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The 2007 in the 2nd reference should read 1964 - I know because that's my mom's paper :) The referenced article is as said in the reference at https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1550-7408.1964.tb01758.x
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'''''Frontonia''''' is a genus of free-living [[unicellular]] [[ciliate]] [[protists]], belonging to the order [[Peniculida]]. As Peniculids, the ''Frontonia'' are closely related to members of the genus ''[[Paramecium]]''. However, whereas ''Paramecia'' are mainly [[bacterivore]]s, ''Frontonia'' are capable of ingesting large prey such as diatoms, filamentous algae, testate amoebas,<ref>[http://www.scielo.br/pdf/rbzool/v23n3/a21v23n3.pdf Dias, Roberto and D'Agosto, Marta. 2006. "Feeding Behavior of ''Frontonia leucas'' (Ehrenberg)." Revista Brasiliera de Zoologia 23 (3): 758-763]</ref> and even, in some circumstances, members of their own species.<ref>[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1550-7408.1964.tb01758.x/pdf Devi, R. Vimala. 1964. "Cannibalism in ''Frontonia leucas'' Ehr." JEM 11 (3): 304-307]</ref> In bacteria-rich [[saprobic]] conditions, ''Frontonia leucas'' can live as a facultative bacterivore.<ref>[http://www.scielo.br/pdf/rbzool/v23n3/a21v23n3.pdf Dias 2006]</ref>
'''''Frontonia''''' is a genus of free-living [[unicellular]] [[ciliate]] [[protists]], belonging to the order [[Peniculida]]. As Peniculids, the ''Frontonia'' are closely related to members of the genus ''[[Paramecium]]''. However, whereas ''Paramecia'' are mainly [[bacterivore]]s, ''Frontonia'' are capable of ingesting large prey such as diatoms, filamentous algae, testate amoebas,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dias |first1=Roberto Júnio P. |last2=D'Agosto |first2=Marta |title=Feeding behavior of Frontonia leucas (Ehrenberg) (Protozoa, Ciliophora, Hymenostomatida) under different environmental conditions in a lotic system |journal=Revista Brasileira de Zoologia |date=September 2006 |volume=23 |pages=758–763 |doi=10.1590/S0101-81752006000300021 }}</ref> and even, in some circumstances, members of their own species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Devi |first1=R. Vimala |title=Cannibalism in Frontonia leucas Ehr. |journal=The Journal of Protozoology |date=August 1964 |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=304–307 |doi=10.1111/j.1550-7408.1964.tb01758.x }}</ref> In bacteria-rich [[saprobic]] conditions, ''Frontonia leucas'' can live as a facultative bacterivore.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dias |first1=Roberto Júnio P. |last2=D'Agosto |first2=Marta |title=Feeding behavior of Frontonia leucas (Ehrenberg) (Protozoa, Ciliophora, Hymenostomatida) under different environmental conditions in a lotic system |journal=Revista Brasileira de Zoologia |date=September 2006 |volume=23 |pages=758–763 |doi=10.1590/S0101-81752006000300021 }}</ref>


''Frontonia'' are widely dispersed, and members of the genus can be found in marine and freshwater environments on every continent.<ref>[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1574-6941.2006.00259.x/pdf Petz, Wolfgang et al. 2007. "Ciliate biogeography in Antarctic and Arctic freshwater ecosystems: endemism or global distribution of species?" FEMS Microbiology Ecology 59 (2): 396-408]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www2.ouc.edu.cn/akfs/UserFiles/Songpaper/08-Long-Frontonia-Zootaxa.pdf |title=Long, Hongan et al. 2008. "Taxonomic studies on three marine species of ''Frontonia'' from northern China." Zootaxa 1687:35-50 |access-date=2011-10-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425052101/http://www2.ouc.edu.cn/akfs/UserFiles/Songpaper/08-Long-Frontonia-Zootaxa.pdf |archive-date=2012-04-25 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
''Frontonia'' are widely dispersed, and members of the genus can be found in marine and freshwater environments on every continent.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1574-6941.2006.00259.x |title=Ciliate biogeography in Antarctic and Arctic freshwater ecosystems: Endemism or global distribution of species? |year=2007 |last1=Petz |first1=Wolfgang |last2=Valbonesi |first2=Alessandro |last3=Schiftner |first3=Uwe |last4=Quesada |first4=Antonio |last5=Cynan Ellis-Evans |first5=J. |journal=FEMS Microbiology Ecology |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=396–408 |pmid=17313584 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Long |first1=Hongan |last2=Song |first2=Weibo |last3=Al-Rasheid |first3=Khaled A. S. |last4=Wang |first4=Yangang |last5=Yi |first5=Zhenzhen |last6=Al-Quraishy |first6=Saleh A. |last7=Lin |first7=Xiaofeng |last8=Al-Farraj |first8=Saleh A. |title=Taxonomic studies on three marine species of Frontonia from northern China: F. didieri n. sp., F. multinucleata n. sp. and F. tchibisovae Burkovsky, 1970 (Ciliophora: Peniculida) |journal=Zootaxa |date=23 January 2008 |volume=1687 |issue=1 |pages=35 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.1687.1.2 }}</ref>


==Appearance and characteristics==
==Appearance and characteristics==
[[File:Frontonia leucas from Schewiakoff 1889.jpg|thumb|170px|left|Frontonia leucas, by V. Schewiakoff, 1889]]
[[File:Frontonia leucas from Schewiakoff 1889.jpg|thumb|170px|left|Frontonia leucas, by V. Schewiakoff, 1889]]
[[File:Mikrofoto.de-Frontonia 3.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''Frontonia'' sp.]]
[[File:Mikrofoto.de-Frontonia 3.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''Frontonia'' sp.]]
''Frontonia'' species vary in length from 50 to 600 micrometres.<ref>Patterson, D.J. Free-Living Freshwater Protozoa: A Colour Guide. Manson, 1992,1996. p. 133. {{ISBN|1-874545-40-5}}</ref> Cell bodies are typically ovoid or elongate, and somewhat flattened from back to front. They are flexible, uniformly ciliated, and usually surrounded by [[trichocyst]]s. The small oral aperture is pear-shaped, and located in the anterior half of the cell.<ref>Carey, Philip G., Marine interstitial ciliates: an illustrated key. Chapman and Hall, 1992, {{ISBN|978-0-412-40610-2}} p. 129</ref> Along the left side of the opening there are three [[membranelle]]s, and the right has a single paroral membrane. The mouth is supported by inconspicuous [[microtubule|microtubular]] rods (nematodesmata),<ref>Gil, Rosario. 1984. Cortical Fine Structure of Frontonia Leucas. Transactions of the American Microscopical Society. 100(4):373-83. https://www.jstor.org/pss/3226150</ref> and may expand during feeding to as much as two-thirds of the cell's length.<ref>Goldsmith, WM. (1922) [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jez.1400360305/abstract The process of ingestion in the ciliate], ''Frontonia''. Journal of Experimental Zoology 36(3):331-52.</ref>
''Frontonia'' species vary in length from 50 to 600 micrometres.<ref>Patterson, D.J. Free-Living Freshwater Protozoa: A Colour Guide. Manson, 1992,1996. p. 133. {{ISBN|1-874545-40-5}}</ref> Cell bodies are typically ovoid or elongate, and somewhat flattened from back to front. They are flexible, uniformly ciliated, and usually surrounded by [[trichocyst]]s. The small oral aperture is pear-shaped, and located in the anterior half of the cell.<ref>Carey, Philip G., Marine interstitial ciliates: an illustrated key. Chapman and Hall, 1992, {{ISBN|978-0-412-40610-2}} p. 129</ref> Along the left side of the opening there are three [[membranelle]]s, and the right has a single paroral membrane. The mouth is supported by inconspicuous [[microtubule|microtubular]] rods (nematodesmata),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gil |first1=Rosario |title=Cortical Fine Structure of Frontonia leucas (Ciliata: Holotricha) |journal=Transactions of the American Microscopical Society |date=1981 |volume=100 |issue=4 |pages=373–383 |doi=10.2307/3226150 |jstor=3226150 }}</ref> and may expand during feeding to as much as two-thirds of the cell's length.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goldsmith |first1=William M. |title=The process of ingestion in the ciliate, Frontonia |journal=Journal of Experimental Zoology |date=October 1922 |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=332–351 |doi=10.1002/jez.1400360305 }}</ref>


The cytoplasm of some species, such as ''Frontonia atra'' and ''Frontonia acuminata'', can be darkly pigmented.
The cytoplasm of some species, such as ''Frontonia atra'' and ''Frontonia acuminata'', can be darkly pigmented.


==Classification==
==Classification==
The genus ''Frontonia'', created by [[Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg|C. G. Ehrenberg]] in 1838, includes some thirty named and described species.<ref>Long et al. (2005). ''[http://www2.ouc.edu.cn/akfs/UserFiles/Songpaper/08-Long-Frontonia-Zootaxa.pdf Frontonia lynni] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425052101/http://www2.ouc.edu.cn/akfs/UserFiles/Songpaper/08-Long-Frontonia-Zootaxa.pdf |date=2012-04-25 }}'' n. sp., a new marine ciliate (Protozoa, Ciliophora,
The genus ''Frontonia'', created by [[Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg|C. G. Ehrenberg]] in 1838, includes some thirty named and described species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Long |first1=Hongan |last2=Song |first2=Weibo |last3=Gong |first3=Jun |last4=Hu |first4=Xiaozhong |last5=Ma |first5=Honggang |last6=Zhu |first6=Mingzhuang |last7=Wang |first7=Mei |title=Frontonia lynni n. sp., a new marine ciliate (Protozoa, Ciliophora, Hymenostomatida) from Qingdao, China |journal=Zootaxa |date=3 June 2005 |volume=1003 |issue=1 |pages=57 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.1003.1.4 }}</ref>
Hymenostomatida) from Qingdao, China. Zootaxa 1003:57-64.</ref>


In 2008, analysis of small subunit rRNA gene sequences confirmed the close relationship of several members of the genus: ''Frontonia leucas,'' ''F. vernalis,'' ''F. tchibisovae,'' ''F. lynni.'' However, ''Frontonia didieri'' was found to be related more closely to a species from another genus, ''Apofrontonia dohrni.'' This result calls into question the [[monophyly]] of the genus ''Frontonia'', and also casts doubt on the morphological criteria used to distinguish ''Apofrontonia'' from it.<ref>Gao et al. (2008). [http://www.mendeley.com/research/reconsideration-of-the-phylogenetic-position-of-frontoniarelated-peniculia-ciliophora-protozoa-inferred-from-the-small-subunit-ribosomal-rna-gene-sequences/ Reconsideration of the Phylogenetic Position of Frontonia-related Peniculia (Ciliophora, Protozoa) Inferred from the Small Subunit Ribosomal RNA Gene Sequences]. Acta Protozool. 47:47-54.</ref>
In 2008, analysis of small subunit rRNA gene sequences confirmed the close relationship of several members of the genus: ''Frontonia leucas,'' ''F. vernalis,'' ''F. tchibisovae,'' ''F. lynni.'' However, ''Frontonia didieri'' was found to be related more closely to a species from another genus, ''Apofrontonia dohrni.'' This result calls into question the [[monophyly]] of the genus ''Frontonia'', and also casts doubt on the morphological criteria used to distinguish ''Apofrontonia'' from it.<ref>{{cite journal |id={{NAID|10029826287}} |last1=Gao |first1=Shan |last2=Chen |first2=Zi-Gui |last3=Shao |first3=Chen |last4=Long |first4=Hong-An |last5=Al-Rasheid |first5=Khaled A. S. |last6=Song |first6=Wei-Bo |title=Reconsideration of the Phylogenetic Position of Frontonia-related Peniculia (Ciliophora, Protozoa) Inferred from the Small Subunit Ribosomal RNA Gene Sequences |journal=Acta Protozoologica |date=1 March 2008 |volume=47 |issue=1 }}</ref>


==Image gallery==
==Image gallery==

Revision as of 21:27, 4 March 2022

Frontonia
Frontonia sp., specimen is digesting cyanobacteria, the mouth (cytostome) is at the bottom right.
Scientific classification
Domain:
Eukaryota
(unranked):
SAR
(unranked):
Alveolata
Phylum:
Ciliophora
Subphylum:
Intramacronucleata
Class:
Oligohymenophorea
Order:
Peniculida
Family:
Frontoniidae
Genus:
Frontonia

Ehrenberg, 1838

Frontonia is a genus of free-living unicellular ciliate protists, belonging to the order Peniculida. As Peniculids, the Frontonia are closely related to members of the genus Paramecium. However, whereas Paramecia are mainly bacterivores, Frontonia are capable of ingesting large prey such as diatoms, filamentous algae, testate amoebas,[1] and even, in some circumstances, members of their own species.[2] In bacteria-rich saprobic conditions, Frontonia leucas can live as a facultative bacterivore.[3]

Frontonia are widely dispersed, and members of the genus can be found in marine and freshwater environments on every continent.[4][5]

Appearance and characteristics

Frontonia leucas, by V. Schewiakoff, 1889
Frontonia sp.

Frontonia species vary in length from 50 to 600 micrometres.[6] Cell bodies are typically ovoid or elongate, and somewhat flattened from back to front. They are flexible, uniformly ciliated, and usually surrounded by trichocysts. The small oral aperture is pear-shaped, and located in the anterior half of the cell.[7] Along the left side of the opening there are three membranelles, and the right has a single paroral membrane. The mouth is supported by inconspicuous microtubular rods (nematodesmata),[8] and may expand during feeding to as much as two-thirds of the cell's length.[9]

The cytoplasm of some species, such as Frontonia atra and Frontonia acuminata, can be darkly pigmented.

Classification

The genus Frontonia, created by C. G. Ehrenberg in 1838, includes some thirty named and described species.[10]

In 2008, analysis of small subunit rRNA gene sequences confirmed the close relationship of several members of the genus: Frontonia leucas, F. vernalis, F. tchibisovae, F. lynni. However, Frontonia didieri was found to be related more closely to a species from another genus, Apofrontonia dohrni. This result calls into question the monophyly of the genus Frontonia, and also casts doubt on the morphological criteria used to distinguish Apofrontonia from it.[11]

Image gallery

Video gallery

  • Frontonia leucas ingesting a diatom
  • Frontonia atra has symbiotic bacteria in its cytoplasm
  • Frontonia leucas, radiating canals around contractile vacuole
  • Frontonia vernalis carries symbiotic algae in its cytoplasm

List of accepted species names

References

  1. ^ Dias, Roberto Júnio P.; D'Agosto, Marta (September 2006). "Feeding behavior of Frontonia leucas (Ehrenberg) (Protozoa, Ciliophora, Hymenostomatida) under different environmental conditions in a lotic system". Revista Brasileira de Zoologia. 23: 758–763. doi:10.1590/S0101-81752006000300021.
  2. ^ Devi, R. Vimala (August 1964). "Cannibalism in Frontonia leucas Ehr". The Journal of Protozoology. 11 (3): 304–307. doi:10.1111/j.1550-7408.1964.tb01758.x.
  3. ^ Dias, Roberto Júnio P.; D'Agosto, Marta (September 2006). "Feeding behavior of Frontonia leucas (Ehrenberg) (Protozoa, Ciliophora, Hymenostomatida) under different environmental conditions in a lotic system". Revista Brasileira de Zoologia. 23: 758–763. doi:10.1590/S0101-81752006000300021.
  4. ^ Petz, Wolfgang; Valbonesi, Alessandro; Schiftner, Uwe; Quesada, Antonio; Cynan Ellis-Evans, J. (2007). "Ciliate biogeography in Antarctic and Arctic freshwater ecosystems: Endemism or global distribution of species?". FEMS Microbiology Ecology. 59 (2): 396–408. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6941.2006.00259.x. PMID 17313584.
  5. ^ Long, Hongan; Song, Weibo; Al-Rasheid, Khaled A. S.; Wang, Yangang; Yi, Zhenzhen; Al-Quraishy, Saleh A.; Lin, Xiaofeng; Al-Farraj, Saleh A. (23 January 2008). "Taxonomic studies on three marine species of Frontonia from northern China: F. didieri n. sp., F. multinucleata n. sp. and F. tchibisovae Burkovsky, 1970 (Ciliophora: Peniculida)". Zootaxa. 1687 (1): 35. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.1687.1.2.
  6. ^ Patterson, D.J. Free-Living Freshwater Protozoa: A Colour Guide. Manson, 1992,1996. p. 133. ISBN 1-874545-40-5
  7. ^ Carey, Philip G., Marine interstitial ciliates: an illustrated key. Chapman and Hall, 1992, ISBN 978-0-412-40610-2 p. 129
  8. ^ Gil, Rosario (1981). "Cortical Fine Structure of Frontonia leucas (Ciliata: Holotricha)". Transactions of the American Microscopical Society. 100 (4): 373–383. doi:10.2307/3226150. JSTOR 3226150.
  9. ^ Goldsmith, William M. (October 1922). "The process of ingestion in the ciliate, Frontonia". Journal of Experimental Zoology. 36 (3): 332–351. doi:10.1002/jez.1400360305.
  10. ^ Long, Hongan; Song, Weibo; Gong, Jun; Hu, Xiaozhong; Ma, Honggang; Zhu, Mingzhuang; Wang, Mei (3 June 2005). "Frontonia lynni n. sp., a new marine ciliate (Protozoa, Ciliophora, Hymenostomatida) from Qingdao, China". Zootaxa. 1003 (1): 57. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.1003.1.4.
  11. ^ Gao, Shan; Chen, Zi-Gui; Shao, Chen; Long, Hong-An; Al-Rasheid, Khaled A. S.; Song, Wei-Bo (1 March 2008). "Reconsideration of the Phylogenetic Position of Frontonia-related Peniculia (Ciliophora, Protozoa) Inferred from the Small Subunit Ribosomal RNA Gene Sequences". Acta Protozoologica. 47 (1). NAID 10029826287.
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