people selectively distort past experiences to match subsequent events.[43] In one experiment, subjects were asked to write down their dreams in a diary. This prevented the selective memory effect, and the dreams no longer seemed accurate about the future.[44]
  • Coincidence, where apparent instances of precognition in fact arise from the law of large numbers.[45][46]
  • Retrofitting, which involves after-the-fact matching of an event to an imprecise previous prediction. Retrofitting provides an explanation for the supposed accuracy of Nostradamus's vague prediction. For example, quatrain I:60 states "A ruler born near Italy...He's less a prince than a butcher." The phrase "near Italy" can be construed as covering a very broad range of geography, while no details are provided by Nostradamus regarding the era when this ruler will live. Because of this vagueness, and the flexibility of retrofitting, this quatrain has been interpreted by some as referring to Napoleon, but by others as referring to the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II, and by others still as a reference to Hitler.[47]

Cultural impact

Popular belief

Premonitions have sometimes affected the course of important historical events. Related activities such as prophecy and fortune telling have been practised throughout history and are still popular today.

Despite the lack of scientific evidence, many people still believe in precognition.[20][48] A 1978 poll found that 37% of Americans surveyed believed in it.[49] According to some psychologists, belief is greater in college women than in men, and a 2007 poll found that women were more prone to superstitious beliefs in general.[50] Some studies have been carried out on psychological reasons for such a belief. One such study suggested that greater belief in precognition was held by those who feel low in control, and the belief can act as a psychological coping mechanism.[51]

Precognition in religion

In Judaism it is believed that dreams are mostly insignificant while others "have the potential to contain prophetic messages".[52] In Islam precognition is called the 'True Dream' and forms part of the teaching in the Koran.[53] Hinduism has a subsystem of psychology called Indian psychology with dreams believed to contain 'important sources of information about the future'.[54] There are seven classifications of dream of which those which 'actually then happen in life' are called 'bhāvita'.

Literary reference

J. W. Dunne's main work An Experiment with Time was widely read and "undoubtedly helped to form something of the imaginative climate of [the interwar] years", influencing many writers of both fact and fiction both then and since.[55] According to Flieger, "Dunne's theory was so current and popular a topic that not to understand it was a mark of singularity."[56]

Major writers whose work was significantly influenced by his ideas on precognition in dreams and visions include H. G. Wells, J. B. Priestley and Vladimir Nabokov.[57][58]

The plot of Shakespeare's 'Macbeth' centres around the predictions of three witches which become self-fulfilling. Precognition is sometimes used as a plot device in F&SF fiction. Olaf Stapledon used it to explain his future histories Last and First Men and Last Men in London.[59] The American Robert Heinlein employed it in his short stories Elsewhen and Lost Legacy (republished in his 1953 collection Assignment in Eternity),[citation needed] while Philip K Dick is known for use of precognition,[60] especially as a central plot element in his 1956 science fiction short story The Minority Report[61] and in his 1956 novel The World Jones Made.[62]

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ Seager, William (2018). "The Philosophical and Scientific Metaphysics of David Bohm". Entropy. 20 (7). MDPI: 493. doi:10.3390/e20070493. PMC 7513019. PMID 33265583.
  2. ^ a b c d Inglis (1986), Chapter on "Precognition"
  3. ^ Aristotle. (350 BC). On Prophesying by Dreams. Trans. J.I. Beare, MIT. (Retrieved 5 September 2018).
  4. ^ a b Dunne (1927).
  5. ^ Flew, Antony; "The Sources of Serialism, in Shivesh Thakur (Ed). Philosophy and Psychical Research, George Allen & Unwin Ltd. 1976, pp. 81–96. ISBN 0-04-100041-2
  6. ^ Lyttelton, Edith. Our Superconscious Mind. Philip Allan. 1931.
  7. ^ Inglis (1986) p.92.
  8. ^ Dunne (1927), 3rd Edition, Faber, 1934, Appendix III: The new experiment.
  9. ^ C. D. Broad; "The Philosophical Implications of Foreknowledge", Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supplementary Volumes, Vol. 16, Knowledge and Foreknowledge (1937), pp. 177–209
  10. ^ Murray, H. A.; Wheeler, D. R. (1937). "A Note on the Possible Clairvoyance of Dreams". Journal of Psychology. 3 (2): 309–313. doi:10.1080/00223980.1937.9917500.
  11. ^ Harold Gulliksen. (1938). Extra-Sensory Perception: What Is It?. American Journal of Sociology. Vol. 43, No. 4. pp. 623–634.
  12. ^ Wynn & Wiggins (2001), p. 156.
  13. ^ Hines (2003), pp. 78–81.
  14. ^ a b c d Colman, Andrew M. (1988). Facts, Fallacies and Frauds in Psychology. Unwin Hyman. pp. 175–180. ISBN 978-0-04-445289-8.
  15. ^ a b Hyman, Ray (2007). "Evaluating Parapsychological Claims". In Robert J. Sternberg; Henry L. Roediger; Diane F. Halpern (eds.). Critical Thinking in Psychology. Cambridge University Press. pp. 219–223. ISBN 978-0-521-60834-3.
  16. ^ Betty Markwick. (1985). The establishment of data manipulation in the Soal-Shackleton experiments. In Paul Kurtz. A Skeptic’s Handbook of Parapsychology. Prometheus Books. pp. 287–312. ISBN 0-87975-300-5
  17. ^ Odling-Smee, Lucy (March 1, 2007). "The lab that asked the wrong questions". Nature. 446 (7131): 10–12. Bibcode:2007Natur.446...10O. doi:10.1038/446010a. PMID 17330012.
  18. ^ C. E. M. Hansel. (1980). ESP and Parapsychology: A Critical Re-Evaluation. Prometheus Books. pp. 222–232. Hansel found that in the experiments of Schmidt there was no presence of an observer or second-experimenter in any of the experiments, no counterchecking of the records and no separate machines used for high and low score attempts.
  19. ^ Inglis (1986) p.90.
  20. ^ a b Priestley (1964).
  21. ^ Francis Spufford, "I Have Been Here Before", Sunday Feature, BBC Radio 3, 14 Sep 2014.
  22. ^ Ryback, David, PhD. "Dreams That Came True". New York: Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, 1988.
  23. ^ Bem, DJ (March 2011). "Feeling the future: experimental evidence for anomalous retroactive influences on cognition and affect" (PDF). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 100 (3): 407–25. doi:10.1037/a0021524. PMID 21280961. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-01-03. Retrieved 2013-09-10.
  24. ^ James Alcock, Back from the Future: Parapsychology and the Bem Affair Archived 2011-12-31 at the Wayback Machine, March/April 2011 Skeptical Inquirer, January 6, 2011.
  25. ^ "Room for Debate: When Peer Review Falters". The New York Times. January 7, 2011.
  26. ^ Rouder, J.; Morey, R. (2011). "A Bayes factor meta-analysis of Bem's ESP claim" (PDF). Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 18 (4): 682–689. doi:10.3758/s13423-011-0088-7. PMID 21573926. S2CID 12355543.
  27. ^ Bem, Daryl (6 January 2011). "Response to Alcock's "Back from the Future: Comments on Bem"". Retrieved 31 January 2012.
  28. ^ Alcock, James (6 January 2011). "Response to Bem's Comments". Retrieved 31 January 2012.
  29. ^ Galak, J.; LeBoeuf, R. A.; Nelson, L. D.; Simmons, J. P. (2012). "Correcting the past: Failures to replicate psi". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 103 (6): 933–948. doi:10.1037/a0029709. PMID 22924750.
  30. ^ Frazier, Kendrick (2013). "Failure to Replicate Results of Bem Parapsychology Experiments Published by Same Journal". csicop.org. Retrieved 7 August 2013.
  31. ^ a b Hyman, Ray (2007). "Evaluating Parapsychological Claims". In Robert J. Sternberg; Henry J. Roediger III; Diane F. Halpern (eds.). Critical Thinking in Psychology. Cambridge University Press. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-521-60834-3.
  32. ^ Wynn & Wiggins (2001), p. 165.
  33. ^ Alcock, James. (1981). Parapsychology-Science Or Magic?: A Psychological Perspective Pergamon Press. pp. 3–6. ISBN 978-0080257730
  34. ^ Zusne, Leonard; Jones, Warren H. (1989). Anomalistic Psychology: A Study of Magical Thinking. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. p. 151. ISBN 978-0-805-80507-9
  35. ^ Ciccarelli, Saundra E; Meyer, Glenn E. Psychology. (2007). Prentice Hall Higher Education. p. 118. ISBN 978-0136030638 "Precognition is the supposed ability to know something in advance of its occurrence or to predict a future event."
  36. ^ Bunge, Mario. (1983). Treatise on Basic Philosophy: Volume 6: Epistemology & Methodology II: Understanding the World. Springer. pp. 225–226. ISBN 978-9027716347
  37. ^ Taylor, John. (1980). Science and the Supernatural: An Investigation of Paranormal Phenomena Including Psychic Healing, Clairvoyance, Telepathy, and Precognition by a Distinguished Physicist and Mathematician. Temple Smith. p. 83. ISBN 0-85117-191-5.
  38. ^ Schwarzkopf, Samuel (2014). "We Should Have Seen This Coming". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 8: 332. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00332. PMC 4034337. PMID 24904372.
  39. ^ Greenaway, Katharine H.; Louis, Winnifred R.; Hornsey, Matthew J. (7 August 2013). Krueger, Frank (ed.). "Loss of Control Increases Belief in Precognition and Belief in Precognition Increases Control". PLOS ONE. 8 (8). Public Library of Science (PLoS): e71327. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...871327G. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0071327. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3737190. PMID 23951136.
  40. ^ Franklin, Michael S; Baumgart, Stephen L; Schooler, Jonathon W (2014). "Future directions in precognition research". Frontiers in Psychology. 5: 907. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00907. PMC 4141237. PMID 25202289.
  41. ^ Fiedler (26 April 2013). "Afterthoughts on precognition: No cogent evidence for anomalous influences of consequent events on preceding cognition". Theory & Psychology. 23 (3): 323–333. doi:10.1177/0959354313485504. S2CID 145690989. Retrieved 19 October 2021.
  42. ^ Ritchie (14 March 2012). "Failing the Future: Three Unsuccessful Attempts to Replicate Bem's 'Retroactive Facilitation of Recall' Effect". PLOS ONE. 7 (3): e33423. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...733423R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0033423. PMC 3303812. PMID 22432019.
  43. ^ Hines (2003).
  44. ^ Alcock, James E. (1981). Parapsychology: Science or Magic?: a psychological perspective. Oxford: Pergamon Press. ISBN 978-0-08-025773-0. via Hines (2003).
  45. ^ Wiseman, Richard. (2011). Paranormality: Why We See What Isn't There. Macmillan. pp. 163-167. ISBN 978-0-230-75298-6
  46. ^ Sutherland, Stuart. (1994). Irrationality: The Enemy Within. pp. 312–313. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-016726-9
  47. ^ Nickell, Joe (2019). "Premonition! Foreseeing what cannot be seen". Skeptical Inquirer. 43 (4): 17–20.
  48. ^ Peake, Anthony; The Labyrinth of Time, Arcturus, 2012, Chapter 10: "Dreams and precognition".
  49. ^ American Bar Association (December 1978), "ABA Journal", American Bar Association Journal, American Bar Association: 1847–, ISSN 0747-0088
  50. ^ Stuart A. Vyse (1 September 2013), Believing in Magic: The Psychology of Superstition – Updated Edition, Oxford University Press, USA, pp. 45–, ISBN 978-0-19-999693-3
  51. ^ Greenaway, KH; Louis, WR; Hornsey, MJ (2013). "Loss of Control Increases Belief in Precognition and Belief in Precognition Increases Control". PLOS ONE. 8 (8): e71327. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...871327G. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0071327. PMC 3737190. PMID 23951136.
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Bibliography

  • Dunne, J. W. (1927). An Experiment With Time. A. C. Black.
  • Flieger, Verlyn; A Question of Time: JRR Tolkien's Road to Faërie, Kent State University Press, 1997.
  • Hines, Terence (2003). Pseudoscience and the Paranormal. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1-57392-979-0.
  • Inglis, Brian. (1986). The Paranormal: An Encyclopedia of Psychic Phenomena. Paladin (Grafton) 1986. (1st Edition Granada 1985)
  • Priestley, J.B. Man and Time. Aldus 1964, 2nd Edition Bloomsbury 1989.
  • Wynn, Charles M., and Wiggins, Arthur W. (2001). Quantum Leaps in the Wrong Direction: Where Real Science Ends...and Pseudoscience Begins. Joseph Henry Press. ISBN 978-0-309-07309-7

Further reading

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Premonition".
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