Covert racism

Covert racism is a form of racial discrimination that is disguised and subtle, rather than public or obvious. Concealed in the fabric of society, covert racism discriminates against individuals through often evasive or seemingly passive methods. Covert, racially-biased decisions are often hidden or rationalized with an explanation that society is more willing to accept. These racial biases cause a variety of problems that work to empower the suppressors while diminishing the rights and powers of the oppressed. Covert racism often works subliminally, and often much of the discrimination is being done subconsciously.

History in the U.S.

With the history of racial inequality in the United States, racism has long been an issue. The enslavement of millions of blacks along with the huge influx of immigrants throughout its history resulted in great diversity but also racial segregation. With the abolition of slavery, different forms of segregation were implemented, including Jim Crow laws and later American social and political structures which led to segregation within cities and the suburbanization of the working and middle class. As overt racial discrimination became illegal and less apparent, the idea of the nation homogenizing became popular. As the U.S. accepted more immigrants from different cultures, various "melting pots" of unity were seen to arise. Along with this, ideologies posited that every group of immigrants goes through the same discrimination. Many groups eventually assimilate, but racism still exists, often in different forms and to different degrees.

When black G.I.s returned home from the Vietnam War, they were denied the money promised to them to support their education and help them buy homes. While only 9.5% of soldiers serving in Vietnam were black, they comprised nearly 20% of front line troops, and 25% or more of airborne divisions. Black servicemen were twice as likely to re-enlist in the Navy, Marine Corps and Air Force and three times as likely to re-enlist in the Army as their white counterparts, not for any sense of adventure, but because they found the monetary rewards to be promising and they were treated more equally.

De Cardio Racism:

De cardio racism is a term coined by John L. Jackson Jr. Jackson states that the rise of De Cardio racism can be traced to the aftermath of the legislative and political success of the Civil Rights Movement. Those obvious victories, he suggests, did not lead the US into a racial color blind society, but rather shifted racist beliefs to the "hearts" of Americans. To Jackson, this reimagines the manifestation of racism -- away from blatant Jim-Crow era discrimination and towards covert, deniable subtleties. Jackson argues "De cardio racism is about what the law can’t touch, what won’t be easily proved or disproved, what can’t be simply criminalized and deemed unconstitutional. It is racism that is most terrifying because it is hidden, secret, papered over with public niceties and politically correct jargon." In this new era, Jackson states that we must develop new tools to detect racial dog whistles and to penetrate the "hearts" of those who harbor racist beliefs, not becoming distracted by empty rhetoric. As compared to the past, where activist confronted a clear and tangible discriminatory foe, Jackson states that modern activists must contend with an opponent parroting the rhetoric of racial equality, but not backing it up with any action. The racism is hidden, covert and tucked away in a part of Americans/' hearts that is hard to reach. He argues that they must navigate the head-scratching silence of white Americans who engaged in violent racist attacks just a generation ago. In Jackson's words,"De Cardio Racism asks: where did all of yesterday’s racial wolves go, and why do all these sheep seem to be standing around licking their chops?"

De Facto Racism:

De facto racism refers to racism "in fact" or through the matter of circumstance and personal choice. In the post-Civil Rights Era, governments and institutions could no longer overtly discriminate based on race in law, regulation or policy. Modern De Facto racism refers to forms of discrimination that may not be overt, but still produce disparate outcomes. Pertinent examples include continued school segregation. Although de Jure racist practices of housing segregation were outlawed by the passage of the 1968 Fair Housing Act, de facto racist practices such as "Redlining" and "white flight" largely trapped Black households in the inner cities and saw white families move to the suburbs. Other De Facto racist policies like basing school funding off property taxes have led to disparate investment in public schools.

De Facto racism can also exist as the lingering remnants of centuries of De Jure racism. Past generations of Black families inability to become homeowners or attend well-funded schools has hindered long-term social mobility. As a result, Black families are not able to cultivate generational wealth or pass on the social or cultural capital to their children. This has led to a persistent wealth gap between Black and white families. In 2022, white households held on average $252,000 more than the average Black family.

Covert Racism and Colonialism:

After the departure of Western imperial powers from their former colonies, many nations in the Global South were left with odious debt, crumbling institutions, economic decline and social morass. No longer in control of their former colonies, some people in the West looked for ways to explain the lasting impact of their colonial rule. Covert concepts that blamed the culture of former colonies replaced clear, moral and scientific boundaries between the colonizers and colonies. Notable examples include: "cultural deficits" and "deficient human capital." To explain this rhetoric, some scholars argue that the moral separation did not go away but changed forms, as fatalistic concepts like a "culture of poverty" turned attention away from structural inequities left from colonial rule and put the onus on former colonies. However, others argue that the dysfunction was proof of the stability that the West provided and that the developing world had grown dependent on colonial rule.

The White Savior Complex:

Enlightenment Colonialism refers to a set of cultural norms that served as a justificatory premise for colonial rule. Enlightenment colonialism comes from the philosophy of the White Man's Burden and the moral responsibility of white people to "save" the "uncivilized" people in the Global south. The fundamental premise rests on the cultural inferiority of former-colonies compared to the "civilized" culture of Western powers. Economic exploitation, slavery and oppression was justified by a promise of introducing tenants of a "civilized society" as defined by the fundamental elements of Western culture.

Emerging from decades of Enlightenment colonialism came the White Savior Complex. Although "white saviors" may not overtly impose Western cultural norms, what is similar about both philosophies is the premise of cultural inferiority and the erasure of the agency of former-colonies. White Saviorism assumes that the people impacted by the problem, usually in developing nations, are incapable of creating their own solutions and that white people must intervene to save them. Critics of white saviorism argue that it perpetuates a subtle dependency from the survivor to the savior. Developing countries become reliant on charity from Western charities that puts the recipient at a subservient position to the giver. White saviors have also been criticized for prioritizing their values over the experience of the local community. However, many argue that western charity is a net-good and that it is the responsibility of wealthy nations in the west to support low-income nations in the global south. Nonetheless, many developmental economists have pointed out the tangible importance of including community in humanitarian solutions.

Covert Racism and Language:

Covert racism in language, or coded racism, is the deployment of common stereotypes of tropes to elucidate a racially-charged idea. Rather than expressly perpetuating racist tropes, covert linguistic racism is seen as rational or "common sense" and many aren't aware of its impact. The term microaggressions has been used to describe the deployment of covert racism in language that usually represent an unconscious bias. The term was invented by Chester M. Pierce in 1970 to describe insults he witnessed non-black Americans inflicting on black students. Although the speaker does not state an expressed racial opinion, they often reinforce stereotypes that makes the recipient feel outside the norm; a recipient of a microaggression feels as though their individuality becomes lost to a underlying stereotype. Notable examples include asking a person of color where they learned to speak English or presuming that a Black person is dangerous. In all cases, the speaker generalizes or idealizes a quality that simultaneously degrades a minority group. However, some scholars have criticized the term for its lack of scientific evidence, reliance on subjective evidence and the elevation of victimhood by centering a term connoting harm.

Racial Stereotypes:

Racial or cultural stereotyping refers to generalizing a group based on a simplified set of norms, behaviors or characteristics. Although stereotypes can take on positive or negative connotations, they can be intrinsically harmful. The three main arguments are that they reduce an individual to a set of oversimplified characteristics, leave no room for change and insist the stereotypes are natural and/or biological. Some scholars suggest that stereotyping is a method to reinforce entrenched power structures, by making arbitrary social divisions seem "natural" and inevitable. Stereotypes also erase one's individuality, and impose rigid norms, leading to frequent tension between one's identity and their perceived social role.

Racial stereotypes have been a powerful tool to lock people of color out of valuable socioeconomic resources; oftentimes inflicting self-detrimental behavior. A 2010 study found that victims of stereotyping were more likely to be aggressive, lack self-control and over-indulge in carbohydrate-heavy foods. Furthermore, there is also research showing that individuals who are stereotyped are more likely to behave according to the stereotype, further reinforcing it's validity and increasing it's pull on targeted groups.

The data around racial stereotypes paints a clear picture of its pervasiveness and utility by white people against people of color. According to Ferris State University Prof. Green "Findings revealed that 58.9 percent of black and white subjects endorsed at least one stereotypical difference in inborn ability. Additionally, whites are 10 times more likely to be seen as superior in artistic ability and abstract thinking ability; and African-Americans were 10 times more likely to be seen as superior in athletic ability and rhythmic ability. Further, 49 percent of subjects endorsed stereotypical differences in physical characteristics such as blacks experience less physical pain that whites and have thicker skulls and skin."

Covert Racism within Politics:

Covert racism within politics can be observed in various ways. The process begins with the demonization of certain ethnic groups by associating them with a negative aspect of society which can be called racialization. Politicians can then perpetuate these negative associations to promote fear of a race and in turn offer protection through policy. This strategy is not new to the 20th century and can be observed globally. The way in which politicians throughout history have used covert racism tactically to promote their own agenda is through media outlets. Covert racism in politics has also been deployed to define ethnic groups as monoliths. Political parties define broad-based and universal narratives to appeal to a specific racial voting block. Critics argue that this approach prioritizes stereotypes about the community rather than appealing to their diverse ideological background. Some individuals have reported feeling taken for granted by politicians because they are assumed to vote a particular way based on their race.

Dog Whistling

Dog whistling refers to racially coded political messaging that disparages or warns about specific social groups. The term derives from a physical "dog whistle" -- an instrument that produces a sound undetectable to humans, but bothersome to dogs. Likewise, what makes a dog whistle covert is that it does not expressly state a racist idea, but a coded racial message that maintains a sense of plausible deniability. Compared to other forms of coded racism in language, a dog whistle usually has an expressed political goal. Most often, it is used as a method of fear mongering to drive voter turnout or advocate for specific policies.

"Thugs":

One way in which politicians use covert racism is with keywords like “thugs”. Globally the term thugs has become synonymous with young black people with its roots coming from British rule with roots in the Hindi language where the word was used in association with “scoundrel” or “a deceiver”. The term is often used to describe a thief or deviant. Thugs are usually closely associated to violence, gangs and crime. The word gained popularity in the Black community and mainstream culture during the rise of rap in the 80s and 90s and the War on Crime. In the era of political dog whistles, many world leaders used the term to disparage criminals and castigate the Black community. Some recent examples are the usage of the word “thugs” when describing Afro-Trinidadian impoverished males in the ports of Spain, president Donald Trump describing protestors as “thugs” following the murder of George Floyd, and the British Prime Minister responding to additional protest following George Floyd by saying “Racist thuggery’, will be answered by “the force of law” . Other words like ghetto, hood, and sketchy are used by politicians in a similar way to represent blackness while not explicitly stating it.

Covert Racism and the Police:

Covert racism in policing refers to the subtle and often unconscious biases that police officers may hold towards people of certain racial or ethnic groups. Many scholars argue that covert racism in policing persists as modern police forces move away from openly racist practices. Covert racial disparities in policing is be seen in various ways including surveilling a perimeter, searching individuals, and conducting traffic stops across the United States. For example, a research team at Stanford University compiled and analyzed a dataset of nearly 100 million traffic stops.They found that after sunset, the “veil of darkness” resulted in black drivers being stopped fewer times than before sunset. Their findings indicated that police stops and search decisions were affected by racial biases. Stop and Frisk has also been defined as a form of covert racism in policing. Although many police departments use stop and frisk, the NYPD came under intense scrutiny for it's tactics in the mid 2000s. Critics claim that Stop and Frisk led to the explicit targeting of young men of color by the police. At its peak in 2011, the NYPD reported making nearly 700,000 stops. A disproportionate number of the stops were targeted towards young men of color, over 90% with over 70% later being found innocent. The use of stop and frisk was deemed unconstitutional in 2013 by a New York court. However, many police officers argue that there has been substantive steps to root out racist practices. Chair’s of the UK Black Police Associations stated that “open expressions of racism have largely disappeared. The NYPD and other departments have also shifted to community-based policing models, hiring more officers of color and imposing implicit-bias training to root out racial tendencies.

Some argue that covert racism manifests in how police officers are treated within the department. There is evidence that many minority officers that are eliminated during initial trainings, given assignments that do not advance their careers and even given unjust evaluations and discipline.

Covert Racism and the Media:

Political Advertising:

Covert racism in political advertising can take the form of racial priming or racial cues, which is when political leaders speak about certain topics and subtly link them to racial groups without explicitly referencing race. These cues bypass any conscious thought of race or racism, and therefore, do not explicitly violate the ‘norm of equality’. Some examples include Ronald Reagan nurturing implicit ties between subjects such as ‘big government’ with the demands of minorities for equality to imply that they were asking for special treatment, or George Bush’s Revolving Door advertisement that included a photo of Willie Norton, said to strengthen subtle ties between Black people and increasing crime rates. These strategies can have the potential to simplify political decision making by activating racial thinking as a vital factor.

Both anger and fear have been proposed as the emotional responses that prompt racial thinking in the viewers of these kinds of political advertisements, with fear stemming from white people having to share resources they see as scarce with minorities, or anger that manifests as blaming minorities for social issues.

Even in more recent US elections, racial cues can be seen in political advertising. Some examples include Mitt Romney’s ‘Obama isn’t Working’ slogan In the 2012 elections, emphasizing the implicit use of the stereotype of black people being lazy to undermine Barack Obama's campaign and black people in general, and imply that they were gaining advantages at the expense of white people. However, in research surrounding race and the 2016 elections, some findings observe that more explicit racism, as opposed to implicit racial cues, have become more effective in driving white voters' choices.

News:

One way covert racism in news media has been said to manifest is as “white normative objectivity.” White normative objectivity is described as centering the white lens when reporting about marginalized communities, reinforcing stereotypes and downplaying the effects of structural racism. Scholars have observed that it can emphasize the otherness of communities of color through stories chosen for shock value or sensation while ignoring the humanity of these communities. White normative objectivity has also been criticized for embracing a form of neutrality or “both-sides-ism” that obscures harm from dominant society by individualizing institutional inequalities and lacking any critique of power dynamics that historically favor white people. The Missouri School of Journalism outlined several criticisms of news coverage of minorities, saying that most news channels do not show people of color within the context of their communities, portray them as either enablers, criminals or victims, and do not show how the entire community is impacted by the crime. Furthermore, there is an overemphasis on atypical behavior that portrays communities of color in a constant state of crisis and not enough coverage on the average day-to-day lifestyles in their communities.

Covert racism has also been said to manifest in the lack of diversity within the newsroom, with a 2022 survey saying that 52% of US journalists think their newsroom lacks racial diversity. I Though minorities are not legally barred from the newsroom, many diversity surveys of newsrooms show that white men are still disproportionately represented both as journalists and as higher management, seeing as in 2017, it was found that minorities only made up about 16.55% of the workforce in news media organizations, and 85.1% of TV news directors were white. Retention of minority reporters is also still an issue. Many reporters of color cite the lack of diversity as negatively affecting their time in the newsroom, with many speaking about their experience with microaggressions, lack of promotions, and pay gaps.

The manner in which racism is discussed in news coverage can also contribute to the “debatability” or “plausible deniability” of racism. Currently, overt forms of racism are looked down upon in greater society, so criticizing minority groups usually happens within coded language and actions that can be denied to be truly racist. In covering stories about race, some methods in which the debatability of racism is perpetuated include avoidance of any pointed language about race or racism, denying or debating what actions can be counted as racism, as well as confining ‘true’ racism to a historical time period.

Other forms of racism that are deployed in news are symbolic racism and nationalist language, where minorities are criticized due to their actions,as opposed to their identity and are indirectly referenced as parties that cannot uphold the values of greater society and must be defended against.

Racially constructed barriers

Main article: Racial segregation in the United States

Main article: Residential segregation

In the 1950s, shortly after World War II, urban areas were overtly divided into blocks by race. Blocks occupied by minorities were close to toxic dumps, busy highways, and other undesirable locations throughout cities. Whites lived away from these areas and often realtors would not be able to show properties to whites within these areas. Landlords could choose to not rent apartments to certain minority groups, maintaining segregation. Until the late 1960s, the government sanctioned discrimination in housing markets by promulgating rules preventing blacks from receiving mortgages insured by the Federal Housing Administration. FHA loans, a Federal Mortgage programme, goes to the white majority and reaches few minorities. In a study done in Syracuse between 1996 and 2000, of the 2,169 FHA loans issued, only 29 (or 1.3 percent) went to predominantly minority neighborhoods, compared with 1,694 (or 78.1 percent) that went to white neighborhoods and 446 (or 20 percent) that went to integrated neighborhoods.

Mortgage discrimination played a significant part in the real estate bubble that popped during the later part of 2008. It was found that minorities were disproportionately steered by lenders into subprime loans. This can be seen as a minority privilege as minorities got loans they were not qualified for in the first place. The division of neighborhoods into school districts that avoid integration and end up investing on the "whiteness" of their neighborhoods, and the resulting residential and social segregation of whites from blacks in the United States, creates a socialization process that limits whites' chances for developing meaningful relationships with black people and other minorities. The wealthy also control some of these divisions, which results in the minorities being excluded due to the low levels of income in most minority neighborhoods. The segregation experienced by whites from black people fosters segregated lifestyles and leads them to develop positive views about themselves and negative views about black people. Many black and Latino people have been discriminated against when applying for jobs because of stereotypes about work ethic based on race, and having a name that sounds "black" can sometimes lead to that person being denied an interview. Minorities are less likely to obtain key information regarding job interviews and are often denied access to high-paying jobs.

Minorities are also denied access to a quality education. This is usually because many poor areas also predominantly consist of minorities. This means that there is often a lack of funding in schools. The levels of poverty and lack of educational opportunities perpetuate themselves, creating a vicious cycle. Racial stereotypes emerge and these populations are further disenfranchised by individuals who do not help or do not care. The new Civil Rights Project report from UCLA, dated January 2009, stated that schools are more segregated today than they were in the 1950s. Millions of non-white students are locked into "dropout factory" high schools, where huge percentages do not graduate, and few are well prepared for college or a future in the U.S. economy.

A majority of the prison population in the U.S. consists of racial minorities. According to the Center for American Progress, black men are approximately seven times more likely to be incarcerated than whites as Blacks represent 13% of the population and commit 50% of all crimes, and spend on average ten months longer in prison but only when criminal history and levels of remorse are not factored in. Since the beating of Rodney King (1991) was videotaped and broadcast around the world, local and federal law enforcement agencies have opened investigations to determine whether or not there is a pattern of police brutality not only in Los Angeles but around the country.

Demographic differences in healthcare

Main articles: Health disparities and Race and health

In the United States, health disparities are well documented in ethnic minorities such as African Americans, Native Americans, Asian Americans, and Hispanics. When compared to whites, these minority groups have higher incidence of chronic diseases, higher mortality, and poorer health outcomes. Among the disease-specific examples of racial and ethnic disparities in the United States is the cancer incidence rate among African Americans, which is 25% higher than among whites. In addition, adult African Americans and Hispanics have approximately twice the risk as whites of developing diabetes. Minorities also have higher rates of cardiovascular disease, HIV/AIDS, and infant mortality than whites. Caucasian Americans have much lower life expectancy than Asian Americans. A 2001 study found large racial differences exist in healthy life expectancy at lower levels of education.

Public spending is highly correlated with age; average per capita public spending for seniors was more than five times that for children ($6,921 versus $1,225). Average public spending for non-Hispanic blacks ($2,973) was slightly higher than that for whites ($2,675), while spending for Hispanics ($1,967) was significantly lower than the population average ($2,612). Total public spending is also strongly correlated with self-reported health status ($13,770 for those reporting "poor" health versus $1,279 for those reporting "excellent" health).

There is a great deal of research into inequalities in health care. In some cases, these inequalities are caused by income disparities that result in lack of health insurance and other barriers to receiving services. In other cases, inequalities in health care reflect a systemic bias in the way medical procedures and treatments are prescribed for different ethnic groups. Raj Bhopal writes that the history of racism in science and medicine shows that people and institutions behave according to the ethos of their times. Nancy Krieger wrote that racism underlies unexplained inequities in health care, including treatment for heart disease, kidney failure, bladder cancer, and pneumonia. Raj Bhopal writes that these inequalities have been documented in numerous studies. The consistent and repeated findings were that black Americans received less health care than white Americans, particularly when the care involved expensive new technology. A 2008 study has found that when minority and white patients use the same hospital, they are given the same standard of care.

Covert Racism and Education:

Covert racism in the education systems is shown both academically and through disciplinary measures. Some scholars agur within the classroom, teacher's mistake young black students' nature to frequently talk in class for delinquency. Teachers fail to recognize the child's skillfulness in such cases; these inequalities convey the racist, cultural message that Black students are incapable of learning. Discipline policies including mandatory, zero-tolerance suspensions or expulsions for minor offenses fuel the school to prison pipeline. In fact, many studies show clear evidence of discriminatory practices in tracking within schools. Unlike Black students, White and Asian students are statistically more likely to be placed in an academic track. Of the black students who take the SAT, less than 60% are enrolled in an academic track whereas about 90% of white students taking the SAT were on the academic track. This shows a clear inequality in the education received by black students. Lower results on standardized exams like the SAT exist due to the covert segregation seen in the education system.

Such concealed acts of racism impact education by lowering expectations , lacking rigor in curricula, lacking experienced teachers, and making fallacious assumptions about students’ intelligence, and issues in public policy. Despite the lack of explicit racism, covert racism continues to thwart the possibility of a successful future for Black students. As stated by NSBA's President Charlie Wilson, these practices and policies are critical factors that lead to gaps in the quality of education between black and white students.

Studies have also shown stark resource disparities in predominantly black or latino schools and white suburban schools. It has been shown that schools with predominant black students have scarce textbooks where students are not allowed to take them home. In some states like Mississippi the textbooks and resources are so outdated that many of the new events in history have not yet been added to them. Bathroom access has also been cited as an issue in predominantly black and latino schools schools. At some schools, there were a lack of bathrooms resulting in school infestations with vermin.

Many black activists have cited the lack of a well-resourced education as a stain on America's meritocracy. Without equality of condition or opportunity, some argue that Black students lack the resources necessary to accrue financial and cultural capital. As education is often seen as a great equalizer and gateway to opportunity, many argue that the disparities for Black students stop them from realizing their individual goals.

Covert Racism Following Major Events:

Major traumatic events involving different ethnic groups results in an increased of both overt and covert racism. Following traumatic events there is a compulsion for individuals to continue to associate the past with the present. In the example of 9/11, the United States experienced an increase in exceptionalism as well as a creation of the idea of Arab people as terrorists and menacing people. To present day the association of Arab people to this event has resulted in De Cardio racism as observed through the media and polls showing that half of polled young Arab Americans had experienced discrimination (weather that be De Jure or De Cardio) post 9/11. Major events also includes events that span over longer periods of time. As an example, the prohibition of interracial marriage in the United States which after legal changes still caused interracial couples to face hostility through both covert and overt racism as seen with "preserve the race" language.Another example is of slavery in the Caribbean and how the slot that slaves socially took up in the context of white europeans, still permeates to modern day creating covert racism resulting in differing work opportunities.

See also

• Crypto-fascism
• Ethnopluralism
• Ghost skin
• Institutional racism
• Internalized racism
• Laissez-faire racism
• Microaggression
• Micro-inequity
• Passive-aggressive behavior
• Race card
• Racial discrimination
• Racial segregation
• Redlining
• Second-class citizen
• White defensiveness
• White flight
• White privilege

Further reading

• Fredrickson, George M (1988). The arrogance of race: historical perspectives on slavery, racism, and social inequality. Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 978-0-8195-6217-3. George M. Fredrickson.
• Race Bending: "Mixed" Youth Practicing Strategic Racialization in California Race Talk Dilemma in an American School by Mica Pollock.
• Dei, George J. Sefa. 2007. Racists Beware: Uncovering Racial Politics in the Post Modern Society. Sense Pub.
• Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences Transnational Media Literacy Analytic Reflections on a Program With Latina Teens Lucila Vargas University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
• 2009 Denver University Law Review, Article: Hillary Clinton, Sarah Palin, and Michelle Obama: Performing Gender, Race, and Class on the Campaign Trail
• Kleg, M. (1993). Hate, Prejudice, and Racism. Albany: State University of New York Press.
• Berreby, David. Sept./Oct. 2000. Race Counts. From "The Sciences".
• Brodkin, Karen. 1998. How Jews Became White Folks. Rutgers University Press.
• Coates, Rodney D. 2007. Covert Racism: Theories, Institutions. Brill Press.
• Dyer, Richard. 1994. White. Routledge.
• Gallagher, Charles A. 2003. Playing the White Ethnic Card: Using Ethnic Identity to Deny Contemporary Racism. Routledge.
• Lipsitz, George. 1998. The Possessive Investment in Whiteness. Temple University Press.
• Pierce, Chester M. (1970). "Offensive Mechanisms". In Floyd B. Barbour (ed.). The Black Seventies. Porter Sargent. OCLC 108950.
• Jared Taylor. 2004 Edition. Paved with Good Intentions: The Failure of Race Relations in Contemporary America