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Interstellar molecules are formed by chemical reactions within very sparse interstellar or circumstellar clouds of dust and gas. Usually this occurs when a molecule becomes [[ion]]ised, often as the result of an interaction with [[cosmic ray]]s. This positively charged molecule then draws in a nearby reactant by electrostatic attraction of the neutral molecule's electrons. Molecules can also be generated by reactions between neutral atoms and molecules, although this process is generally slower.<ref name=pnas103>{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.0602117103 |title=The galactic cosmic ray ionization rate |date=2006 |last1=Dalgarno |first1=A. |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=103 |issue=33 |pages=12269–73 |pmid=16894166 |pmc=1567869 |bibcode=2006PNAS..10312269D |doi-access=free }}</ref> The dust plays a critical role of shielding the molecules from the ionizing effect of ultraviolet radiation emitted by stars.<ref name=brown_pais95>{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Laurie M. |last2=Pais |first2=Abraham |last3=Pippard |first3=A. B. |title=Twentieth Century Physics |page=1765 |chapter=The physics of the interstellar medium |edition=second |publisher=CRC Press |date=1995 |isbn=978-0-7503-0310-1 }}</ref> The [[Murchison meteorite]] contains the organic molecules [[uracil]] and [[xanthine]],<ref name="Murch_base">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2008.03.026 |title=Extraterrestrial nucleobases in the Murchison meteorite |date=2008 |last1=Martins |first1=Zita |last2=Botta |first2=Oliver |last3=Fogel |first3=Marilyn L. |author-link3=Marilyn Fogel |last4=Sephton |first4=Mark A. |last5=Glavin |first5=Daniel P. |last6=Watson |first6=Jonathan S. |last7=Dworkin |first7=Jason P. |last8=Schwartz |first8=Alan W. |last9=Ehrenfreund |first9=Pascale |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |volume=270 |issue=1–2 |pages=130–36 |bibcode=2008E&PSL.270..130M |arxiv=0806.2286 |s2cid=14309508 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=We may all be space aliens: study |date=20 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617213441/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5j_QHxWNRNdiW35Qr00L8CkwcXyvw |url=http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5j_QHxWNRNdiW35Qr00L8CkwcXyvw |archive-date=June 17, 2008 |publisher=[[Agence France-Presse|AFP]] |access-date=8 November 2014}}</ref> which must therefore already have been present in the early Solar System, where they could have played a role in the origin of life.<ref name="Martins Botta Fogel 2008">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2008.03.026 |title=Extraterrestrial nucleobases in the Murchison meteorite |date=2008 |last1=Martins |first1=Zita |last2=Botta |first2=Oliver |last3=Fogel |first3=Marilyn L. |author-link3=Marilyn Fogel |last4=Sephton |first4=Mark A. |last5=Glavin |first5=Daniel P. |last6=Watson |first6=Jonathan S. |last7=Dworkin |first7=Jason P. |last8=Schwartz |first8=Alan W. |last9=Ehrenfreund |first9=Pascale |display-authors=3 |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |volume=270 |issue=1–2 |pages=130–36 |bibcode=2008E&PSL.270..130M |arxiv=0806.2286 |s2cid=14309508 }}</ref>
Interstellar molecules are formed by chemical reactions within very sparse interstellar or circumstellar clouds of dust and gas. Usually this occurs when a molecule becomes [[ion]]ised, often as the result of an interaction with [[cosmic ray]]s. This positively charged molecule then draws in a nearby reactant by electrostatic attraction of the neutral molecule's electrons. Molecules can also be generated by reactions between neutral atoms and molecules, although this process is generally slower.<ref name=pnas103>{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.0602117103 |title=The galactic cosmic ray ionization rate |date=2006 |last1=Dalgarno |first1=A. |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=103 |issue=33 |pages=12269–73 |pmid=16894166 |pmc=1567869 |bibcode=2006PNAS..10312269D |doi-access=free }}</ref> The dust plays a critical role of shielding the molecules from the ionizing effect of ultraviolet radiation emitted by stars.<ref name=brown_pais95>{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Laurie M. |last2=Pais |first2=Abraham |last3=Pippard |first3=A. B. |title=Twentieth Century Physics |page=1765 |chapter=The physics of the interstellar medium |edition=second |publisher=CRC Press |date=1995 |isbn=978-0-7503-0310-1 }}</ref> The [[Murchison meteorite]] contains the organic molecules [[uracil]] and [[xanthine]],<ref name="Murch_base">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2008.03.026 |title=Extraterrestrial nucleobases in the Murchison meteorite |date=2008 |last1=Martins |first1=Zita |last2=Botta |first2=Oliver |last3=Fogel |first3=Marilyn L. |author-link3=Marilyn Fogel |last4=Sephton |first4=Mark A. |last5=Glavin |first5=Daniel P. |last6=Watson |first6=Jonathan S. |last7=Dworkin |first7=Jason P. |last8=Schwartz |first8=Alan W. |last9=Ehrenfreund |first9=Pascale |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |volume=270 |issue=1–2 |pages=130–36 |bibcode=2008E&PSL.270..130M |arxiv=0806.2286 |s2cid=14309508 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=We may all be space aliens: study |date=20 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617213441/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5j_QHxWNRNdiW35Qr00L8CkwcXyvw |url=http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5j_QHxWNRNdiW35Qr00L8CkwcXyvw |archive-date=June 17, 2008 |publisher=[[Agence France-Presse|AFP]] |access-date=8 November 2014}}</ref> which must therefore already have been present in the early Solar System, where they could have played a role in the origin of life.<ref name="Martins Botta Fogel 2008">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2008.03.026 |title=Extraterrestrial nucleobases in the Murchison meteorite |date=2008 |last1=Martins |first1=Zita |last2=Botta |first2=Oliver |last3=Fogel |first3=Marilyn L. |author-link3=Marilyn Fogel |last4=Sephton |first4=Mark A. |last5=Glavin |first5=Daniel P. |last6=Watson |first6=Jonathan S. |last7=Dworkin |first7=Jason P. |last8=Schwartz |first8=Alan W. |last9=Ehrenfreund |first9=Pascale |display-authors=3 |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |volume=270 |issue=1–2 |pages=130–36 |bibcode=2008E&PSL.270..130M |arxiv=0806.2286 |s2cid=14309508 }}</ref>


[[Nitrile|Nitriles]], key molecular precursors of the [[RNA world|RNA World]] scenario, are among the most abundant chemical families in the universe and have been found in molecular clouds in the center of the Milky Way, protostars of different masses, meteorites and comets, and also in the atmosphere of Titan, the largest moon of Saturn.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rivilla |first=Víctor M. |last2=Jiménez-Serra |first2=Izaskun |last3=Martín-Pintado |first3=Jesús |last4=Colzi |first4=Laura |last5=Tercero |first5=Belén |last6=de Vicente |first6=Pablo |last7=Zeng |first7=Shaoshan |last8=Martín |first8=Sergio |last9=García de la Concepción |first9=Juan |last10=Bizzocchi |first10=Luca |last11=Melosso |first11=Mattia |date=2022 |title=Molecular Precursors of the RNA-World in Space: New Nitriles in the G+0.693−0.027 Molecular Cloud |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fspas.2022.876870 |journal=Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences |volume=9 |doi=10.3389/fspas.2022.876870/full |issn=2296-987X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-08 |title=Building blocks for RNA-based life abound at center of our galaxy |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/957827 |access-date=2022-07-11 |website=EurekAlert! |language=en}}</ref>
[[Nitrile|Nitriles]], key molecular precursors of the [[RNA world|RNA World]] scenario, are among the most abundant chemical families in the universe and have been found in molecular clouds in the center of the Milky Way, protostars of different masses, meteorites and comets, and also in the atmosphere of Titan, the largest moon of Saturn.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rivilla |first1=Víctor M. |last2=Jiménez-Serra |first2=Izaskun |last3=Martín-Pintado |first3=Jesús |last4=Colzi |first4=Laura |last5=Tercero |first5=Belén |last6=de Vicente |first6=Pablo |last7=Zeng |first7=Shaoshan |last8=Martín |first8=Sergio |last9=García de la Concepción |first9=Juan |last10=Bizzocchi |first10=Luca |last11=Melosso |first11=Mattia |date=2022 |title=Molecular Precursors of the RNA-World in Space: New Nitriles in the G+0.693−0.027 Molecular Cloud |journal=Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences |volume=9 |page=876870 |doi=10.3389/fspas.2022.876870 |arxiv=2206.01053 |bibcode=2022FrASS...9.6870R |issn=2296-987X|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-08 |title=Building blocks for RNA-based life abound at center of our galaxy |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/957827 |access-date=2022-07-11 |website=EurekAlert! |language=en}}</ref>


Evidence for the extraterrestrial creation of organic molecules includes both their discovery in various contexts in space, and their laboratory synthesis under extraterrestrial conditions:
Evidence for the extraterrestrial creation of organic molecules includes both their discovery in various contexts in space, and their laboratory synthesis under extraterrestrial conditions:
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| || Precursors of amino acids and nucleotides || [[Interstellar medium]] || [[NASA]], 2012, starting from [[polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons]] (PAHs)<ref name="Space-20120920">{{cite news |title=NASA Cooks Up Icy Organics to Mimic Life's Origins |url=http://www.space.com/17681-life-building-blocks-nasa-organic-molecules.html |date=September 20, 2012 |work=[[Space.com]] |access-date=September 22, 2012 }}</ref><ref name="AJL-20120901">{{cite journal |doi=10.1088/2041-8205/756/1/L24 |title=In-Situ Probing of Radiation-Induced Processing of Organics in Astrophysical Ice Analogs – Novel Laser Desorption Laser Ionization Time-Of-Flight Mass Spectroscopic Studies |date=2012 |last1=Gudipati |first1=Murthy S. |last2=Yang |first2=Rui |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=756 |issue=1 |pages=L24
| || Precursors of amino acids and nucleotides || [[Interstellar medium]] || [[NASA]], 2012, starting from [[polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons]] (PAHs)<ref name="Space-20120920">{{cite news |title=NASA Cooks Up Icy Organics to Mimic Life's Origins |url=http://www.space.com/17681-life-building-blocks-nasa-organic-molecules.html |date=September 20, 2012 |work=[[Space.com]] |access-date=September 22, 2012 }}</ref><ref name="AJL-20120901">{{cite journal |doi=10.1088/2041-8205/756/1/L24 |title=In-Situ Probing of Radiation-Induced Processing of Organics in Astrophysical Ice Analogs – Novel Laser Desorption Laser Ionization Time-Of-Flight Mass Spectroscopic Studies |date=2012 |last1=Gudipati |first1=Murthy S. |last2=Yang |first2=Rui |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=756 |issue=1 |pages=L24
|bibcode=2012ApJ...756L..24G}}</ref>
|bibcode=2012ApJ...756L..24G|s2cid=5541727 }}</ref>
|-
|-
| [[Uracil]],<br/>[[Cytosine]],<br/>[[Thymine]] || [[Nucleobase]]s || [[Pyrimidine]], outer space || NASA, 2015<ref name="NASA-20150303">{{cite web |last=Marlaire |first=Ruth |title=NASA Ames Reproduces the Building Blocks of Life in Laboratory |url=http://www.nasa.gov/content/nasa-ames-reproduces-the-building-blocks-of-life-in-laboratory |date=3 March 2015 |work=[[NASA]] |access-date=5 March 2015 }}</ref>
| [[Uracil]],<br/>[[Cytosine]],<br/>[[Thymine]] || [[Nucleobase]]s || [[Pyrimidine]], outer space || NASA, 2015<ref name="NASA-20150303">{{cite web |last=Marlaire |first=Ruth |title=NASA Ames Reproduces the Building Blocks of Life in Laboratory |url=http://www.nasa.gov/content/nasa-ames-reproduces-the-building-blocks-of-life-in-laboratory |date=3 March 2015 |work=[[NASA]] |access-date=5 March 2015 }}</ref>
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| || [[Sugar]]s || In "primitive meteorites"<ref name="Furukawa Chikaraishi Ohkouchi 2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Furukawa |first1=Yoshihiro |last2=Chikaraishi |first2=Yoshito |last3=Ohkouchi |first3=Naohiko |last4=Ogawa |first4=Nanako O. |last5=Glavin |first5=Daniel P. |last6=Dworkin |first6=Jason P. |last7=Abe |first7=Chiaki |last8=Nakamura |first8=Tomoki |display-authors=3 |date=13 November 2019 |title=Extraterrestrial ribose and other sugars in primitive meteorites |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=116 |issue=49 |pages=24440–45 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1907169116 |pmid=31740594 |bibcode=2019PNAS..11624440F |doi-access=free |pmc=6900709}}</ref>
| || [[Sugar]]s || In "primitive meteorites"<ref name="Furukawa Chikaraishi Ohkouchi 2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Furukawa |first1=Yoshihiro |last2=Chikaraishi |first2=Yoshito |last3=Ohkouchi |first3=Naohiko |last4=Ogawa |first4=Nanako O. |last5=Glavin |first5=Daniel P. |last6=Dworkin |first6=Jason P. |last7=Abe |first7=Chiaki |last8=Nakamura |first8=Tomoki |display-authors=3 |date=13 November 2019 |title=Extraterrestrial ribose and other sugars in primitive meteorites |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=116 |issue=49 |pages=24440–45 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1907169116 |pmid=31740594 |bibcode=2019PNAS..11624440F |doi-access=free |pmc=6900709}}</ref>
|-
|-
| [[Guanine]],<br/>[[Adenine]],<br/>[[Cytosine]],<br/>[[Uracil]],<br/>[[Thymine]] || [[Nucleobase]]s || 2022<ref name="NC-20220426">{{cite journal |author=Oba, Yasuhiro |display-authors=et al |title=Identifying the wide diversity of extraterrestrial purine and pyrimidine nucleobases in carbonaceous meteorites |date=26 April 2022 |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |volume=13 |number=2008 |page=2008 |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-29612-x |pmid=35473908 |pmc=9042847 }}</ref>
| [[Guanine]],<br/>[[Adenine]],<br/>[[Cytosine]],<br/>[[Uracil]],<br/>[[Thymine]] || [[Nucleobase]]s || 2022<ref name="NC-20220426">{{cite journal |author=Oba, Yasuhiro |display-authors=et al |title=Identifying the wide diversity of extraterrestrial purine and pyrimidine nucleobases in carbonaceous meteorites |date=26 April 2022 |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |volume=13 |number=2008 |page=2008 |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-29612-x |pmid=35473908 |pmc=9042847 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13.2008O }}</ref>
|}
|}


Revision as of 05:35, 10 October 2022

Pseudo-panspermia (sometimes called soft panspermia, molecular panspermia or quasi-panspermia) is a well-supported hypothesis for a stage in the origin of life. The theory first asserts that many of the small organic molecules used for life originated in space (for example, being incorporated in the solar nebula, from which the planets condensed).[1][2] It continues that these organic molecules were distributed to planetary surfaces, where life then emerged on Earth and perhaps on other planets.[1][2] Pseudo-panspermia differs from the fringe theory of panspermia, which asserts that life arrived on Earth from distant planets.

Background

Further information: Panspermia

Theories of the origin of life have been current since the 5th century BC, when the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras proposed an initial version of panspermia: life arrived on earth from the heavens.[3] In modern times, panspermia has little support amongst mainstream scientists.[4]

Extraterrestrial creation of organic molecules

Interstellar molecules are formed by chemical reactions within very sparse interstellar or circumstellar clouds of dust and gas. Usually this occurs when a molecule becomes ionised, often as the result of an interaction with cosmic rays. This positively charged molecule then draws in a nearby reactant by electrostatic attraction of the neutral molecule's electrons. Molecules can also be generated by reactions between neutral atoms and molecules, although this process is generally slower.[5] The dust plays a critical role of shielding the molecules from the ionizing effect of ultraviolet radiation emitted by stars.[6] The Murchison meteorite contains the organic molecules uracil and xanthine,[7][8] which must therefore already have been present in the early Solar System, where they could have played a role in the origin of life.[9]

Nitriles, key molecular precursors of the RNA World scenario, are among the most abundant chemical families in the universe and have been found in molecular clouds in the center of the Milky Way, protostars of different masses, meteorites and comets, and also in the atmosphere of Titan, the largest moon of Saturn.[10][11]

Evidence for the extraterrestrial creation of organic molecules includes both their discovery in various contexts in space, and their laboratory synthesis under extraterrestrial conditions:

Extraterrestrial organic molecules found in space
Molecule Class Body Notes
Glycine Amino acid Comet NASA, 2009[12]
mixed aromatic-aliphatic compounds Cosmic dust 2011[13][14]
Glycolaldehyde Sugar-related Around a protostar Copenhagen University, 2012[15][16] Precursor of RNA[17]
Cyanomethanimine, Ethanimine Imines Icy particles in interstellar space Precursors of nucleobase adenine, and of amino acid alanine[18]
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) widespread, 20% of carbon in universe NASA, 2014[19]
Glycine,
Methylamine,
Ethylamine		 Amino acid, amines Coma of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko Rosetta Mission, 2016[20]
Laboratory syntheses under extraterrestrial conditions
Molecule Class Conditions Notes
Precursors of amino acids and nucleotides Interstellar medium NASA, 2012, starting from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)[21][22]
Uracil,
Cytosine,
Thymine		 Nucleobases Pyrimidine, outer space NASA, 2015[23]
Peptides outer space, using CO, C, NH3 Materials common in molecular clouds of interstellar medium[24]

Planetary distribution of organic molecules

Organic molecules can then be distributed to planets including Earth both when the planets formed and later. If the materials from which planets formed contained organic molecules, and were not destroyed by heat or other processes, then these would be available for abiogenesis on those planets.

Later distribution is by means of bodies such as comets and asteroids. These may fall to the planetary surface as meteorites, releasing any molecules they are carrying as they vaporise on impact or later as they erode. Findings of organic molecules in meteorites include:

Organic molecules found in meteorites
Molecule Class Notes
Adenine,
Guanine		 Nucleobase NASA, 2011[25][26]
Sugars In "primitive meteorites"[27]
Guanine,
Adenine,
Cytosine,
Uracil,
Thymine		 Nucleobases 2022[28]


Large Asteroids With Ice And Organic Chemicals
Asteroid Location Notes
24 Themis Asteroid Belt NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
Near Earth Objects, Life On Earth[29]
269 Justitia Asteroid Belt NASA, JPL Small-Body Database[30]

References

  1. ^ a b Klyce, Brig (2001). "Panspermia Asks New Questions". Retrieved 25 July 2013.
  2. ^ a b Klyce, Brig (2001). "Panspermia asks new questions". In Kingsley, Stuart A; Bhathal, Ragbir (eds.). The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) in the Optical Spectrum III. The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) in the Optical Spectrum III. Vol. 4273. pp. 11–14. Bibcode:2001SPIE.4273...11K. doi:10.1117/12.435366. S2CID 122849901. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  3. ^ Kolb, Vera M.; Clark III, Benton C. (13 July 2020). "10". Astrobiology for a General Reader: A Question and Answers - Panspermia hypothesis. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 47. ISBN 978-1-5275-5502-0. Retrieved 3 May 2022. The Panspermia hypothesis states that life exists elsewhere in the universe, and could be distributed far and wide. This idea was first introduced by the ancient Greek philosopher Anaxagoras (5th Century BC), who believed that the universe is made of an infinite number of seeds ("spermata" in Greek). Upon reaching the Earth, these seeds gave rise to life. Anaxagorus introduced the term "Panspermia", which in Greek means literally "seeds everywhere".
  4. ^ May, Andrew (2019). Astrobiology: The Search for Life Elsewhere in the Universe. London. ISBN 978-1-78578-342-5. OCLC 999440041. Although they were part of the scientific establishment – Hoyle at Cambridge and Wickramasinghe at the University of Wales – their views on the topic were far from mainstream, and panspermia remains a fringe theory{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  5. ^ Dalgarno, A. (2006). "The galactic cosmic ray ionization rate". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (33): 12269–73. Bibcode:2006PNAS..10312269D. doi:10.1073/pnas.0602117103. PMC 1567869. PMID 16894166.
  6. ^ Brown, Laurie M.; Pais, Abraham; Pippard, A. B. (1995). "The physics of the interstellar medium". Twentieth Century Physics (second ed.). CRC Press. p. 1765. ISBN 978-0-7503-0310-1.
  7. ^ Martins, Zita; Botta, Oliver; Fogel, Marilyn L.; Sephton, Mark A.; Glavin, Daniel P.; Watson, Jonathan S.; Dworkin, Jason P.; Schwartz, Alan W.; Ehrenfreund, Pascale (2008). "Extraterrestrial nucleobases in the Murchison meteorite". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 270 (1–2): 130–36. arXiv:0806.2286. Bibcode:2008E&PSL.270..130M. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2008.03.026. S2CID 14309508.
  8. ^ "We may all be space aliens: study". AFP. 20 August 2009. Archived from the original on June 17, 2008. Retrieved 8 November 2014.
  9. ^ Martins, Zita; Botta, Oliver; Fogel, Marilyn L.; et al. (2008). "Extraterrestrial nucleobases in the Murchison meteorite". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 270 (1–2): 130–36. arXiv:0806.2286. Bibcode:2008E&PSL.270..130M. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2008.03.026. S2CID 14309508.
  10. ^ Rivilla, Víctor M.; Jiménez-Serra, Izaskun; Martín-Pintado, Jesús; Colzi, Laura; Tercero, Belén; de Vicente, Pablo; Zeng, Shaoshan; Martín, Sergio; García de la Concepción, Juan; Bizzocchi, Luca; Melosso, Mattia (2022). "Molecular Precursors of the RNA-World in Space: New Nitriles in the G+0.693−0.027 Molecular Cloud". Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences. 9: 876870. arXiv:2206.01053. Bibcode:2022FrASS...9.6870R. doi:10.3389/fspas.2022.876870. ISSN 2296-987X.
  11. ^ "Building blocks for RNA-based life abound at center of our galaxy". EurekAlert!. 2022-07-08. Retrieved 2022-07-11.
  12. ^ "'Life chemical' detected in comet". NASA. BBC News. 18 August 2009. Retrieved 6 March 2010.
  13. ^ Chow, Denise (26 October 2011). "Discovery: Cosmic Dust Contains Organic Matter from Stars". Space.com. Retrieved 26 October 2011.
  14. ^ Kwok, Sun; Zhang, Yong (2011). "Mixed aromatic–aliphatic organic nanoparticles as carriers of unidentified infrared emission features". Nature. 479 (7371): 80–83. Bibcode:2011Natur.479...80K. doi:10.1038/nature10542. PMID 22031328. S2CID 4419859.
  15. ^ Than, Ker (August 29, 2012). "Sugar Found In Space". National Geographic. Retrieved August 31, 2012.
  16. ^ "Sweet! Astronomers spot sugar molecule near star". AP News. August 29, 2012. Retrieved August 31, 2012.
  17. ^ Jørgensen, Jes K.; Favre, Cécile; Bisschop, Suzanne E.; Bourke, Tyler L.; et al. (2012). "Detection of the Simplest Sugar, Glycolaldehyde, in a Solar-Type Protostar with Alma". The Astrophysical Journal. 757 (1): L4. arXiv:1208.5498. Bibcode:2012ApJ...757L...4J. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/757/1/L4. S2CID 14205612.
  18. ^ Loomis, Ryan A.; Zaleski, Daniel P.; Steber, Amanda L.; et al. (2013). "The Detection of Interstellar Ethanimine (Ch3Chnh) from Observations Taken During the Gbt Primos Survey". The Astrophysical Journal. 765 (1): L9. arXiv:1302.1121. Bibcode:2013ApJ...765L...9L. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/765/1/L9. S2CID 118522676.
  19. ^ Hoover, Rachel (February 21, 2014). "Need to Track Organic Nano-Particles Across the Universe? NASA's Got an App for That". NASA. Retrieved 22 February 2014.
  20. ^ "Prebiotic chemicals – amino acid and phosphorus – in the coma of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko".
  21. ^ "NASA Cooks Up Icy Organics to Mimic Life's Origins". Space.com. September 20, 2012. Retrieved September 22, 2012.
  22. ^ Gudipati, Murthy S.; Yang, Rui (2012). "In-Situ Probing of Radiation-Induced Processing of Organics in Astrophysical Ice Analogs – Novel Laser Desorption Laser Ionization Time-Of-Flight Mass Spectroscopic Studies". The Astrophysical Journal. 756 (1): L24. Bibcode:2012ApJ...756L..24G. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/756/1/L24. S2CID 5541727.
  23. ^ Marlaire, Ruth (3 March 2015). "NASA Ames Reproduces the Building Blocks of Life in Laboratory". NASA. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
  24. ^ Krasnokutski, S. A.; Chuang, K. J.; Jäger, C.; et al. (2022). "A pathway to peptides in space through the condensation of atomic carbon". Nature Astronomy. 6 (3): 381–386. arXiv:2202.12170. Bibcode:2022NatAs...6..381K. doi:10.1038/s41550-021-01577-9. S2CID 246768607.
  25. ^ Callahan, M. P.; Smith, K. E.; Cleaves, H. J.; et al. (2011). "Carbonaceous meteorites contain a wide range of extraterrestrial nucleobases". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (34): 13995–98. Bibcode:2011PNAS..10813995C. doi:10.1073/pnas.1106493108. PMC 3161613. PMID 21836052.
  26. ^ Steigerwald, John (8 August 2011). "NASA Researchers: DNA Building Blocks Can Be Made in Space". NASA. Retrieved 10 August 2011.
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