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A mood swing is an extreme or sudden change of mood. Such changes can play a positive part in promoting problem solving and in producing flexible forward planning,^[1] or be disruptive. When mood swings are severe, they may be categorized as part of a mental illness, such as bipolar disorder, where erratic and disruptive mood swings are a defining feature.^[2]

Overview

Speed and extent

Mood swings can happen any time at any place, varying from the microscopic to the wild oscillations of bipolar disorder,^[3] so that a continuum can be traced from normal struggles around self-esteem, through cyclothymia, up to a depressive disease.^[4] However most people's mood swings remain in the mild to moderate range of emotional ups and downs.^[5] The duration of bipolar mood swings also varies. They may last a few hours – ultrarapid – or extend over days – ultradian: clinicians maintain that only when four continuous days of hypomania, or seven days of mania, occur, is a diagnosis of bipolar disorder justified.^[6] In such cases, mood swings can extend over several days, even weeks: these episodes may consist of rapid alternation between feelings of depression and euphoria.^[7]

Symptoms

Changing mood up and down without reason or external stimuli in various degrees and frequent from happy, elevated or irritate to sad.^[8]^[9]
some time mixed,a combination between symptoms manic and depression.^[10]
Symptoms of mood swing can be categorized based on intensity(mild, moderate, severe) and duration(days, days/weeks, years) :^[11]
- Normal people : The alteration happens not more than a day with mild degree^[12]
- Mood swing in cyclothymia :continuously changing mood within 2 years, with moderate degree and frequently.^[13]^[14]
- Mood swing in bipolar II : episode hypomanic(severe degree) happened for 4 days long^[15] and a year for major depression episode^[16]
- Mood swing in bipolar I : episode manic(severe degree) happen for 7 days longs^[15] and episode depressive for 6 months.^[16]^{[citation needed]} Alteration in bipolar I and II can be rapid cyclic, which mean changes of mood happen 4 times or more within a year.^[17]
Symptoms of manic and hypomanic episode similar in bipolar I and bipolar II just different in degree of intensity.^[18]

Causes

There can be many different causes for mood swings. Some mood swings can be classified as normal/healthy reactions, such as grief processing, adverse effects of substances/drugs, or a result of sleep deprivation. Mood swings can also be a sign of psychiatric illnesses in the absence of external triggers or stressors.

Changes in a person's energy level, sleep patterns, self-esteem, sexual function, concentration, drug or alcohol use can be signs of an oncoming mood disorder.^[19]

Other major causes of mood swings (besides bipolar disorder and major depression) include diseases/disorders which interfere with nervous system function. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), epilepsy,^[20] and autism spectrum are three such examples.^[21]^[22]

The hyperactivity sometimes accompanied by inattentiveness, impulsiveness, and forgetfulness are cardinal symptoms associated with ADHD. As a result, ADHD is known to bring about usually short-lived (though sometimes dramatic) mood swings. The communication difficulties associated with autism, and the associated changes in neurochemistry, are also known to cause autistic fits (autistic mood swings).^[23] The seizures associated with epilepsy involve changes in the brain's electrical firing, and thus may also bring about striking and dramatic mood swings.^[20] If the mood swing is not associated with a mood disorder, treatments are harder to assign. Most commonly, however, mood swings are the result of dealing with stressful and/or unexpected situations in daily life.

Degenerative diseases of the human central nervous system such as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, and Huntington's disease may also produce mood swings.^[24] Celiac disease can also affect the nervous system and mood swings can appear.^[25]

Not eating on time can contribute, or eating too much sugar, can cause fluctuations in blood sugar, which can cause mood swings.^[26]^[27]

Brain chemistry

If a person has an abnormal level of one or several of certain neurotransmitters (NTs) in their brain, it may result in having mood swings or a mood disorder.^[28] Serotonin is one such neurotransmitter that is involved with sleep, moods, and emotional states. A slight imbalance of this NT could result in depression. Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter that is involved with learning, memory, and physical arousal. Like serotonin, an imbalance of norepinephrine may also result in depression.^[29]

List of conditions known to cause mood swings

Bipolar disorder^[30]^[31] or cyclothymia : Bipolar disorder is a mood disorder with characteristics of mood swings from hypomania or mania to depression. While cyclothymia is a lower degree of bipolar disorder.^[32] In 2022, ENIGMA Bipolar Disorder Working Group found that people with bipolar disorder have smaller subcortical volumes, lower cortical thickness and altered white matter integrity,^[33]^[34] which one of the functions is for emotion processing.^[35]
Anabolic steroid abuse:^[36] Anabolic steroids are synthetic derivatives of testosterone. Used for treatment of male hypogonadism or delayed puberty,^[37] stimulates muscle growth,^[38] impotence, and AIDS.^[39] Studies found that overly using anabolic-androgenic steroids can cause mood swings, impulsive, and aggressive behavior.^[40] This behavior is associated with decreased emotion regulation systems such as the frontal cortex, temporal, parietal, and occipital.^[41] Studies found too, that using anabolic-androgenic steroids can cause neuronal changes and death in the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, thus symptoms of sleep and mood disorder occur .^[42]
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) : ADHD is known as a disorder with difficulty keeping control of attention, hyperactivity, frequently changing focus and losing interest^[43] and also hyperfocus when doing something interesting or pleasurable tasks.^[44] Mood dysregulation may be caused by distraction when absorbed in pleasurable tasks.^[45]^[46] Another contribution to mood swings is lower brain activity in the prefrontal cortex (PFC),^[47]orbitofrontal cortex (OFC),^[48] increased size of the hippocampus and decreasing size of the amygdala in some people.^[49] Abnormalities in these parts of the brain can cause disturbance in attention, motivation, mood, and behavioral inhibition.^[50]
Autism or other pervasive developmental disorder : Autism is a neurological and development disorder with symptoms such as lack of social, restricted repetitive behaviors, hyper- or hyporeactivity to sensory input, etc.^[51] Abnormal sensory processing is one of the reasons for mood swings in autism.^[52] Studies in 2015 found that in autism, the brain becomes overactivated in limbic areas, primary sensory cortices, and orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), which functions for emotional and sensory processing. Studies found too, that the brain in autism has decreased connectivity between the amygdala and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, increased amygdala reactivity, and reduced prefrontal response which contribute to emotion dysregulation.^[53]^[54]
Borderline personality disorder : It has been theorized that borderline personality disorder comes from lack of ability to endure, learn^[55] and overcome negative events.^[56] People with BPD commonly have difficulty in relationships,^[57] which is associated with a tendency to anger-outbursts, judgment^[58] or expecting how others behave.^[59] Emotion dysregulation may be as a result of lack of interpersonal skills such as knowledge about emotions and how to control them, especially with intense emotions.^[60] Mostly, people with BPD use maladaptive emotion regulations like self-criticism, thought suppression, avoidance, and alcohol, which may trigger more mood disruption.^[61]^[62]^[63]
Dementia, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease : Dementia is known as a decreasing brain function disease that affects older people.^[64] In Alzheimer's disease, mood dysregulation can be caused by decreasing function of emotional regulation, salience, cholinergic, GABAergic, and dopaminergic function.^[64] Parkinson's disease can generate mood swings and mood dysregulation such as depression, low self worth, shame and worry about the future caused by cognitive and physical problems.^[65] And in Huntington's disease, common mood swings occur as a result of psychosocial, cognitive deficits, neuropsychiatric and biological factors.^[66]
Dopamine dysregulation syndrome : Dopamine dysregulation syndrome is an effect of abusing Parkinson's disease drugs to decrease motor and non-motor syndromes, which result in mania, violent behavior, and depression when withdrawal.^[67] Mood dysregulation from dopamine dysregulation syndrome occurs as a result of changes in the neurotransmitter systems such as disturbance in the dopaminergic reward system.^[68]^[67]
Epilepsy : Epilepsy is an abnormal brain activity disease marked with seizures. Seizures occur because hypersynchronous and hyperexcitability of neurons, in other words, too much neural activity and excitability at the same time.^[69] Mood swings commonly appear before, during, after a seizure and during treatment.^[70] Studies found that seizures contribute to decreased function of emotions and mood processing as a consequence of abnormal neurogenesis and damaged neuron connections in the hippocampus and amygdala.^[69] Experiencing a seizure can cause mood swings caused by depression, anxiety, or worry about life being threatened. Another source of mood change comes from anticonvulsant drugs for epilepsy, like phenobarbital for increasing brain inhibitors or antiglutamatergic for decreasing brain activity which generates depression, cognitive dysfunction, sedation or mood lability.^[71]
Hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism : Hypo- and hyperthyroidism is an endocrine disease caused by low or excessive production of thyroid hormone. Abnormal thyroid hormone can affect mood,^[72] although the correlation between thyroid hormone and mood disorder is still not known.^[73]
Intermittent explosive disorder : Intermittent explosive disorder is frequent rage that occurs spontaneous, uncontrolled, unproportioned and not persistent.^[74]^[75] This short duration of alternate mood occurs in the form of aggression verbally or physically towards people or property, sometimes followed by regret, shame and guilt after an act which might generate depression symptoms.^[76] Impulsive behavior in IED can be associated with hyperactivity in brain regions for regulating and emotional expression, such as the amygdala, insula, and orbitofrontal area.^[77]
Menopause:^[78] Menopause in women commonly happens at age 52. One factor that causes mood disturbance is fluctuation of milieu hormones^[79] including sex steroids, growth hormones, stress hormones, etc.^[80]^[81]
Major depression : Major depression is a disorder with symptoms such as feelings of sadness, loss of interest, emptiness^[82] and, for some people, mixed with irritability, mental overactivity, and behavioral overactivity.^[83] Development of irritability or anger may result from personality traits like narcissistic or coping strategies to avoid looking sad, worthless, or frustrated.^[84]
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder : Obsessive compulsive disorder is marked with obsessions and compulsions about something that causes life distress and dysfunction.^[85] Alteration of mood and feeling discomfort such as shame, guilt or anxiety may occur caused by intrusive thoughts, fear, urge,^[86] and fantasy.^[87]
Post traumatic stress disorder : Post-traumatic stress disorder is a disorder which is associated with frequently being disturbed by flashback memories and being haunted by feelings of fear and horror in the past. This contributes to the alteration of mood that occurs after a traumatic event happens, such as depression, outbursts of anger, self-destructive behaviors, and feelings of shame.^[88]^[89]
Pregnancy : Women commonly experience mood swings during the pregnancy and the postpartum period. Hormone changes, stress and worry may be the reasons for changes of mood.^[90]
Premenstrual syndrome:^[91] Women experience premenstrual syndrome like physical pains, mood swings, irritability or depression^[92] in a few days until 2 weeks of their period with different intensity.^[93] Furthermore, 4% to 14% of women experience severe PMS or premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD), which can decrease life quality.^[94] Despite the reason mood dysregulation in PMS is still unclear, Studies found that mood dysregulation is related with drop in progesterone concentrations, disruption of serotonergic transmission, GABAergic, stress, body-mass index, and traumatic events.^[93]
Schizoaffective disorder : Mood swings in schizoaffective disorder are caused by mixed symptoms between schizophrenia and mood disorder.^[95]
Schizophrenia : Schizophrenia is a disorder with symptoms of delusions, hallucinations, mood dysregulation, etc.^[96] Mood changes may be generated from hallucinations and delusions^[97] which cause anger,^[98]^[99] paranoia,^[100] and shame.^[101]
Seasonal affective disorder : Seasonal affective disorder is depression which occurs during some seasons(commonly in winter), then manic or hypomanic episodes in the other season and that happens every year.^[102] These fluctuating moods appear in the form of anger attacks with depression^[103] and occur from season to season, also known as seasonal mood swings.^[104]
XXYY syndrome :XXYY syndrome is a rare type of sex chromosome aneuploidies (SCAs). XXYY syndrome contributes to abnormal neurodevelopment and psychiatric diseases which can cause mood disorders.^[105]^[106]

Treatment

It's part of human nature's mood going up and down caused by various factors.^[107] Individual strength,^[108]^[109] coping skill or adaptation ability,^[110] social support^[111] or another recovery model might determine whether mood swings will create disruption in life or not.^[112]^[113]

Cognitive behavioral therapy recommends using emotional dampeners to break the self-reinforcing tendencies of either manic or depressive mood swings.^[114] Exercise, treats, seeking out small (and easily attainable) triumphs, and using vicarious distractions like reading or watching TV, are among the techniques found to be regularly used by people in breaking depressive swings.^[115]

Learning to bring oneself down from grandiose states of mind, or up from exaggerated shame states, is part of taking a proactive approach to managing one's own moods and varying sense of self-esteem.^[116]

Behavioral activation is a component of CBT that can break the cycle (depression leads to inactivity, inactivity leads to depression).^[117] This may rely on individual strengths to "cold start" the reward system.^[118]^[119]

Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) : Another manifestation of mood swing is irritability, which can lead to elation, anger or aggression.^[120] DBT has a lot of coping skills that can be used for emotion dysregulation, such as mindfulness with the "wise mind"^[121] or emotion regulation with opposite action.^[122]^[123]

Emotion regulation therapy (ERT) has a package of mindful emotion regulation skills (e.g., attention regulation skills, metacognitive regulation skills, etc.) that can be handy to have when mood swings happen.^[124]

Interpersonal and social rhythm therapy can be used to regulate life rhythm when mood swings happen frequently and disrupt the rhythm of life.^[125] Episodes of mood disorder often liberate people from daily routines by making a mess of sleep schedules, social interaction,^[126]^[127] or work and causing irregular circadian rhythms.^[128]

Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) has a function to increase psychological flexibility by learning to assess present experience or be mindful, accept everything internally or externally, commit action to move toward personal recovery, etc.^[129]

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^ Hodges, Holly; Fealko, Casey; Soares, Neelkamal (2020). "Autism spectrum disorder: definition, epidemiology, causes, and clinical evaluation". Translational Pediatrics. 9 (S1): S55–S65. doi:10.21037/tp.2019.09.09. ISSN 2224-4336. PMC 7082249. PMID 32206584. Table 1 :Changes in ASD criteria from the DSM-IV to DSM-5{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
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^ Green, Shulamite A.; Hernandez, Leanna; Tottenham, Nim; Krasileva, Kate; Bookheimer, Susan Y.; Dapretto, Mirella (2015). "Neurobiology of Sensory Overresponsivity in Youth With Autism Spectrum Disorders". JAMA Psychiatry. 72 (8): 778–786. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.0737. ISSN 2168-6238. PMC 4861140. PMID 26061819. The authors found that youth with ASDs had overactivation in limbic areas, primary sensory cortices, and orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) compared with typically developing (TD) control subjects in response to mildly aversive visual and auditory stimuli." & "Finally, Green et al10 found that SOR symptoms correlated with hyperactivity in the amygdala and OFC.
^ Ibrahim, Karim; Eilbott, Jeffrey A.; Ventola, Pamela; He, George; Pelphrey, Kevin A.; McCarthy, Gregory; Sukhodolsky, Denis G. (2019). "Reduced Amygdala–Prefrontal Functional Connectivity in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder and Co-occurring Disruptive Behavior". Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging. 4 (12): 1031–1041. doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2019.01.009. ISSN 2451-9022. PMC 7173634. PMID 30979647. Children with ASD and disruptive behavior showed reduced amygdala–vlPFC connectivity compared with children with ASD without disruptive behavior.
^ Fonagy, Peter; Luyten, Patrick; Allison, Elizabeth; Campbell, Chloe (2017). "What we have changed our minds about: Part 1. Borderline personality disorder as a limitation of resilience". Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation. 4: 11. doi:10.1186/s40479-017-0061-9. ISSN 2051-6673. PMC 5389119. PMID 28413687. In BPD, the appraisal mechanisms are at fault, in large part because of mentalizing difficulties (e.g. in the mistaken appraisal of threat at the moment of its presentation) or a breakdown in epistemic trust, which damages the capacity to relearn different ways of mentalizing – or appraising – situations (i.e. the inability to change our understanding of the threat after the event).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
^ Chapman, Jennifer; Jamil, Radia T.; Fleisher, Carl (25 October 2022), "Borderline Personality Disorder", StatPearls [Internet], StatPearls Publishing, PMID 28613633, retrieved 7 August 2023, There are many theories about the development of borderline personality disorder. In the mentalizing model of Peter Fonagy and Anthony Bateman, borderline personality disorder is the result of a lack of resilience against psychological stressors. In this framework, Fonagy and Bateman define resilience as the ability to generate adaptive re-appraisal of negative events or stressors;...
^ Lazarus, Sophie A.; Choukas-Bradley, Sophia; Beeney, Joseph E.; Byrd, Amy L.; Vine, Vera; Stepp, Stephanie D. (2019). "Too Much Too Soon?: Borderline Personality Disorder Symptoms and Romantic Relationships in Adolescent Girls". Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. 47 (12): 1995–2005. doi:10.1007/s10802-019-00570-1. ISSN 1573-2835. PMC 7045362. PMID 31240430. Core symptoms that comprise the disorder are often explicitly interpersonal in nature (e.g., tumultuous romantic relationships and frantic efforts to avoid abandonment) or are expressed in reaction to interpersonal stressors (e.g., affective instability, paranoid ideation, suicidal behavior
^ Nicol, Katie; Pope, Merrick; Sprengelmeyer, Reiner; Young, Andrew W.; Hall, Jeremy (6 November 2013). "Social Judgement in Borderline Personality Disorder". PLOS ONE. 8 (11): e73440. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0073440. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3819347. PMID 24223110. Individuals with a diagnosis of BPD have difficulty making appropriate social judgements about others from their faces. Judging more faces as unapproachable and untrustworthy indicates that this group may have a heightened sensitivity to perceiving potential threat, and this should be considered in clinical management and treatment
^ Balsis, Steve; Loehle-Conger, Evan; Busch, Alexander J.; Ungredda, Tatiana; Oltmanns, Thomas F. (2018). "Self and informant report across the borderline personality disorder spectrum". Personality Disorders. 9 (5): 429–436. doi:10.1037/per0000259. ISSN 1949-2723. PMC 6082732. PMID 28857585. Individuals with BPD features often have distorted cognitions. Specifically, they often make simplified judgments about people and situations.
^ Carpenter, Ryan W.; Trull, Timothy J. (2013). "Components of emotion dysregulation in borderline personality disorder: a review". Current Psychiatry Reports. 15 (1): 335. doi:10.1007/s11920-012-0335-2. ISSN 1535-1645. PMC 3973423. PMID 23250816. Following Linehan's biosocial model, we conceptualize emotion dysregulation in borderline personality disorder (BPD) as consisting of four components: emotion sensitivity, heightened and labile negative affect, a deficit of appropriate regulation strategies, and a surplus of maladaptive regulation strategies.
^ Salgó, Ella; Szeghalmi, Liliána; Bajzát, Bettina; Berán, Eszter; Unoka, Zsolt (17 March 2021). "Emotion regulation, mindfulness, and self-compassion among patients with borderline personality disorder, compared to healthy control subjects". PLOS ONE. 16 (3): e0248409. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0248409. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 7968662. PMID 33730065. In comparison to a healthy control group, BPD patients show deficits in the following areas: mindfulness, self-compassion and adaptive emotion-regulation strategies.
^ Dixon-Gordon, Katherine L.; Peters, Jessica R.; Fertuck, Eric A.; Yen, Shirley (2017). "Emotional Processes in Borderline Personality Disorder: An Update for Clinical Practice". Journal of Psychotherapy Integration. 27 (4): 425–438. doi:10.1037/int0000044. ISSN 1053-0479. PMC 5842953. PMID 29527105. BPD features are also associated with self-criticism, thought suppression, avoidance, and alcohol use as strategies for regulating emotions (Aldao & Dixon-Gordon, 2014).
^ Murray, Clara V.; Jacobs, Juno Irma-Louise; Rock, Adam J.; Clark, Gavin I. (2021). "Attachment style, thought suppression, self-compassion and depression: Testing a serial mediation model". PLOS ONE. 16 (1): e0245056. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0245056. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 7808589. PMID 33444358. Studies of the general population indicate that attempts to suppress thoughts typically result in a heightened accessibility of suppressed thoughts (e.g., a rebound effect) together with increases in emotional and physiological arousal [27].
^ ^a ^b Lanctôt, Krista L.; Amatniek, Joan; Ancoli-Israel, Sonia; Arnold, Steven E.; Ballard, Clive; Cohen-Mansfield, Jiska; Ismail, Zahinoor; Lyketsos, Constantine; Miller, David S.; Musiek, Erik; Osorio, Ricardo S.; Rosenberg, Paul B.; Satlin, Andrew; Steffens, David; Tariot, Pierre (2017). "Neuropsychiatric signs and symptoms of Alzheimer's disease: New treatment paradigms". Alzheimer's & Dementia: Translational Research & Clinical Interventions. 3 (3): 440–449. doi:10.1016/j.trci.2017.07.001. PMC 5651439. PMID 29067350. ...NPSs based on neurobiological dimensions and behaviors rather than clinical syndromes, grouping them into five domains: (1) negative valence; (2) positive valence; (3) cognitive systems; (4) processes for social systems; and (5) arousal or regulatory systems [13]. Yet here, too, there is tremendous overlap. For example, impairment of cognitive systems may manifest in delusions, hallucinations, agitation, aggression, depression or dysphoria, anxiety, elation or euphoria, apathy, disinhibition, irritability, motor disturbance, sleep disorder, appetite disorder, aberrant vocalization, and ruminative, repetitive, and somatoform behaviors.
^ Sjödahl Hammarlund, C., Westergren, A., Åström, I., Edberg, A. K., & Hagell, P. (2018). The Impact of Living with Parkinson's Disease: Balancing within a Web of Needs and Demands. Parkinson's disease, 2018, 4598651. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/4598651.PMCID: PMC6087577.PMID: 30151098."Psychological symptoms and mood swings were intertwined with cognitive and physical problems, adding to the struggle of managing the demands of everyday life. The participants felt depressed, low-spirited, and were worried about the future. Some held dark and destructive thoughts and considered intentionally ending their lives. In a previous study, suicidal and death ideation was present among one-third of persons with PD [25]. "
^ Jauhar, S., & Ritchie, S. (2010). Psychiatric and behavioural manifestations of Huntington's disease. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 16(3), 168-175. doi:10.1192/apt.bp.107.005371."Cognitive deficits combined with neuropsychiatric symptoms often cause the greatest difficulties in behaviour, for example anergia, lack of initiative, blunted affect, egocentricity, constant demands, irritation and threatening behaviour."
^ ^a ^b De la Casa-Fages, Beatriz; Grandas, Francisco (2011). "Dopamine dysregulation syndrome and deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus in Parkinson's disease". Neurology Research International. 2011: 759895. doi:10.1155/2011/759895. ISSN 2090-1860. PMC 3216377. PMID 22135744. (d) impairment in social or occupational functioning: fights, violent behaviour, loss of friends, absence from work, loss of job, legal difficulties, arguments or difficulties with family; (e) development of hypomaniac, maniac, or cyclothymic affective syndrome in relation to DRT; (f) development of a withdrawal state characterized by dysphoria, depression, irritability, and anxiety on reducing the level of DRT; (g) duration of disturbance of at least 6 months." & "Patients with DDS develop an addictive pattern of DRT use, self-administering doses of dopaminergic drugs in excess of those required to control their motor symptoms.
^ Drew, Daniel S; Muhammed, Kinan; Baig, Fahd; Kelly, Mark; Saleh, Youssuf; Sarangmat, Nagaraja; Okai, David; Hu, Michele; Manohar, Sanjay; Husain, Masud (1 August 2020). "Dopamine and reward hypersensitivity in Parkinson's disease with impulse control disorder". Brain. 143 (8): 2502–2518. doi:10.1093/brain/awaa198. ISSN 0006-8950. PMC 7447523. PMID 32761061. However, the findings argue against a simple relationship between dopamine level and reward sensitivity. Many PD+ICD patients were also found to experience behavioural apathy and impulsivity comorbidly, suggesting that aberrant reward sensitivity is just one component of a dysfunctional system which may incorporate functional changes in other neurotransmitter systems.
^ ^a ^b Pradip Chauhan, Mbbs; Shalom Elsy Philip, Mbbs; Girish Chauhan, M. D. S.; Simmi Mehra, Mbbs (2 April 2022). "The Anatomical Basis of Seizures". Exon Publications: 15–23. doi:10.36255/exon-publications-epilepsy-anatomical-basis. ISBN 9780645332049. PMID 35605083. Hyperexcitability of neurons and hypersynchrony of neural networks are the hallmarks of seizures." & "Seizures have been known to cause abnormal neurogenesis in the hippocampus and form faulty circuits that disrupt its function (11).
^ Heilman, Kenneth M. (2021), Emotion and mood disorders associated with epilepsy, Handbook of Clinical Neurology, vol. 183, Elsevier, pp. 169–173, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-822290-4.00008-6, ISBN 978-0-12-822290-4, PMID 34389116, S2CID 237009046, retrieved 28 July 2023."Epilepsy is a disorder characterized by recurrent seizures. Epilepsy can alter mood and emotions. Treatments for epilepsy can also alter mood and emotions."
^ Salpekar, Jay (2016). "Mood Disorders in Epilepsy". FOCUS. 14 (4): 465–472. doi:10.1176/appi.focus.20160017. ISSN 1541-4094. PMC 6519597. PMID 31975826. Mood disorder may represent the most common, and likely the most worrisome, psychiatric manifestation associated with epilepsy. Depression is frequently associated, although anxiety and bipolar disorder may also co-occur with epilepsy
^ Hage, Mirella P.; Azar, Sami T. (14 December 2011). "The Link between Thyroid Function and Depression". Journal of Thyroid Research. 2012: e590648. doi:10.1155/2012/590648. ISSN 2090-8067. PMC 3246784. PMID 22220285. Today, it is well recognized that disturbances in thyroid function may significantly affect mental status including emotion and cognition. Both excess and insufficient thyroid hormones can cause mood abnormalities including depression...
^ Kuś, Aleksander; Kjaergaard, Alisa D.; Marouli, Eirini; Del Greco M., Fabiola; Sterenborg, Rosalie B.T.M.; Chaker, Layal; Peeters, Robin P.; Bednarczuk, Tomasz; Åsvold, Bjørn O.; Burgess, Stephen; Deloukas, Panos; Teumer, Alexander; Ellervik, Christina; Medici, Marco (2021). "Thyroid Function and Mood Disorders: A Mendelian Randomization Study". Thyroid. 31 (8): 1171–1181. doi:10.1089/thy.2020.0884. ISSN 1050-7256. PMC 7612998. PMID 33899528. Variations in normal-range TSH and FT4 levels have no effects on the risk of MDD and its subtypes, and neither on minor depressive symptoms. This indicates that depressive symptoms should not be attributed to minor variations in thyroid function
^ Coccaro, Emil F. (2018). "DSM-5 intermittent explosive disorder: Relationship with Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder". Comprehensive Psychiatry. 84: 118–121. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2018.04.011. ISSN 0010-440X. PMID 29753187. S2CID 21679528. These data indicate that inter-outburst anger in those with IED is relatively brief and that such individuals do not generally display the kind of persistent anger that is a diagnostic feature of DMDD.
^ Scott, K. M.; de Vries, Y. A.; Aguilar-Gaxiola, S.; Al-Hamzawi, A.; Alonso, J.; Bromet, E. J.; Bunting, B.; Caldas-de-Almeida, J. M.; Cía, A.; Florescu, S.; Gureje, O.; Hu, C.-Y.; Karam, E. G.; Karam, A.; Kawakami, N. (23 June 2020). "Intermittent explosive disorder subtypes in the general population: association with comorbidity, impairment and suicidality". Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences. 29: e138. doi:10.1017/S2045796020000517. ISSN 2045-7979. PMC 7327434. PMID 32638683. A prominent bimodal conceptualisation of aggression classifies it as either: (i) spontaneous (referred to as reactive or impulsive aggression), or (ii) planned (referred to as proactive, premediated or instrumental aggression) (Babcock et al., 2014; Wrangham, 2018)." & "...DSM-5 is the occurrence of repeated episodes of impulsive aggression resulting in verbal or physical assaults or property destruction." & "DSM-IV criterion B for IED requires that the aggressiveness is 'grossly out of proportion to any precipitating psychosocial stressor'.
^ Tilghman-Osborne, Carlos; Cole, David A.; Felton, Julia W.; Ciesla, Jeffrey A. (October 2008). "Relation of Guilt, Shame, Behavioral and Characterological Self-Blame to Depressive Symptoms in Adolescents Over Time". Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 27 (8): 809–842. doi:10.1521/jscp.2008.27.8.809. ISSN 0736-7236. PMC 4238306. PMID 25419043. Results suggest that shame and CSB converge into a common construct, significantly related to depressive symptoms and cognitions. Convergence of guilt and BSB, however, was limited to particular pairs of measures.
^ Seok, Ji-Woo; Cheong, Chaejoon (20 May 2020). "Gray Matter Deficits and Dysfunction in the Insula Among Individuals With Intermittent Explosive Disorder". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 11: 439. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00439. ISSN 1664-0640. PMC 7251158. PMID 32508687. We found hyperreactivity in brain regions involved in both, emotional expression, and regulation.
^ Sengupta, A. (January 2003). "The emergence of the menopause in India". Climacteric. 6 (2): 92–95. doi:10.1080/cmt.6.2.92.95. ISSN 1369-7137. PMID 12841878. S2CID 22273563.
^ Freeman, Ellen W.; Sammel, Mary D.; Lin, Hui; Nelson, Deborah B. (1 April 2006). "Associations of Hormones and Menopausal Status With Depressed Mood in Women With No History of Depression". Archives of General Psychiatry. 63 (4): 375–382. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.63.4.375. ISSN 0003-990X. PMID 16585466. Transition to menopause and its changing hormonal milieu are strongly associated with new onset of depressed mood among women with no history of depression.
^ Hankinson, S. E., & Tworoger, S. S. (2011). Assessment of the hormonal milieu. IARC scientific publications, (163), 199–214."The hormonal milieu has been hypothesized to play a role in a range of human diseases, and therefore has been a topic of much epidemiologic investigation. Hormones of particular interest include: sex steroids; growth hormones; insulin-like growth factors; stress hormones, such as cortisol; and hormones produced by the adipose tissue, termed adipokines."
^ Gava, Giulia; Orsili, Isabella; Alvisi, Stefania; Mancini, Ilaria; Seracchioli, Renato; Meriggiola, Maria Cristina (1 October 2019). "Cognition, Mood and Sleep in Menopausal Transition: The Role of Menopause Hormone Therapy". Medicina (Kaunas, Lithuania). 55 (10): 668. doi:10.3390/medicina55100668. ISSN 1648-9144. PMC 6843314. PMID 31581598. Sex steroids are able to modify several functions including behavior, cognition and memory, sleep, mood, pain and coordination, amongst others.
^ Li, Zezhi; Ruan, Meihua; Chen, Jun; Fang, Yiru (13 February 2021). "Major Depressive Disorder: Advances in Neuroscience Research and Translational Applications". Neuroscience Bulletin. 37 (6): 863–880. doi:10.1007/s12264-021-00638-3. ISSN 1673-7067. PMC 8192601. PMID 33582959. Major depressive disorder (MDD) also referred to as depression, is one of the most severe and common psychiatric disorders across the world. It is characterized by persistent sadness, loss of interest or pleasure, low energy, worse appetite and sleep, and even suicide, disrupting daily activities and psychosocial functions.
^ Benazzi, Franco (30 June 2006). "Various forms of depression". Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience. 8 (2): 151–161. doi:10.31887/dcns.2006.8.2/fbenazzi. ISSN 1958-5969. PMC 3181770. PMID 16889102. The most common DSM-IV-TR manic/hypomanic symptoms of mixed depression are irritability, mental overactivity (flight of ideas, racing thoughts, crowded thoughts), and behavioral overactivity (psychomotor agitation, overtalkativeness). Different frequencies of mixed depression have been reported, which may be related to treated versus untreated samples...
^ Busch, Fredric N. (July 2009). "Anger and depression". Advances in Psychiatric Treatment. 15 (4): 271–278. doi:10.1192/apt.bp.107.004937. ISSN 1355-5146. Anger in people with depression often stems from narcissistic vulnerability, a sensitivity to perceived or actual loss or rejection. These angry reactions cause intrapsychic conflicts through the onset of guilt and the fear that angry feelings will disrupt relationships
^ Soomro, G. Mustafa (18 January 2012). "Obsessive compulsive disorder". BMJ clinical evidence. 2012: 1004. ISSN 1752-8526. PMC 3285220. PMID 22305974. Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) involves obsessions, compulsions, or both, that are not caused by drugs or by a physical disorder, and which cause significant personal distress or social dysfunction.
^ Bowen, Rudy; Rahman, Hiba; Dong, Lisa Yue; Khalaj, Sara; Baetz, Marilyn; Peters, Evyn; Balbuena, Lloyd (2018). "Suicidality in People With Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms or Personality Traits". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 9: 747. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00747. ISSN 1664-0640. PMC 6339952. PMID 30692943. Recurring thoughts of death and suicide (27) and aggression (28, 29) are common features of OCD. The most prevalent obsession was the fear of harming oneself in the DSM-IV field trials of 431 patients diagnosed with OCD (30, 31).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
^ Mason, Katherine A. (2022). "Blenders, Hammers, and Knives: Postpartum Intrusive Thoughts and Unthinkable Motherhood". Anthropology and Humanism. 47 (1): 117–132. doi:10.1111/anhu.12379. ISSN 1548-1409. PMC 9435669. PMID 36061237. These thoughts can include horrific flashes of violence involving one's baby and frequently lead to shame and fear on the mother's part, but rarely result in real-world violence.
^ Mann, Sukhmanjeet Kaur; Marwaha, Raman (2023), "Posttraumatic Stress Disorder", StatPearls, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, PMID 32644555, retrieved 3 August 2023."The symptoms of PTSD include persistently re-experiencing the traumatic event, intrusive thoughts, nightmares, flashbacks, dissociation(detachment from oneself or reality), and intense negative emotional (sadness, guilt) and physiological reaction on being exposed to the traumatic reminder." & "Once people develop PTSD, the recurrent unbidden reliving of the trauma in visual images, emotional states, or nightmares produces a constant reexposure to the terror of the trauma" & "Negative alterations in mood and cognition that began or worsened after the traumatic event..."
^ van der Kolk, B. (2000). "Posttraumatic stress disorder and the nature of trauma". Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience. 2 (1): 7–22. doi:10.31887/DCNS.2000.2.1/bvdkolk. ISSN 1294-8322. PMC 3181584. PMID 22034447. The DSM-TV Field Trial8 demonstrated that it was not the prevalence of PTSD symptoms themselves, but depression, outbursts of anger, self-destructive behaviors, and feelings of shame, self-blame, and distrust that distinguished a treatment-seeking...
^ Altshuler, Lori L.; Hendrick, Victoria; Cohen, Lee S. (2000). "An Update on Mood and Anxiety Disorders During Pregnancy and the Postpartum Period". Primary Care Companion to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 2 (6): 217–222. doi:10.4088/pcc.v02n0604. ISSN 1523-5998. PMC 181144. PMID 15014632. Marital discord, stressful life events, and ambivalence about the pregnancy are risk factors not only for depression during pregnancy but also for postpartum depression
^ Theisler, Charles (17 May 2022), "Premenstrual Syndrome/Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder", Adjuvant Medical Care, New York: CRC Press, pp. 288–289, doi:10.1201/b22898-286, ISBN 9781003291381, retrieved 20 September 2022
^ Kwan, Irene; Onwude, Joseph Loze (25 August 2015). "Premenstrual syndrome". BMJ Clinical Evidence. 2015: 0806. ISSN 1752-8526. PMC 4548199. PMID 26303988. Psychological symptoms of PMS include irritability, depression, crying/tearfulness, and anxiety. Physical symptoms of PMS include abdominal bloating, breast tenderness, and headaches.
^ ^a ^b Yonkers, Kimberly Ann; O'Brien, P. M. Shaughn; Eriksson, Elias (5 April 2008). "Premenstrual syndrome". Lancet. 371 (9619): 1200–1210. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60527-9. ISSN 1474-547X. PMC 3118460. PMID 18395582. The length of symptom expression varies between a few days and 2 weeks (figure 1). Symptoms often worsen substantially 6 days before, and peak at about 2 days before, menses start. " & "Such an enhanced tendency to have disphoria as a reult of the effects of sex steroids on the brain might be heritable, as suggested by twin studies.56–58 Other possible risk factors for PMS are high body-mass index,59 stress,7 and traumatic events.60" " & "…various indices of serotonergic trans mission are reported to be aberrant in women with PMS.75,80–89" & "Another neurotransmitter that has been linked to PMS is the inhibitory aminoacid GABA. This theory gains support from an imaging study,90"
^ Firoozi, Reihane; Kafi, Mousa; Salehi, Iraj; Shirmohammadi, Maryam (2012). "The Relationship between Severity of Premenstrual Syndrome and Psychiatric Symptoms". Iranian Journal of Psychiatry. 7 (1): 36–40. ISSN 2008-2215. PMC 3395966. PMID 23056116. Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) is characterized by a cluster of mild to severe physical or emotional symptoms that mainly begin during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. Symptoms should disappear within 4 days of the onset of menses and be severe enough to interfere with normal and daily function. The severe form of PMS is the Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD), which differs from PMS in respect to intensity of symptoms, predominance of mood symptoms, and the significant function impairment. (1, 2, 3). The most common symptoms are tension, irritability, hostility, depression, anxiety, mood swings, sleep changes, breast tenderness, and abdominal bloating (4).
^ Wy, Tom Joshua P.; Saadabadi, Abdolreza (2023), "Schizoaffective Disorder", StatPearls, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, PMID 31082056, retrieved 9 August 2023."Because of criteria that encompass both psychotic and mood symptoms, schizoaffective disorder is easy to mistake for other mental disorders."
^ Patel, Krishna R.; Cherian, Jessica; Gohil, Kunj; Atkinson, Dylan (2014). "Schizophrenia: overview and treatment options". P & T: A Peer-Reviewed Journal for Formulary Management. 39 (9): 638–645. ISSN 1052-1372. PMC 4159061. PMID 25210417. Schizophrenia is a complex, chronic mental health disorder characterized by an array of symptoms, including delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech or behavior, and impaired cognitive ability.
^ Upthegrove, Rachel; Marwaha, Steven; Birchwood, Max (15 July 2016). "Depression and Schizophrenia: Cause, Consequence or Trans-diagnostic Issue?". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 43 (2): 240–244. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbw097. ISSN 0586-7614. PMC 5605248. PMID 27421793. ...phenomenology of depression in schizophrenia, however, has not often been interrogated in phenomenological terms. Some of our recent evidence suggests self-stigma, shame, difficulty in regaining trust in ones own thoughts after recovery from delusional beliefs, and poor motivation are core features rather than other more "biological" symptoms such as early morning wakening, diurnal variation in mood or loss of appetite.14
^ Yan, Wenhua; Ji, Weidong; Su, Chen; Yu, Yunhan; Yu, Xiaoman; Chen, Liangliang (1 September 2021). "Anger Experience and Anger Expression Through Drawing in Schizophrenia: An fNIRS Study". Frontiers in Psychology. 12: 721148. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.721148. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 8441178. PMID 34539522. Studying anger is important for schizophrenia because this disease is often associated with angry and hostile behavior (Volavka, 1999)
^ Maurizio Pompili, M. D.; Andrea Fiorillo, M. D. (23 July 2015). "Aggression and Impulsivity in Schizophrenia". Psychiatric Times. Vol 32 No 7. 32 (7). Although the neurobiological aspects of aggression in patients with schizophrenia are still not well understood, impulsivity and aggression may correlate with frontal and temporal brain abnormalities.2 Psychotic symptoms, such as delusions and hallucinations, with subsequent suspiciousness and hostility, may result in aggressive behavior. Or, aggression may be impulsive and caused by an environmental frustrating event. Patients may be more aggressive and violent during acute episodes.3
^ Pinkham, Amy E.; Harvey, Philip D.; Penn, David L. (2016). "Paranoid individuals with schizophrenia show greater social cognitive bias and worse social functioning than non-paranoid individuals with schizophrenia". Schizophrenia Research: Cognition. 3: 33–38. doi:10.1016/j.scog.2015.11.002. ISSN 2215-0013. PMC 5156478. PMID 27990352. Paranoia is the most commonly reported delusion among individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia spectrum illnesses (Bentall et al., 2009)
^ Keen, Nadine; George, Darren; Scragg, Peter; Peters, Emmanuelle (19 January 2017). "The role of shame in people with a diagnosis of schizophrenia". British Journal of Clinical Psychology. 56 (2): 115–129. doi:10.1111/bjc.12125. ISSN 0144-6657. PMID 28105670. S2CID 1453778. Both the schizophrenia and depression groups exhibited higher levels of external shame, or seeing others as shaming, than the medical group
^ Foster, P. M. (2017). The Real Guide to Teenage Depression: Handling Teen Depression A book about what matters most for teen boys and teen girls. Amerika Serikat: PatriceMFoster.com."Seasonal depression, or seasonal affective disorder, is a type of depression that affects a person every year around the same time. It is almost always observed during the winter months, particularly in places where it gets dark and ..."
^ Winkler, Dietmar; Pjrek, Edda; Konstantinidis, Anastasios; Praschak-Rieder, Nicole; Willeit, Matthäus; Stastny, Jürgen; Kasper, Siegfried (8 July 2005). "Anger attacks in seasonal affective disorder". The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology. 9 (2): 215–219. doi:10.1017/S1461145705005602. ISSN 1461-1457. PMID 16004620. SAD patients were also more likely to report a larger number of accompanying symptoms during the anger attacks, suggesting that they experience the anger attacks as particularly intense.
^ Basco, M. R. (2015). The Bipolar Workbook: Tools for Controlling Your Mood Swings. Amerika Serikat: Guilford Publications."Seasonal Mood Swings Sometimes mood swings occur at predictable times. Common examples are depressions that occur during the winter months and manias that occur in the spring. In this case the shifting seasons can serve as triggers for ..."
^ Razali, Nur Atikah; Mohd Daud, Tuti Iryani; Woon, Luke Sy-Cherng; Mohamed Saini, Suriati; Muhammad, Noor Azimah; Sharip, Shalisah (11 January 2023). "Case report: Bipolar disorder in 48,XXYY syndrome". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 13. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1080698. ISSN 1664-0640. PMC 9874087. PMID 36713919. 48,XXYY is one of the most under-studied and rare types of sex chromosome aneuploidies (SCAs). In male births, 48,XXYY incidence occurs with an estimated prevalence of 1 in 18,000–40,000 (1). The SCAs can influence the neurodevelopment of an individual and are associated with impairment in executive function, verbal skills, working memory, sustained attention, mental flexibility, and inhibition by altering the basic differentiation process of the neurons, encoding proteins, and synaptic transmission (2).
^ Tartaglia, Nicole; Davis, Shanlee; Hench, Alison; Nimishakavi, Sheela; Beauregard, Renee; Reynolds, Ann; Fenton, Laura; Albrecht, Lindsey; Ross, Judith; Visootsak, Jeannie; Hansen, Robin; Hagerman, Randi (15 June 2008). "A new look at XXYY syndrome: medical and psychological features". American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part A. 146A (12): 1509–1522. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.32366. ISSN 1552-4833. PMC 3056496. PMID 18481271. Behavioral and psychiatric symptoms including hyperactivity, attention problems, impulsivity, aggression, mood instability, and "autistic-like" behaviors have also been described [Schlegel et al., 1965; Sorensen et al., 1978; Fryns et al., 1995; Hagerman, 1999].
^ Sekhon, Sandeep; Gupta, Vikas (2023), "Mood Disorder", StatPearls, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, PMID 32644337, retrieved 13 August 2023, Neurotransmitters that play an important function in mood disorders are serotonin and...." & "Stressful life changes (death of significant other, parents, siblings, etc.) traumatic events and childhood abuse have been found to be major risk factors for the development of mood disorder later on in life....
^ Peterson, Christopher; Park, Nansook; Seligman, Martin E. P. (2006). "Greater strengths of character and recovery from illness". The Journal of Positive Psychology. 1 (1): 17–26. doi:10.1080/17439760500372739. ISSN 1743-9760. A retrospective web-based study of 2087 adults found small but reliable associations between a history of physical illness and the character strengths of appreciation of beauty, bravery, curiosity, fairness, forgiveness, gratitude, humor, kindness, love of learning, and spirituality.
^ Xie, Huiting (2013). "Strengths-based approach for mental health recovery". Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences. 7 (2): 5–10. ISSN 1735-8639. PMC 3939995. PMID 24644504. Findings from the literature have shown that individuals' strengths are related to mental health improvement. These strengths can bring about positive outcomes in various aspects of life as satisfaction, functional status or health status, and have the potential to aid mental health recovery.
^ Crowe, Marie (2017). "Recovery and mood disorders". Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing. 24 (8): 561–562. doi:10.1111/jpm.12418. Personal recovery involves developing the skills to live well and is a very individual process that the consumer can undertake on their own, with peers and family or through disorder-specific psychotherapies. Personal recovery can be contrasted with clinical and functional recovery and refers to the process of individual psychological adaptation to the disorder rather than the reduction of psychiatric symptoms, relapse prevention and addressing functional impairment (Tse et al., 2014)
^ Chan, Kevin Ka Shing; Yip, Charles Chiu Hung; Tsui, Jack Ka Chun (27 February 2023). "Self-Compassion Mediates the Impact of Family Support on Clinical and Personal Recovery Among People with Mental Illness". Mindfulness. 14 (3): 720–731. doi:10.1007/s12671-023-02088-6. ISSN 1868-8527. Our findings indicate that people with mental illness who receive greater support from the family are better able to have self-caring attitudes...They may also have more positive experiences and perceptions of recovery and attain greater levels of life satisfaction and enjoyment.
^ Concerto, Carmen; Rodolico, Alessandro; Mineo, Ludovico; Ciancio, Alessia; Marano, Leonardo; Romano, Carla Benedicta; Scavo, Elisa Vita; Spigarelli, Riccardo; Fusar-Poli, Laura; Furnari, Rosaria; Petralia, Antonino; Signorelli, Maria Salvina (16 June 2023). "Exploring Personal Recovery in Schizophrenia: The Role of Mentalization". Journal of Clinical Medicine. 12 (12): 4090. doi:10.3390/jcm12124090. ISSN 2077-0383. It encompasses various elements, such as spirituality, empowerment, embracing the illness actively, finding hope, restoring a positive identity, creating meaning in life, combating stigma, taking charge of one's own life, and cultivating supportive relationships [4]. PR concerns the individuals' perceived capacity to manage mental illness, their sense of purpose, and their confidence in their ability to lead a fulfilling life, irrespective of the disorder's severity [5]{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
^ O’Keeffe, Donal; Sheridan, Ann; Kelly, Aine; Doyle, Roisin; Madigan, Kevin; Lawlor, Elizabeth; Clarke, Mary (18 June 2021). "A qualitative study exploring personal recovery meaning and the potential influence of clinical recovery status on this meaning 20 years after a first episode psychosis". Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology. 57 (3): 473–483. doi:10.1007/s00127-021-02121-w. ISSN 0933-7954. For many, recovery is their preferred term to describe the continuing experience of living with, managing, or overcoming mental health difficulties [5].
^ Gilbert, Paul (1999). Overcoming Depression. Basic Books. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-465-01508-5.
^ Goleman, pp. 73-4
^ Terence Real (1997). I Don't Want to Talk About It. Newleaf. p. 279. ISBN 978-0717127108. ASIN 0717127109.
^ Elfrey, Mary Kate; Ziegelstein, Roy C. (2009). "The "inactivity trap"". General Hospital Psychiatry. 31 (4): 303–305. doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2009.05.001. ISSN 1873-7714. PMC 2752478. PMID 19555788. It is the unfortunate result of the bidirectional relationship between depression and inactivity: depression leads to a reduced activity level, and depressive symptoms then become more severe. Berlin, et al.
^ Mazzucchelli, Trevor G.; Kane, Robert T.; Rees, Clare S. (2010). "Behavioral activation interventions for well-being: A meta-analysis". The Journal of Positive Psychology. 5 (2): 105–121. doi:10.1080/17439760903569154. ISSN 1743-9760. PMC 2882847. PMID 20539837. By intentional activity, the authors meant discrete actions or practices that individuals must choose to engage in and that require some effort to enact. This might include adopting new behaviors such as an exercise program, changing one's cognitive attitudes or practices such as practicing forgiveness, or volitional activity such as pursuing personal goals.
^ Karimpour-Vazifehkhorani, Alireza; Bakhshipour Rudsari, Abbas; Rezvanizadeh, Akram; Kehtary-Harzang, Leila; Hasanzadeh, Kamyar (2020). "Behavioral Activation Therapy on Reward Seeking Behaviors in Depressed People: An Experimental study". Journal of Caring Sciences. 9 (4): 195–202. doi:10.34172/jcs.2020.030. ISSN 2251-9920. PMC 7770387. PMID 33409163. ...therapies such as cognitive behavior therapy (CBT (and BAT that are used as a positive reinforcement sources are not expected to be effective.19..." & "The results of this study showed a significant increase in reward seeking and response to reward and a significant decrease in BIS and depression symptoms in depressed people. Also, the results of this study showed that BAT is effective in improving the rewards seeking behaviors in depressed people since this treatment will increase the positive reinforcement and the gaining reward from the patient.
^ Vidal-Ribas, Pablo; Brotman, Melissa A.; Valdivieso, Isabel; Leibenluft, Ellen; Stringaris, Argyris (2016). "The Status of Irritability in Psychiatry: A Conceptual and Quantitative Review". Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 55 (7): 556–570. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2016.04.014. ISSN 1527-5418. PMC 4927461. PMID 27343883. Irritability describes proneness to anger... Irritability is a mood in the sense that young people can remain in states of proneness to anger for very long times and sometimes for no apparent reason, as discussed below... irritability shares a negative valence with anxiety and depression but denotes approach and is therefore linked to elation in mania.
^ Elices, Matilde; Soler, Joaquim; Feliu-Soler, Albert; Carmona, Cristina; Tiana, Thais; Pascual, Juan C.; García-Palacios, Azucena; Álvarez, Enric (2017). "Combining emotion regulation and mindfulness skills for preventing depression relapse: a randomized-controlled study". Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation. 4: 13. doi:10.1186/s40479-017-0064-6. ISSN 2051-6673. PMC 5497384. PMID 28690851. The first session provided an overview of the training goals and an explanation of the differences between the three states of mind (i.e., emotional mind, rational mind and wise mind)...In DBT, ER skills training is oriented to encouraging behavioral activation (BA) by training patients in "opposite action" (OA) to depressive symptoms.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
^ Frazier, Savannah N.; Vela, Jamie (2014). "Dialectical behavior therapy for the treatment of anger and aggressive behavior: A review". Aggression and Violent Behavior. 19 (2): 156–163. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2014.02.001. ISSN 1359-1789. DBT was designed to treat emotional dysregulation (i.e., mood disturbance, affective liability, uncontrolled anger) and the behavioral difficulties..." & "Research has shown that there are potentially clinically significant results when using DBT to treat anger and aggression in various samples. Findings from this review suggest that treatments, even when modified show a positive impact on the reduction of anger and aggressive behaviors.
^ Jones, Brett D. M.; Umer, Madeha; Kittur, Mary E.; Finkelstein, Ofer; Xue, Siqi; Dimick, Mikaela K.; Ortiz, Abigail; Goldstein, Benjamin I.; Mulsant, Benoit H.; Husain, Muhammad I. (5 February 2023). "A systematic review on the effectiveness of dialectical behavior therapy for improving mood symptoms in bipolar disorders". International Journal of Bipolar Disorders. 11 (1). doi:10.1186/s40345-023-00288-6. ISSN 2194-7511. While they also experienced more improvement in depressive symptoms and in their ability to control emotional states, the difference between the two groups did not reach statistical significance.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
^ Renna, Megan E.; Fresco, David M.; Mennin, Douglas S. (2020). "Emotion Regulation Therapy and Its Potential Role in the Treatment of Chronic Stress-Related Pathology Across Disorders". Chronic Stress (Thousand Oaks, Calif.). 4: 2470547020905787. doi:10.1177/2470547020905787. ISSN 2470-5470. PMC 7219947. PMID 32440604. ...first phase of treatment focusing on increasing momentary clarity of motivational responses during emotional episodes and the cultivation of mindful emotion regulation skills with the goal of promoting counteractive responding to intense emotional experiences. Skills are presented in a specific order focusing on less cognitively elaborative skills (e.g., attention regulation skills) followed by more cognitively elaborative skills (e.g., metacognitive regulation skills).
^ Frank, Ellen; Swartz, Holly A; Kupfer, David J (15 September 2000). "Interpersonal and social rhythm therapy: managing the chaos of bipolar disorder". Biological Psychiatry. 48 (6): 593–604. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(00)00969-0. ISSN 0006-3223. Interpersonal and social rhythm therapy is a manual-based psychotherapy (E. Frank et al, unpublished data, 1999) focusing on 1) the link between mood and life events, 2) the importance of maintaining regular daily rhythms as elucidated by the SRM, 3) the identification and management of potential precipitants of rhythm dysregulation with special attention to interpersonal triggers, 4).
^ Boland, Elaine M.; Bender, Rachel E.; Alloy, Lauren B.; Conner, Bradley T.; Labelle, Denise R.; Abramson, Lyn Y. (2012). "Life events and social rhythms in bipolar spectrum disorders: an examination of social rhythm sensitivity". Journal of Affective Disorders. 139 (3): 264–272. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2012.01.038. ISSN 1573-2517. PMC 3368102. PMID 22381951. Shen, Alloy, Abramson, and Sylvia provided further evidence of social rhythm irregularities in bipolar spectrum disorder (2008). In a sample of 414 undergraduates, those diagnosed with either cyclothymia or bipolar II disorder reported significantly fewer regular activities than normal controls.
^ Bullock, Ben; Judd, Fiona; Murray, Greg (2011). "Social rhythms and vulnerability to bipolar disorder". Journal of Affective Disorders. 135 (1–3): 384–388. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.06.006. ISSN 0165-0327. As well as being strongly associated with the clinical manifestation of BD, reduced social rhythmicity has also been demonstrated in some populations with increased risk for BD.
^ Murray, Greg; Gottlieb, John; Swartz, Holly A. (2021). "Maintaining Daily Routines to Stabilize Mood: Theory, Data, and Potential Intervention for Circadian Consequences of COVID-19". Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne De Psychiatrie. 66 (1): 9–13. doi:10.1177/0706743720957825. ISSN 1497-0015. PMC 7890582. PMID 32909832. More than 30 years ago, it was observed that major life events associated with mood disorder (divorce, loss of job, life transitions) are not just psychologically challenging but also cause significant change to daily routines.10 Unemployment, for example, may be associated not just with challenges to self-esteem but also with less regular bed-, wake- and mealtimes. This instability of daily routines, in turn, may have circadian impact through weakened zeitgeber information.
^ Bai, Zhenggang; Luo, Shiga; Zhang, Luyao; Wu, Sijie; Chi, Iris (2020). "Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) to reduce depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Journal of Affective Disorders. 260: 728–737. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2019.09.040. ISSN 0165-0327. ...To foster psychological flexibility, according to Grégoire et al. (2017), ACT relies on six interrelated and overlapping processes: acceptance (i.e., willingness to open fully to unwanted experiences such as difficult thoughts, memories, or emotions), contact with the present moment (i.e., being mindful and aware of one's experiences), self as context (i.e., maintaining perspective about oneself within one's experiences), cognitive defusion (i.e., being able to step back from unwanted experiences without getting stuck in them), committed action (i.e., engaging in actions that move toward important aspects of life), and values (i.e., staying connected to personal values or areas of life that are important).

External links

Understanding mood swings

[1] Peter Salovey et al, Emotional Intelligence (2004) p. 1974

[2] "BBC Science – When does your mental health become a problem?". BBC Science. 19 April 2013. Retrieved 8 January 2015.

[3] Sigmund Freud, Civilization, Society and Religion (PFL 12) p. 164

[4] Otto Fenichel, The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis (1946) p. 406

[5] Daniel Goleman (1995). Emotional Intelligence: Why it Can Matter More Than IQ. Bloomsbury Publishing PLC. p. 57. ISBN 978-0747528302. ASIN 0747528306.

[6] S, Nassir Ghaemi, Mood Disorder (2007) p. 243-4

[7] Hockenbury, Don and Sandra (2011). Discovering Psychology Fifth Edition. New York, NY: Worth Publishers. p. 549. ISBN 978-1-4292-1650-0.

[8] CAMH Bipolar Clinic Staff(2013)."Bipolar disorder:an information guide".camph:Centre for Addiction and Mental Health.www.camh.ca

[9] Caponigro, J. M., Lee, E. H., Johnson, S. L., Kring, A. M. (2012). Bipolar Disorder: A Guide for the Newly Diagnosed. Amerika Serikat: New Harbinger Publications.

[10] Janiri, Delfina; Conte, Eliana; De Luca, Ilaria; Simone, Maria Velia; Moccia, Lorenzo; Simonetti, Alessio; Mazza, Marianna; Marconi, Elisa; Monti, Laura; Chieffo, Daniela Pia Rosaria; Kotzalidis, Georgios; Janiri, Luigi; Sani, Gabriele (29 March 2021). "Not Only Mania or Depression: Mixed States/Mixed Features in Paediatric Bipolar Disorders". Brain Sciences. 11 (4): 434. doi:10.3390/brainsci11040434. ISSN 2076-3425. PMC 8065627. PMID 33805270.

[11] MacKinnon, D.F. (2007), "Affective Disorders", Encyclopedia of Stress, Elsevier, pp. 78–84, doi:10.1016/b978-012373947-6.00015-5, ISBN 978-0-12-373947-6, retrieved 26 July 2023

[12] Mitchell, C. (2017). Mood Swings: The Mindful Way: Managing Anger, Anxiety And Low Mood. Britania Raya: John Murray Press. "Mood swings can happen when you're just having a bad day, are nobody's fault and normally subside over time. A certain amount of stress is inevitable and can be a good thing, as it motivates us to get things done and achieve deadlines."

[13] Miklowitz, D. J., Gitlin, M. J. (2015). Clinician's Guide to Bipolar Disorder. Amerika Serikat: Guilford Publications. "The mood swings of individuals with cyclothymia occur most of the time (in the DSM-5 definition, no more than 2 consecutive months have been symptom-free within a 2-year period) and never exhibit the number of symptoms or the length of ..."

[14] Rhoads, J. (2021). Clinical Consult to Psychiatric Mental Health Management for Nurse Practitioners. Amerika Serikat: Springer Publishing Company. "Mood changes in cyclothymic disorder can be abrupt and unpredictable, of short duration, and with infrequent euthymic episodes."

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[18] Clinical Handbook for the Management of Mood Disorders. (2013). Amerika Serikat: Cambridge University Press."While both mania and hypomania are phenomenologically similar in that they occur as discrete episodes ... "

[19] "Bipolar Mood Swings, Stabilizers, Triggers, and Mania." WebMD. WebMD, 3 May 0000. Web. 29 February 2012.

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[21] "Autism spectrum disorder". Nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 8 January 2015.

[22] "Chat for Adults with HFA and Aspergers: Mood Swings in Adults on the Autism Spectrum". Adultaspergerschat.com. Retrieved 8 January 2015.

[23] Donna Williams. "Donna Williams: Autism, Puberty and Possibility of Seizures". Donnawilliams.net. Archived from the original on 3 September 2014. Retrieved 8 January 2015.

[24] Stern RA (1996). "Assessment of Mood States in Neurodegenerative Disease: Methodological Issues and Diagnostic Recommendations". Seminars in Clinical Neuropsychiatry. 1 (4): 315–324. doi:10.1053/SCNP00100315 (inactive 1 August 2023). PMID 10320434.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of August 2023 (link)

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[26] Angela Haupt. "Food and Mood: 6 Ways Your Diet Affects How You Feel". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved 8 January 2015.

[27] "Can food affect your mood? – CNN.com". CNN. 26 November 2013. Retrieved 8 January 2015.

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[48] Itami, Shouichi; Uno, Hiroyuki (20 December 2002). "Orbitofrontal cortex dysfunction in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder revealed by reversal and extinction tasks". NeuroReport. 13 (18): 2453–2457. doi:10.1097/00001756-200212200-00016. ISSN 0959-4965. PMID 12499848. S2CID 23189353. ADHD subjects indeed showed a performance deficit in the tasks, supporting OFC dysfunction in ADHD. Furthermore, a discriminat analysis using the task performance variables correctly classified 89.7% of the participants among ADHD patients and normal controls.

[49] Perlov, Evgeniy; Philipsen, Alexandra; Tebartz van Elst, Ludger; Ebert, Dieter; Henning, Juergen; Maier, Simon; Bubl, Emanuel; Hesslinger, Bernd (2008). "Hippocampus and amygdala morphology in adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder". Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience. 33 (6): 509–515. ISSN 1488-2434. PMC 2575764. PMID 18982173. We conclude that the findings of interest (i.e., hippocampus enlargement and amygdala volume loss) are not very stable across different samples of patients with ADHD and that the different and contradictory findings may be related to the different locations of alterations along the complex circuits responsible for the different symptoms of ADHD.

[50] Arnsten, Amy P.T. (1 May 2009). "The Emerging Neurobiology of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: The Key Role of the Prefrontal Association Cortex". Journal of Pediatrics. 154 (5): I–S43. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2009.01.018. PMC 2894421. PMID 20596295. The prefrontal association cortex plays a crucial role in regulating attention, behavior, and emotion, with the right hemisphere specialized for behavioral inhibition.

[51] Hodges, Holly; Fealko, Casey; Soares, Neelkamal (2020). "Autism spectrum disorder: definition, epidemiology, causes, and clinical evaluation". Translational Pediatrics. 9 (S1): S55–S65. doi:10.21037/tp.2019.09.09. ISSN 2224-4336. PMC 7082249. PMID 32206584. Table 1 :Changes in ASD criteria from the DSM-IV to DSM-5{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)

[52] MacLennan, K.; O’Brien, S.; Tavassoli, T. (2022). "In Our Own Words: The Complex Sensory Experiences of Autistic Adults". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 52 (7): 3061–3075. doi:10.1007/s10803-021-05186-3. ISSN 0162-3257. PMC 9213348. PMID 34255236. Difficulties with sensory input was described to impact mood, causing stress and agitation:

[53] Green, Shulamite A.; Hernandez, Leanna; Tottenham, Nim; Krasileva, Kate; Bookheimer, Susan Y.; Dapretto, Mirella (2015). "Neurobiology of Sensory Overresponsivity in Youth With Autism Spectrum Disorders". JAMA Psychiatry. 72 (8): 778–786. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.0737. ISSN 2168-6238. PMC 4861140. PMID 26061819. The authors found that youth with ASDs had overactivation in limbic areas, primary sensory cortices, and orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) compared with typically developing (TD) control subjects in response to mildly aversive visual and auditory stimuli." & "Finally, Green et al10 found that SOR symptoms correlated with hyperactivity in the amygdala and OFC.

[54] Ibrahim, Karim; Eilbott, Jeffrey A.; Ventola, Pamela; He, George; Pelphrey, Kevin A.; McCarthy, Gregory; Sukhodolsky, Denis G. (2019). "Reduced Amygdala–Prefrontal Functional Connectivity in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder and Co-occurring Disruptive Behavior". Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging. 4 (12): 1031–1041. doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2019.01.009. ISSN 2451-9022. PMC 7173634. PMID 30979647. Children with ASD and disruptive behavior showed reduced amygdala–vlPFC connectivity compared with children with ASD without disruptive behavior.

[55] Fonagy, Peter; Luyten, Patrick; Allison, Elizabeth; Campbell, Chloe (2017). "What we have changed our minds about: Part 1. Borderline personality disorder as a limitation of resilience". Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation. 4: 11. doi:10.1186/s40479-017-0061-9. ISSN 2051-6673. PMC 5389119. PMID 28413687. In BPD, the appraisal mechanisms are at fault, in large part because of mentalizing difficulties (e.g. in the mistaken appraisal of threat at the moment of its presentation) or a breakdown in epistemic trust, which damages the capacity to relearn different ways of mentalizing – or appraising – situations (i.e. the inability to change our understanding of the threat after the event).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)

[56] Chapman, Jennifer; Jamil, Radia T.; Fleisher, Carl (25 October 2022), "Borderline Personality Disorder", StatPearls [Internet], StatPearls Publishing, PMID 28613633, retrieved 7 August 2023, There are many theories about the development of borderline personality disorder. In the mentalizing model of Peter Fonagy and Anthony Bateman, borderline personality disorder is the result of a lack of resilience against psychological stressors. In this framework, Fonagy and Bateman define resilience as the ability to generate adaptive re-appraisal of negative events or stressors;...

[57] Lazarus, Sophie A.; Choukas-Bradley, Sophia; Beeney, Joseph E.; Byrd, Amy L.; Vine, Vera; Stepp, Stephanie D. (2019). "Too Much Too Soon?: Borderline Personality Disorder Symptoms and Romantic Relationships in Adolescent Girls". Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. 47 (12): 1995–2005. doi:10.1007/s10802-019-00570-1. ISSN 1573-2835. PMC 7045362. PMID 31240430. Core symptoms that comprise the disorder are often explicitly interpersonal in nature (e.g., tumultuous romantic relationships and frantic efforts to avoid abandonment) or are expressed in reaction to interpersonal stressors (e.g., affective instability, paranoid ideation, suicidal behavior

[58] Nicol, Katie; Pope, Merrick; Sprengelmeyer, Reiner; Young, Andrew W.; Hall, Jeremy (6 November 2013). "Social Judgement in Borderline Personality Disorder". PLOS ONE. 8 (11): e73440. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0073440. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3819347. PMID 24223110. Individuals with a diagnosis of BPD have difficulty making appropriate social judgements about others from their faces. Judging more faces as unapproachable and untrustworthy indicates that this group may have a heightened sensitivity to perceiving potential threat, and this should be considered in clinical management and treatment

[59] Balsis, Steve; Loehle-Conger, Evan; Busch, Alexander J.; Ungredda, Tatiana; Oltmanns, Thomas F. (2018). "Self and informant report across the borderline personality disorder spectrum". Personality Disorders. 9 (5): 429–436. doi:10.1037/per0000259. ISSN 1949-2723. PMC 6082732. PMID 28857585. Individuals with BPD features often have distorted cognitions. Specifically, they often make simplified judgments about people and situations.

[60] Carpenter, Ryan W.; Trull, Timothy J. (2013). "Components of emotion dysregulation in borderline personality disorder: a review". Current Psychiatry Reports. 15 (1): 335. doi:10.1007/s11920-012-0335-2. ISSN 1535-1645. PMC 3973423. PMID 23250816. Following Linehan's biosocial model, we conceptualize emotion dysregulation in borderline personality disorder (BPD) as consisting of four components: emotion sensitivity, heightened and labile negative affect, a deficit of appropriate regulation strategies, and a surplus of maladaptive regulation strategies.

[61] Salgó, Ella; Szeghalmi, Liliána; Bajzát, Bettina; Berán, Eszter; Unoka, Zsolt (17 March 2021). "Emotion regulation, mindfulness, and self-compassion among patients with borderline personality disorder, compared to healthy control subjects". PLOS ONE. 16 (3): e0248409. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0248409. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 7968662. PMID 33730065. In comparison to a healthy control group, BPD patients show deficits in the following areas: mindfulness, self-compassion and adaptive emotion-regulation strategies.

[62] Dixon-Gordon, Katherine L.; Peters, Jessica R.; Fertuck, Eric A.; Yen, Shirley (2017). "Emotional Processes in Borderline Personality Disorder: An Update for Clinical Practice". Journal of Psychotherapy Integration. 27 (4): 425–438. doi:10.1037/int0000044. ISSN 1053-0479. PMC 5842953. PMID 29527105. BPD features are also associated with self-criticism, thought suppression, avoidance, and alcohol use as strategies for regulating emotions (Aldao & Dixon-Gordon, 2014).

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[:4-64] Lanctôt, Krista L.; Amatniek, Joan; Ancoli-Israel, Sonia; Arnold, Steven E.; Ballard, Clive; Cohen-Mansfield, Jiska; Ismail, Zahinoor; Lyketsos, Constantine; Miller, David S.; Musiek, Erik; Osorio, Ricardo S.; Rosenberg, Paul B.; Satlin, Andrew; Steffens, David; Tariot, Pierre (2017). "Neuropsychiatric signs and symptoms of Alzheimer's disease: New treatment paradigms". Alzheimer's & Dementia: Translational Research & Clinical Interventions. 3 (3): 440–449. doi:10.1016/j.trci.2017.07.001. PMC 5651439. PMID 29067350. ...NPSs based on neurobiological dimensions and behaviors rather than clinical syndromes, grouping them into five domains: (1) negative valence; (2) positive valence; (3) cognitive systems; (4) processes for social systems; and (5) arousal or regulatory systems [13]. Yet here, too, there is tremendous overlap. For example, impairment of cognitive systems may manifest in delusions, hallucinations, agitation, aggression, depression or dysphoria, anxiety, elation or euphoria, apathy, disinhibition, irritability, motor disturbance, sleep disorder, appetite disorder, aberrant vocalization, and ruminative, repetitive, and somatoform behaviors.

[65] Sjödahl Hammarlund, C., Westergren, A., Åström, I., Edberg, A. K., & Hagell, P. (2018). The Impact of Living with Parkinson's Disease: Balancing within a Web of Needs and Demands. Parkinson's disease, 2018, 4598651. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/4598651.PMCID: PMC6087577.PMID: 30151098."Psychological symptoms and mood swings were intertwined with cognitive and physical problems, adding to the struggle of managing the demands of everyday life. The participants felt depressed, low-spirited, and were worried about the future. Some held dark and destructive thoughts and considered intentionally ending their lives. In a previous study, suicidal and death ideation was present among one-third of persons with PD [25]. "

[66] Jauhar, S., & Ritchie, S. (2010). Psychiatric and behavioural manifestations of Huntington's disease. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 16(3), 168-175. doi:10.1192/apt.bp.107.005371."Cognitive deficits combined with neuropsychiatric symptoms often cause the greatest difficulties in behaviour, for example anergia, lack of initiative, blunted affect, egocentricity, constant demands, irritation and threatening behaviour."

[:2-67] De la Casa-Fages, Beatriz; Grandas, Francisco (2011). "Dopamine dysregulation syndrome and deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus in Parkinson's disease". Neurology Research International. 2011: 759895. doi:10.1155/2011/759895. ISSN 2090-1860. PMC 3216377. PMID 22135744. (d) impairment in social or occupational functioning: fights, violent behaviour, loss of friends, absence from work, loss of job, legal difficulties, arguments or difficulties with family; (e) development of hypomaniac, maniac, or cyclothymic affective syndrome in relation to DRT; (f) development of a withdrawal state characterized by dysphoria, depression, irritability, and anxiety on reducing the level of DRT; (g) duration of disturbance of at least 6 months." & "Patients with DDS develop an addictive pattern of DRT use, self-administering doses of dopaminergic drugs in excess of those required to control their motor symptoms.

[68] Drew, Daniel S; Muhammed, Kinan; Baig, Fahd; Kelly, Mark; Saleh, Youssuf; Sarangmat, Nagaraja; Okai, David; Hu, Michele; Manohar, Sanjay; Husain, Masud (1 August 2020). "Dopamine and reward hypersensitivity in Parkinson's disease with impulse control disorder". Brain. 143 (8): 2502–2518. doi:10.1093/brain/awaa198. ISSN 0006-8950. PMC 7447523. PMID 32761061. However, the findings argue against a simple relationship between dopamine level and reward sensitivity. Many PD+ICD patients were also found to experience behavioural apathy and impulsivity comorbidly, suggesting that aberrant reward sensitivity is just one component of a dysfunctional system which may incorporate functional changes in other neurotransmitter systems.

[:3-69] Pradip Chauhan, Mbbs; Shalom Elsy Philip, Mbbs; Girish Chauhan, M. D. S.; Simmi Mehra, Mbbs (2 April 2022). "The Anatomical Basis of Seizures". Exon Publications: 15–23. doi:10.36255/exon-publications-epilepsy-anatomical-basis. ISBN 9780645332049. PMID 35605083. Hyperexcitability of neurons and hypersynchrony of neural networks are the hallmarks of seizures." & "Seizures have been known to cause abnormal neurogenesis in the hippocampus and form faulty circuits that disrupt its function (11).

[70] Heilman, Kenneth M. (2021), Emotion and mood disorders associated with epilepsy, Handbook of Clinical Neurology, vol. 183, Elsevier, pp. 169–173, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-822290-4.00008-6, ISBN 978-0-12-822290-4, PMID 34389116, S2CID 237009046, retrieved 28 July 2023."Epilepsy is a disorder characterized by recurrent seizures. Epilepsy can alter mood and emotions. Treatments for epilepsy can also alter mood and emotions."

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[72] Hage, Mirella P.; Azar, Sami T. (14 December 2011). "The Link between Thyroid Function and Depression". Journal of Thyroid Research. 2012: e590648. doi:10.1155/2012/590648. ISSN 2090-8067. PMC 3246784. PMID 22220285. Today, it is well recognized that disturbances in thyroid function may significantly affect mental status including emotion and cognition. Both excess and insufficient thyroid hormones can cause mood abnormalities including depression...

[73] Kuś, Aleksander; Kjaergaard, Alisa D.; Marouli, Eirini; Del Greco M., Fabiola; Sterenborg, Rosalie B.T.M.; Chaker, Layal; Peeters, Robin P.; Bednarczuk, Tomasz; Åsvold, Bjørn O.; Burgess, Stephen; Deloukas, Panos; Teumer, Alexander; Ellervik, Christina; Medici, Marco (2021). "Thyroid Function and Mood Disorders: A Mendelian Randomization Study". Thyroid. 31 (8): 1171–1181. doi:10.1089/thy.2020.0884. ISSN 1050-7256. PMC 7612998. PMID 33899528. Variations in normal-range TSH and FT4 levels have no effects on the risk of MDD and its subtypes, and neither on minor depressive symptoms. This indicates that depressive symptoms should not be attributed to minor variations in thyroid function

[74] Coccaro, Emil F. (2018). "DSM-5 intermittent explosive disorder: Relationship with Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder". Comprehensive Psychiatry. 84: 118–121. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2018.04.011. ISSN 0010-440X. PMID 29753187. S2CID 21679528. These data indicate that inter-outburst anger in those with IED is relatively brief and that such individuals do not generally display the kind of persistent anger that is a diagnostic feature of DMDD.

[75] Scott, K. M.; de Vries, Y. A.; Aguilar-Gaxiola, S.; Al-Hamzawi, A.; Alonso, J.; Bromet, E. J.; Bunting, B.; Caldas-de-Almeida, J. M.; Cía, A.; Florescu, S.; Gureje, O.; Hu, C.-Y.; Karam, E. G.; Karam, A.; Kawakami, N. (23 June 2020). "Intermittent explosive disorder subtypes in the general population: association with comorbidity, impairment and suicidality". Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences. 29: e138. doi:10.1017/S2045796020000517. ISSN 2045-7979. PMC 7327434. PMID 32638683. A prominent bimodal conceptualisation of aggression classifies it as either: (i) spontaneous (referred to as reactive or impulsive aggression), or (ii) planned (referred to as proactive, premediated or instrumental aggression) (Babcock et al., 2014; Wrangham, 2018)." & "...DSM-5 is the occurrence of repeated episodes of impulsive aggression resulting in verbal or physical assaults or property destruction." & "DSM-IV criterion B for IED requires that the aggressiveness is 'grossly out of proportion to any precipitating psychosocial stressor'.

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[83] Benazzi, Franco (30 June 2006). "Various forms of depression". Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience. 8 (2): 151–161. doi:10.31887/dcns.2006.8.2/fbenazzi. ISSN 1958-5969. PMC 3181770. PMID 16889102. The most common DSM-IV-TR manic/hypomanic symptoms of mixed depression are irritability, mental overactivity (flight of ideas, racing thoughts, crowded thoughts), and behavioral overactivity (psychomotor agitation, overtalkativeness). Different frequencies of mixed depression have been reported, which may be related to treated versus untreated samples...

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[85] Soomro, G. Mustafa (18 January 2012). "Obsessive compulsive disorder". BMJ clinical evidence. 2012: 1004. ISSN 1752-8526. PMC 3285220. PMID 22305974. Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) involves obsessions, compulsions, or both, that are not caused by drugs or by a physical disorder, and which cause significant personal distress or social dysfunction.

[86] Bowen, Rudy; Rahman, Hiba; Dong, Lisa Yue; Khalaj, Sara; Baetz, Marilyn; Peters, Evyn; Balbuena, Lloyd (2018). "Suicidality in People With Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms or Personality Traits". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 9: 747. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00747. ISSN 1664-0640. PMC 6339952. PMID 30692943. Recurring thoughts of death and suicide (27) and aggression (28, 29) are common features of OCD. The most prevalent obsession was the fear of harming oneself in the DSM-IV field trials of 431 patients diagnosed with OCD (30, 31).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)

[87] Mason, Katherine A. (2022). "Blenders, Hammers, and Knives: Postpartum Intrusive Thoughts and Unthinkable Motherhood". Anthropology and Humanism. 47 (1): 117–132. doi:10.1111/anhu.12379. ISSN 1548-1409. PMC 9435669. PMID 36061237. These thoughts can include horrific flashes of violence involving one's baby and frequently lead to shame and fear on the mother's part, but rarely result in real-world violence.

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[92] Kwan, Irene; Onwude, Joseph Loze (25 August 2015). "Premenstrual syndrome". BMJ Clinical Evidence. 2015: 0806. ISSN 1752-8526. PMC 4548199. PMID 26303988. Psychological symptoms of PMS include irritability, depression, crying/tearfulness, and anxiety. Physical symptoms of PMS include abdominal bloating, breast tenderness, and headaches.

[:5-93] Yonkers, Kimberly Ann; O'Brien, P. M. Shaughn; Eriksson, Elias (5 April 2008). "Premenstrual syndrome". Lancet. 371 (9619): 1200–1210. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60527-9. ISSN 1474-547X. PMC 3118460. PMID 18395582. The length of symptom expression varies between a few days and 2 weeks (figure 1). Symptoms often worsen substantially 6 days before, and peak at about 2 days before, menses start. " & "Such an enhanced tendency to have disphoria as a reult of the effects of sex steroids on the brain might be heritable, as suggested by twin studies.56–58 Other possible risk factors for PMS are high body-mass index,59 stress,7 and traumatic events.60" " & "…various indices of serotonergic trans mission are reported to be aberrant in women with PMS.75,80–89" & "Another neurotransmitter that has been linked to PMS is the inhibitory aminoacid GABA. This theory gains support from an imaging study,90"

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[97] Upthegrove, Rachel; Marwaha, Steven; Birchwood, Max (15 July 2016). "Depression and Schizophrenia: Cause, Consequence or Trans-diagnostic Issue?". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 43 (2): 240–244. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbw097. ISSN 0586-7614. PMC 5605248. PMID 27421793. ...phenomenology of depression in schizophrenia, however, has not often been interrogated in phenomenological terms. Some of our recent evidence suggests self-stigma, shame, difficulty in regaining trust in ones own thoughts after recovery from delusional beliefs, and poor motivation are core features rather than other more "biological" symptoms such as early morning wakening, diurnal variation in mood or loss of appetite.14

[98] Yan, Wenhua; Ji, Weidong; Su, Chen; Yu, Yunhan; Yu, Xiaoman; Chen, Liangliang (1 September 2021). "Anger Experience and Anger Expression Through Drawing in Schizophrenia: An fNIRS Study". Frontiers in Psychology. 12: 721148. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.721148. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 8441178. PMID 34539522. Studying anger is important for schizophrenia because this disease is often associated with angry and hostile behavior (Volavka, 1999)

[99] Maurizio Pompili, M. D.; Andrea Fiorillo, M. D. (23 July 2015). "Aggression and Impulsivity in Schizophrenia". Psychiatric Times. Vol 32 No 7. 32 (7). Although the neurobiological aspects of aggression in patients with schizophrenia are still not well understood, impulsivity and aggression may correlate with frontal and temporal brain abnormalities.2 Psychotic symptoms, such as delusions and hallucinations, with subsequent suspiciousness and hostility, may result in aggressive behavior. Or, aggression may be impulsive and caused by an environmental frustrating event. Patients may be more aggressive and violent during acute episodes.3

[100] Pinkham, Amy E.; Harvey, Philip D.; Penn, David L. (2016). "Paranoid individuals with schizophrenia show greater social cognitive bias and worse social functioning than non-paranoid individuals with schizophrenia". Schizophrenia Research: Cognition. 3: 33–38. doi:10.1016/j.scog.2015.11.002. ISSN 2215-0013. PMC 5156478. PMID 27990352. Paranoia is the most commonly reported delusion among individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia spectrum illnesses (Bentall et al., 2009)

[101] Keen, Nadine; George, Darren; Scragg, Peter; Peters, Emmanuelle (19 January 2017). "The role of shame in people with a diagnosis of schizophrenia". British Journal of Clinical Psychology. 56 (2): 115–129. doi:10.1111/bjc.12125. ISSN 0144-6657. PMID 28105670. S2CID 1453778. Both the schizophrenia and depression groups exhibited higher levels of external shame, or seeing others as shaming, than the medical group

[102] Foster, P. M. (2017). The Real Guide to Teenage Depression: Handling Teen Depression A book about what matters most for teen boys and teen girls. Amerika Serikat: PatriceMFoster.com."Seasonal depression, or seasonal affective disorder, is a type of depression that affects a person every year around the same time. It is almost always observed during the winter months, particularly in places where it gets dark and ..."

[103] Winkler, Dietmar; Pjrek, Edda; Konstantinidis, Anastasios; Praschak-Rieder, Nicole; Willeit, Matthäus; Stastny, Jürgen; Kasper, Siegfried (8 July 2005). "Anger attacks in seasonal affective disorder". The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology. 9 (2): 215–219. doi:10.1017/S1461145705005602. ISSN 1461-1457. PMID 16004620. SAD patients were also more likely to report a larger number of accompanying symptoms during the anger attacks, suggesting that they experience the anger attacks as particularly intense.

[104] Basco, M. R. (2015). The Bipolar Workbook: Tools for Controlling Your Mood Swings. Amerika Serikat: Guilford Publications."Seasonal Mood Swings Sometimes mood swings occur at predictable times. Common examples are depressions that occur during the winter months and manias that occur in the spring. In this case the shifting seasons can serve as triggers for ..."

[105] Razali, Nur Atikah; Mohd Daud, Tuti Iryani; Woon, Luke Sy-Cherng; Mohamed Saini, Suriati; Muhammad, Noor Azimah; Sharip, Shalisah (11 January 2023). "Case report: Bipolar disorder in 48,XXYY syndrome". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 13. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1080698. ISSN 1664-0640. PMC 9874087. PMID 36713919. 48,XXYY is one of the most under-studied and rare types of sex chromosome aneuploidies (SCAs). In male births, 48,XXYY incidence occurs with an estimated prevalence of 1 in 18,000–40,000 (1). The SCAs can influence the neurodevelopment of an individual and are associated with impairment in executive function, verbal skills, working memory, sustained attention, mental flexibility, and inhibition by altering the basic differentiation process of the neurons, encoding proteins, and synaptic transmission (2).

[106] Tartaglia, Nicole; Davis, Shanlee; Hench, Alison; Nimishakavi, Sheela; Beauregard, Renee; Reynolds, Ann; Fenton, Laura; Albrecht, Lindsey; Ross, Judith; Visootsak, Jeannie; Hansen, Robin; Hagerman, Randi (15 June 2008). "A new look at XXYY syndrome: medical and psychological features". American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part A. 146A (12): 1509–1522. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.32366. ISSN 1552-4833. PMC 3056496. PMID 18481271. Behavioral and psychiatric symptoms including hyperactivity, attention problems, impulsivity, aggression, mood instability, and "autistic-like" behaviors have also been described [Schlegel et al., 1965; Sorensen et al., 1978; Fryns et al., 1995; Hagerman, 1999].

[107] Sekhon, Sandeep; Gupta, Vikas (2023), "Mood Disorder", StatPearls, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, PMID 32644337, retrieved 13 August 2023, Neurotransmitters that play an important function in mood disorders are serotonin and...." & "Stressful life changes (death of significant other, parents, siblings, etc.) traumatic events and childhood abuse have been found to be major risk factors for the development of mood disorder later on in life....

[108] Peterson, Christopher; Park, Nansook; Seligman, Martin E. P. (2006). "Greater strengths of character and recovery from illness". The Journal of Positive Psychology. 1 (1): 17–26. doi:10.1080/17439760500372739. ISSN 1743-9760. A retrospective web-based study of 2087 adults found small but reliable associations between a history of physical illness and the character strengths of appreciation of beauty, bravery, curiosity, fairness, forgiveness, gratitude, humor, kindness, love of learning, and spirituality.

[109] Xie, Huiting (2013). "Strengths-based approach for mental health recovery". Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences. 7 (2): 5–10. ISSN 1735-8639. PMC 3939995. PMID 24644504. Findings from the literature have shown that individuals' strengths are related to mental health improvement. These strengths can bring about positive outcomes in various aspects of life as satisfaction, functional status or health status, and have the potential to aid mental health recovery.

[110] Crowe, Marie (2017). "Recovery and mood disorders". Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing. 24 (8): 561–562. doi:10.1111/jpm.12418. Personal recovery involves developing the skills to live well and is a very individual process that the consumer can undertake on their own, with peers and family or through disorder-specific psychotherapies. Personal recovery can be contrasted with clinical and functional recovery and refers to the process of individual psychological adaptation to the disorder rather than the reduction of psychiatric symptoms, relapse prevention and addressing functional impairment (Tse et al., 2014)

[111] Chan, Kevin Ka Shing; Yip, Charles Chiu Hung; Tsui, Jack Ka Chun (27 February 2023). "Self-Compassion Mediates the Impact of Family Support on Clinical and Personal Recovery Among People with Mental Illness". Mindfulness. 14 (3): 720–731. doi:10.1007/s12671-023-02088-6. ISSN 1868-8527. Our findings indicate that people with mental illness who receive greater support from the family are better able to have self-caring attitudes...They may also have more positive experiences and perceptions of recovery and attain greater levels of life satisfaction and enjoyment.

[112] Concerto, Carmen; Rodolico, Alessandro; Mineo, Ludovico; Ciancio, Alessia; Marano, Leonardo; Romano, Carla Benedicta; Scavo, Elisa Vita; Spigarelli, Riccardo; Fusar-Poli, Laura; Furnari, Rosaria; Petralia, Antonino; Signorelli, Maria Salvina (16 June 2023). "Exploring Personal Recovery in Schizophrenia: The Role of Mentalization". Journal of Clinical Medicine. 12 (12): 4090. doi:10.3390/jcm12124090. ISSN 2077-0383. It encompasses various elements, such as spirituality, empowerment, embracing the illness actively, finding hope, restoring a positive identity, creating meaning in life, combating stigma, taking charge of one's own life, and cultivating supportive relationships [4]. PR concerns the individuals' perceived capacity to manage mental illness, their sense of purpose, and their confidence in their ability to lead a fulfilling life, irrespective of the disorder's severity [5]{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)

[113] O’Keeffe, Donal; Sheridan, Ann; Kelly, Aine; Doyle, Roisin; Madigan, Kevin; Lawlor, Elizabeth; Clarke, Mary (18 June 2021). "A qualitative study exploring personal recovery meaning and the potential influence of clinical recovery status on this meaning 20 years after a first episode psychosis". Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology. 57 (3): 473–483. doi:10.1007/s00127-021-02121-w. ISSN 0933-7954. For many, recovery is their preferred term to describe the continuing experience of living with, managing, or overcoming mental health difficulties [5].

[114] Gilbert, Paul (1999). Overcoming Depression. Basic Books. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-465-01508-5.

[115] Goleman, pp. 73-4

[116] Terence Real (1997). I Don't Want to Talk About It. Newleaf. p. 279. ISBN 978-0717127108. ASIN 0717127109.

[117] Elfrey, Mary Kate; Ziegelstein, Roy C. (2009). "The "inactivity trap"". General Hospital Psychiatry. 31 (4): 303–305. doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2009.05.001. ISSN 1873-7714. PMC 2752478. PMID 19555788. It is the unfortunate result of the bidirectional relationship between depression and inactivity: depression leads to a reduced activity level, and depressive symptoms then become more severe. Berlin, et al.

[118] Mazzucchelli, Trevor G.; Kane, Robert T.; Rees, Clare S. (2010). "Behavioral activation interventions for well-being: A meta-analysis". The Journal of Positive Psychology. 5 (2): 105–121. doi:10.1080/17439760903569154. ISSN 1743-9760. PMC 2882847. PMID 20539837. By intentional activity, the authors meant discrete actions or practices that individuals must choose to engage in and that require some effort to enact. This might include adopting new behaviors such as an exercise program, changing one's cognitive attitudes or practices such as practicing forgiveness, or volitional activity such as pursuing personal goals.

[119] Karimpour-Vazifehkhorani, Alireza; Bakhshipour Rudsari, Abbas; Rezvanizadeh, Akram; Kehtary-Harzang, Leila; Hasanzadeh, Kamyar (2020). "Behavioral Activation Therapy on Reward Seeking Behaviors in Depressed People: An Experimental study". Journal of Caring Sciences. 9 (4): 195–202. doi:10.34172/jcs.2020.030. ISSN 2251-9920. PMC 7770387. PMID 33409163. ...therapies such as cognitive behavior therapy (CBT (and BAT that are used as a positive reinforcement sources are not expected to be effective.19..." & "The results of this study showed a significant increase in reward seeking and response to reward and a significant decrease in BIS and depression symptoms in depressed people. Also, the results of this study showed that BAT is effective in improving the rewards seeking behaviors in depressed people since this treatment will increase the positive reinforcement and the gaining reward from the patient.

[120] Vidal-Ribas, Pablo; Brotman, Melissa A.; Valdivieso, Isabel; Leibenluft, Ellen; Stringaris, Argyris (2016). "The Status of Irritability in Psychiatry: A Conceptual and Quantitative Review". Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 55 (7): 556–570. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2016.04.014. ISSN 1527-5418. PMC 4927461. PMID 27343883. Irritability describes proneness to anger... Irritability is a mood in the sense that young people can remain in states of proneness to anger for very long times and sometimes for no apparent reason, as discussed below... irritability shares a negative valence with anxiety and depression but denotes approach and is therefore linked to elation in mania.

[121] Elices, Matilde; Soler, Joaquim; Feliu-Soler, Albert; Carmona, Cristina; Tiana, Thais; Pascual, Juan C.; García-Palacios, Azucena; Álvarez, Enric (2017). "Combining emotion regulation and mindfulness skills for preventing depression relapse: a randomized-controlled study". Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation. 4: 13. doi:10.1186/s40479-017-0064-6. ISSN 2051-6673. PMC 5497384. PMID 28690851. The first session provided an overview of the training goals and an explanation of the differences between the three states of mind (i.e., emotional mind, rational mind and wise mind)...In DBT, ER skills training is oriented to encouraging behavioral activation (BA) by training patients in "opposite action" (OA) to depressive symptoms.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)

[122] Frazier, Savannah N.; Vela, Jamie (2014). "Dialectical behavior therapy for the treatment of anger and aggressive behavior: A review". Aggression and Violent Behavior. 19 (2): 156–163. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2014.02.001. ISSN 1359-1789. DBT was designed to treat emotional dysregulation (i.e., mood disturbance, affective liability, uncontrolled anger) and the behavioral difficulties..." & "Research has shown that there are potentially clinically significant results when using DBT to treat anger and aggression in various samples. Findings from this review suggest that treatments, even when modified show a positive impact on the reduction of anger and aggressive behaviors.

[123] Jones, Brett D. M.; Umer, Madeha; Kittur, Mary E.; Finkelstein, Ofer; Xue, Siqi; Dimick, Mikaela K.; Ortiz, Abigail; Goldstein, Benjamin I.; Mulsant, Benoit H.; Husain, Muhammad I. (5 February 2023). "A systematic review on the effectiveness of dialectical behavior therapy for improving mood symptoms in bipolar disorders". International Journal of Bipolar Disorders. 11 (1). doi:10.1186/s40345-023-00288-6. ISSN 2194-7511. While they also experienced more improvement in depressive symptoms and in their ability to control emotional states, the difference between the two groups did not reach statistical significance.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)

[124] Renna, Megan E.; Fresco, David M.; Mennin, Douglas S. (2020). "Emotion Regulation Therapy and Its Potential Role in the Treatment of Chronic Stress-Related Pathology Across Disorders". Chronic Stress (Thousand Oaks, Calif.). 4: 2470547020905787. doi:10.1177/2470547020905787. ISSN 2470-5470. PMC 7219947. PMID 32440604. ...first phase of treatment focusing on increasing momentary clarity of motivational responses during emotional episodes and the cultivation of mindful emotion regulation skills with the goal of promoting counteractive responding to intense emotional experiences. Skills are presented in a specific order focusing on less cognitively elaborative skills (e.g., attention regulation skills) followed by more cognitively elaborative skills (e.g., metacognitive regulation skills).

[125] Frank, Ellen; Swartz, Holly A; Kupfer, David J (15 September 2000). "Interpersonal and social rhythm therapy: managing the chaos of bipolar disorder". Biological Psychiatry. 48 (6): 593–604. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(00)00969-0. ISSN 0006-3223. Interpersonal and social rhythm therapy is a manual-based psychotherapy (E. Frank et al, unpublished data, 1999) focusing on 1) the link between mood and life events, 2) the importance of maintaining regular daily rhythms as elucidated by the SRM, 3) the identification and management of potential precipitants of rhythm dysregulation with special attention to interpersonal triggers, 4).

[126] Boland, Elaine M.; Bender, Rachel E.; Alloy, Lauren B.; Conner, Bradley T.; Labelle, Denise R.; Abramson, Lyn Y. (2012). "Life events and social rhythms in bipolar spectrum disorders: an examination of social rhythm sensitivity". Journal of Affective Disorders. 139 (3): 264–272. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2012.01.038. ISSN 1573-2517. PMC 3368102. PMID 22381951. Shen, Alloy, Abramson, and Sylvia provided further evidence of social rhythm irregularities in bipolar spectrum disorder (2008). In a sample of 414 undergraduates, those diagnosed with either cyclothymia or bipolar II disorder reported significantly fewer regular activities than normal controls.

[127] Bullock, Ben; Judd, Fiona; Murray, Greg (2011). "Social rhythms and vulnerability to bipolar disorder". Journal of Affective Disorders. 135 (1–3): 384–388. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.06.006. ISSN 0165-0327. As well as being strongly associated with the clinical manifestation of BD, reduced social rhythmicity has also been demonstrated in some populations with increased risk for BD.

[128] Murray, Greg; Gottlieb, John; Swartz, Holly A. (2021). "Maintaining Daily Routines to Stabilize Mood: Theory, Data, and Potential Intervention for Circadian Consequences of COVID-19". Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne De Psychiatrie. 66 (1): 9–13. doi:10.1177/0706743720957825. ISSN 1497-0015. PMC 7890582. PMID 32909832. More than 30 years ago, it was observed that major life events associated with mood disorder (divorce, loss of job, life transitions) are not just psychologically challenging but also cause significant change to daily routines.10 Unemployment, for example, may be associated not just with challenges to self-esteem but also with less regular bed-, wake- and mealtimes. This instability of daily routines, in turn, may have circadian impact through weakened zeitgeber information.

[129] Bai, Zhenggang; Luo, Shiga; Zhang, Luyao; Wu, Sijie; Chi, Iris (2020). "Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) to reduce depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Journal of Affective Disorders. 260: 728–737. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2019.09.040. ISSN 0165-0327. ...To foster psychological flexibility, according to Grégoire et al. (2017), ACT relies on six interrelated and overlapping processes: acceptance (i.e., willingness to open fully to unwanted experiences such as difficult thoughts, memories, or emotions), contact with the present moment (i.e., being mindful and aware of one's experiences), self as context (i.e., maintaining perspective about oneself within one's experiences), cognitive defusion (i.e., being able to step back from unwanted experiences without getting stuck in them), committed action (i.e., engaging in actions that move toward important aspects of life), and values (i.e., staying connected to personal values or areas of life that are important).

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-{{short description|Extreme or rapid change in mood}}
 {{Redirect|Mood swings|other uses of Mood swing or Mood swings|Mood swing (disambiguation)}}
 {{Redirect|Mood changes|the album|Mood Changes (album){{!}}''Mood Changes'' (album)}}
@@ Line 66: / Line 66: @@
 * [[Epilepsy]] : Epilepsy is an abnormal brain activity disease marked with seizures. [[Seizure]]s occur because hypersynchronous and [[Overexcitability|hyperexcitability]] of neurons, in other words, too much neural activity and excitability at the same time.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Pradip Chauhan |first1=Mbbs |last2=Shalom Elsy Philip |first2=Mbbs |last3=Girish Chauhan |first3=M. D. S. |last4=Simmi Mehra |first4=Mbbs |date=2022-04-02 |title=The Anatomical Basis of Seizures |url=https://exonpublications.com/index.php/exon/article/view/epilepsy-anatomical-basis/899 |journal=Exon Publications |language=en |pages=15–23 |doi=10.36255/exon-publications-epilepsy-anatomical-basis |pmid=35605083 |isbn=9780645332049 |quote="Hyperexcitability of neurons and hypersynchrony of neural networks are the hallmarks of seizures." & "Seizures have been known to cause abnormal neurogenesis in the hippocampus and form faulty circuits that disrupt its function (11)."}}</ref> Mood swings commonly appear before, during, after a seizure and during treatment.<ref>{{Citation |last=Heilman |first=Kenneth M. |title=Emotion and mood disorders associated with epilepsy |date=2021 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-822290-4.00008-6 |series=Handbook of Clinical Neurology |volume=183 |pages=169–173 |access-date=2023-07-28 |publisher=Elsevier |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-822290-4.00008-6 |pmid=34389116 |isbn=978-0-12-822290-4|s2cid=237009046 }}."''Epilepsy is a disorder characterized by recurrent seizures. Epilepsy can alter mood and emotions. Treatments for epilepsy can also alter mood and emotions."''</ref> Studies found that seizures contribute to decreased function of emotions and mood processing as a consequence of abnormal [[neurogenesis]] and damaged neuron connections in the [[hippocampus]] and [[amygdala]].<ref name=":3" /> Experiencing a seizure can cause mood swings caused by [[Depression (mood)|depression]], [[Anxiety disorder|anxiety]], or worry about life being threatened. Another source of mood change comes from [[Anticonvulsant|anticonvulsant drugs]] for epilepsy, like [[phenobarbital]] for increasing brain inhibitors or antiglutamatergic for decreasing brain activity which generates depression, [[Cognitive disorder|cognitive dysfunction]], [[sedation]] or [[Emotional lability|mood lability]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Salpekar |first=Jay |date=2016 |title=Mood Disorders in Epilepsy |journal=FOCUS |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=465–472 |doi=10.1176/appi.focus.20160017 |issn=1541-4094 |pmc=6519597 |pmid=31975826 |quote=Mood disorder may represent the most common, and likely the most worrisome, psychiatric manifestation associated with epilepsy. Depression is frequently associated, although anxiety and bipolar disorder may also co-occur with epilepsy}}</ref>
 * [[Hypothyroidism]] or [[hyperthyroidism]] : Hypo- and hyperthyroidism is an [[endocrine disease]] caused by low or excessive production of [[Thyroid hormones|thyroid hormone]]. Abnormal thyroid hormone can affect mood,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hage |first1=Mirella P. |last2=Azar |first2=Sami T. |date=2011-12-14 |title=The Link between Thyroid Function and Depression |journal=Journal of Thyroid Research |language=en |volume=2012 |pages=e590648 |doi=10.1155/2012/590648 |issn=2090-8067 |pmc=3246784 |pmid=22220285 |quote=Today, it is well recognized that disturbances in thyroid function may significantly affect mental status including emotion and cognition. Both excess and insufficient thyroid hormones can cause mood abnormalities including depression... |doi-access=free }}</ref> although the correlation between thyroid hormone and mood disorder is still not known.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kuś |first1=Aleksander |last2=Kjaergaard |first2=Alisa D. |last3=Marouli |first3=Eirini |last4=Del Greco M. |first4=Fabiola |last5=Sterenborg |first5=Rosalie B.T.M. |last6=Chaker |first6=Layal |last7=Peeters |first7=Robin P. |last8=Bednarczuk |first8=Tomasz |last9=Åsvold |first9=Bjørn O. |last10=Burgess |first10=Stephen |last11=Deloukas |first11=Panos |last12=Teumer |first12=Alexander |last13=Ellervik |first13=Christina |last14=Medici |first14=Marco |date=2021 |title=Thyroid Function and Mood Disorders: A Mendelian Randomization Study |journal=Thyroid |volume=31 |issue=8 |pages=1171–1181 |doi=10.1089/thy.2020.0884 |issn=1050-7256 |pmc=7612998 |pmid=33899528 |quote=Variations in normal-range TSH and FT4 levels have no effects on the risk of MDD and its subtypes, and neither on minor depressive symptoms. This indicates that depressive symptoms should not be attributed to minor variations in thyroid function}}</ref>
-* [[Intermittent explosive disorder]] : Intermittent explosive disorder is frequent rage that occurs spontaneous, uncontrolled, unproportioned and not persistent.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Coccaro |first=Emil F. |date=2018 |title=DSM-5 intermittent explosive disorder: Relationship with Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2018.04.011 |journal=Comprehensive Psychiatry |volume=84 |pages=118–121 |doi=10.1016/j.comppsych.2018.04.011 |pmid=29753187 |s2cid=21679528 |issn=0010-440X |quote=These data indicate that inter-outburst anger in those with IED is relatively brief and that such individuals do not generally display the kind of persistent anger that is a diagnostic feature of DMDD.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Scott |first1=K. M. |last2=de Vries |first2=Y. A. |last3=Aguilar-Gaxiola |first3=S. |last4=Al-Hamzawi |first4=A. |last5=Alonso |first5=J. |last6=Bromet |first6=E. J. |last7=Bunting |first7=B. |last8=Caldas-de-Almeida |first8=J. M. |last9=Cía |first9=A. |last10=Florescu |first10=S. |last11=Gureje |first11=O. |last12=Hu |first12=C.-Y. |last13=Karam |first13=E. G. |last14=Karam |first14=A. |last15=Kawakami |first15=N. |date=2020-06-23 |title=Intermittent explosive disorder subtypes in the general population: association with comorbidity, impairment and suicidality |journal=Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences |volume=29 |pages=e138 |doi=10.1017/S2045796020000517 |issn=2045-7979 |pmc=7327434 |pmid=32638683 |quote="A prominent bimodal conceptualisation of aggression classifies it as either: (i) spontaneous (referred to as reactive or impulsive aggression), or (ii) planned (referred to as proactive, premediated or instrumental aggression) (Babcock et al., 2014; Wrangham, 2018)."   &   "...DSM-5 is the occurrence of repeated episodes of impulsive aggression resulting in verbal or physical assaults or property destruction."   &   "DSM-IV criterion B for IED requires that the aggressiveness is ‘grossly out of proportion to any precipitating psychosocial stressor’."}}</ref> This short duration of alternate mood occurs in the form of aggression verbally or physically towards people or property, sometimes followed by regret, shame and guilt after an act which might generate depression symptoms.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tilghman-Osborne |first1=Carlos |last2=Cole |first2=David A. |last3=Felton |first3=Julia W. |last4=Ciesla |first4=Jeffrey A. |date=October 2008 |title=Relation of Guilt, Shame, Behavioral and Characterological Self-Blame to Depressive Symptoms in Adolescents Over Time |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2008.27.8.809 |journal=Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology |volume=27 |issue=8 |pages=809–842 |doi=10.1521/jscp.2008.27.8.809 |pmid=25419043 |pmc=4238306 |issn=0736-7236 |quote=Results suggest that shame and CSB converge into a common construct, significantly related to depressive symptoms and cognitions. Convergence of guilt and BSB, however, was limited to particular pairs of measures.}}</ref> [[Impulsivity|Impulsive behavior]] in IED can be associated with hyperactivity in regions for regulating and emotional expression, such as the [[amygdala]], [[Insular cortex|insula]], and [[Orbitofrontal cortex|orbitofrontal area]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seok |first1=Ji-Woo |last2=Cheong |first2=Chaejoon |date=2020-05-20 |title=Gray Matter Deficits and Dysfunction in the Insula Among Individuals With Intermittent Explosive Disorder |journal=Frontiers in Psychiatry |volume=11 |page=439 |doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00439 |pmid=32508687 |pmc=7251158 |issn=1664-0640 |quote=We found hyperreactivity in brain regions involved in both, emotional expression, and regulation. |doi-access=free }}</ref>
+* [[Intermittent explosive disorder]] : Intermittent explosive disorder is frequent rage that occurs spontaneous, uncontrolled, unproportioned and not persistent.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Coccaro |first=Emil F. |date=2018 |title=DSM-5 intermittent explosive disorder: Relationship with Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2018.04.011 |journal=Comprehensive Psychiatry |volume=84 |pages=118–121 |doi=10.1016/j.comppsych.2018.04.011 |pmid=29753187 |s2cid=21679528 |issn=0010-440X |quote=These data indicate that inter-outburst anger in those with IED is relatively brief and that such individuals do not generally display the kind of persistent anger that is a diagnostic feature of DMDD.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Scott |first1=K. M. |last2=de Vries |first2=Y. A. |last3=Aguilar-Gaxiola |first3=S. |last4=Al-Hamzawi |first4=A. |last5=Alonso |first5=J. |last6=Bromet |first6=E. J. |last7=Bunting |first7=B. |last8=Caldas-de-Almeida |first8=J. M. |last9=Cía |first9=A. |last10=Florescu |first10=S. |last11=Gureje |first11=O. |last12=Hu |first12=C.-Y. |last13=Karam |first13=E. G. |last14=Karam |first14=A. |last15=Kawakami |first15=N. |date=2020-06-23 |title=Intermittent explosive disorder subtypes in the general population: association with comorbidity, impairment and suicidality |journal=Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences |volume=29 |pages=e138 |doi=10.1017/S2045796020000517 |issn=2045-7979 |pmc=7327434 |pmid=32638683 |quote="A prominent bimodal conceptualisation of aggression classifies it as either: (i) spontaneous (referred to as reactive or impulsive aggression), or (ii) planned (referred to as proactive, premediated or instrumental aggression) (Babcock et al., 2014; Wrangham, 2018)."   &   "...DSM-5 is the occurrence of repeated episodes of impulsive aggression resulting in verbal or physical assaults or property destruction."   &   "DSM-IV criterion B for IED requires that the aggressiveness is ‘grossly out of proportion to any precipitating psychosocial stressor’."}}</ref> This short duration of alternate mood occurs in the form of aggression verbally or physically towards people or property, sometimes followed by regret, shame and guilt after an act which might generate depression symptoms.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tilghman-Osborne |first1=Carlos |last2=Cole |first2=David A. |last3=Felton |first3=Julia W. |last4=Ciesla |first4=Jeffrey A. |date=October 2008 |title=Relation of Guilt, Shame, Behavioral and Characterological Self-Blame to Depressive Symptoms in Adolescents Over Time |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2008.27.8.809 |journal=Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology |volume=27 |issue=8 |pages=809–842 |doi=10.1521/jscp.2008.27.8.809 |pmid=25419043 |pmc=4238306 |issn=0736-7236 |quote=Results suggest that shame and CSB converge into a common construct, significantly related to depressive symptoms and cognitions. Convergence of guilt and BSB, however, was limited to particular pairs of measures.}}</ref> [[Impulsivity|Impulsive behavior]] in IED can be associated with hyperactivity in brain regions for regulating and emotional expression, such as the [[amygdala]], [[Insular cortex|insula]], and [[Orbitofrontal cortex|orbitofrontal area]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Seok |first1=Ji-Woo |last2=Cheong |first2=Chaejoon |date=2020-05-20 |title=Gray Matter Deficits and Dysfunction in the Insula Among Individuals With Intermittent Explosive Disorder |journal=Frontiers in Psychiatry |volume=11 |page=439 |doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00439 |pmid=32508687 |pmc=7251158 |issn=1664-0640 |quote=We found hyperreactivity in brain regions involved in both, emotional expression, and regulation. |doi-access=free }}</ref>
 * [[Menopause]]:<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sengupta |first=A. |date=January 2003 |title=The emergence of the menopause in India |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/cmt.6.2.92.95 |journal=Climacteric |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=92–95 |doi=10.1080/cmt.6.2.92.95 |issn=1369-7137 |pmid=12841878 |s2cid=22273563}}</ref> Menopause in women commonly happens at age 52. One factor that causes mood disturbance is fluctuation of milieu hormones<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Freeman |first1=Ellen W. |last2=Sammel |first2=Mary D. |last3=Lin |first3=Hui |last4=Nelson |first4=Deborah B. |date=2006-04-01 |title=Associations of Hormones and Menopausal Status With Depressed Mood in Women With No History of Depression |url=http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?doi=10.1001/archpsyc.63.4.375 |journal=Archives of General Psychiatry |language=en |volume=63 |issue=4 |pages=375–382 |doi=10.1001/archpsyc.63.4.375 |pmid=16585466 |issn=0003-990X |quote=Transition to menopause and its changing hormonal milieu are strongly associated with new onset of depressed mood among women with no history of depression.}}</ref> including sex steroids, growth hormones, stress hormones, etc.<ref>Hankinson, S. E., & Tworoger, S. S. (2011). [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22997864/ Assessment of the hormonal milieu]. ''IARC scientific publications'', (163), 199–214."''The hormonal milieu has been hypothesized to play a role in a range of human diseases, and therefore has been a topic of much epidemiologic investigation. Hormones of particular interest include: sex steroids; growth hormones; insulin-like growth factors; stress hormones, such as cortisol; and hormones produced by the adipose tissue, termed adipokines.''"</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gava |first1=Giulia |last2=Orsili |first2=Isabella |last3=Alvisi |first3=Stefania |last4=Mancini |first4=Ilaria |last5=Seracchioli |first5=Renato |last6=Meriggiola |first6=Maria Cristina |date=2019-10-01 |title=Cognition, Mood and Sleep in Menopausal Transition: The Role of Menopause Hormone Therapy |journal=Medicina (Kaunas, Lithuania) |volume=55 |issue=10 |pages=668 |doi=10.3390/medicina55100668 |issn=1648-9144 |pmc=6843314 |pmid=31581598 |quote=Sex steroids are able to modify several functions including behavior, cognition and memory, sleep, mood, pain and coordination, amongst others. |doi-access=free }}</ref>
 * [[Major depression]] : Major depression is a disorder with symptoms such as feelings of sadness, loss of interest, emptiness<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Zezhi |last2=Ruan |first2=Meihua |last3=Chen |first3=Jun |last4=Fang |first4=Yiru |date=2021-02-13 |title=Major Depressive Disorder: Advances in Neuroscience Research and Translational Applications |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12264-021-00638-3 |journal=Neuroscience Bulletin |volume=37 |issue=6 |pages=863–880 |doi=10.1007/s12264-021-00638-3 |pmid=33582959 |pmc=8192601 |issn=1673-7067 |quote=Major depressive disorder (MDD) also referred to as depression, is one of the most severe and common psychiatric disorders across the world. It is characterized by persistent sadness, loss of interest or pleasure, low energy, worse appetite and sleep, and even suicide, disrupting daily activities and psychosocial functions.}}</ref> and, for some people, mixed with irritability, ''mental overactivity,'' and ''behavioral overactivity''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Benazzi |first=Franco |date=2006-06-30 |title=Various forms of depression |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.31887/dcns.2006.8.2/fbenazzi |journal=Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=151–161 |doi=10.31887/dcns.2006.8.2/fbenazzi |pmid=16889102 |pmc=3181770 |issn=1958-5969 |quote=The most common DSM-IV-TR manic/hypomanic symptoms of mixed depression are irritability, mental overactivity (flight of ideas, racing thoughts, crowded thoughts), and behavioral overactivity (psychomotor agitation, overtalkativeness). Different frequencies of mixed depression have been reported, which may be related to treated versus untreated samples...}}</ref> Development of irritability or anger may result from personality traits like [[Narcissism|narcissistic]] or [[Coping|coping strategies]] to avoid looking sad, worthless, or frustrated.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Busch |first=Fredric N. |date=July 2009 |title=Anger and depression |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1355514600005812/type/journal_article |journal=Advances in Psychiatric Treatment |language=en |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=271–278 |doi=10.1192/apt.bp.107.004937 |issn=1355-5146 |quote=Anger in people with depression often stems from narcissistic vulnerability, a sensitivity to perceived or actual loss or rejection. These angry reactions cause intrapsychic conflicts through the onset of guilt and the fear that angry feelings will disrupt relationships}}</ref>
+* [[Obsessive–compulsive disorder|Obsessive Compulsive Disorder]] : Obsessive compulsive disorder is marked with obsessions and compulsions about something that causes life distress and dysfunction.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Soomro |first=G. Mustafa |date=2012-01-18 |title=Obsessive compulsive disorder |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3285220/ |journal=BMJ clinical evidence |volume=2012 |pages=1004 |issn=1752-8526 |pmc=3285220 |pmid=22305974 |quote=Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) involves obsessions, compulsions, or both, that are not caused by drugs or by a physical disorder, and which cause significant personal distress or social dysfunction.}}</ref> Alteration of mood and feeling discomfort such as shame, guilt or anxiety may occur caused by intrusive thoughts, fear, urge,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bowen |first=Rudy |last2=Rahman |first2=Hiba |last3=Dong |first3=Lisa Yue |last4=Khalaj |first4=Sara |last5=Baetz |first5=Marilyn |last6=Peters |first6=Evyn |last7=Balbuena |first7=Lloyd |date=2018 |title=Suicidality in People With Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms or Personality Traits |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6339952 |journal=Frontiers in Psychiatry |volume=9 |pages=747 |doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00747 |issn=1664-0640 |pmc=6339952 |pmid=30692943 |quote="Recurring thoughts of death and suicide (27) and aggression (28, 29) are common features of OCD. The most prevalent obsession was the fear of harming oneself in the DSM-IV field trials of 431 patients diagnosed with OCD (30, 31)."}}</ref> and fantasy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mason |first=Katherine A. |date=2022 |title=Blenders, Hammers, and Knives: Postpartum Intrusive Thoughts and Unthinkable Motherhood |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9435669 |journal=Anthropology and Humanism |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=117–132 |doi=10.1111/anhu.12379 |issn=1548-1409 |pmc=9435669 |pmid=36061237 |quote=These thoughts can include horrific flashes of violence involving one’s baby and frequently lead to shame and fear on the mother’s part, but rarely result in real-world violence.}}</ref>
-* [[Obsessive–compulsive disorder|Obsessive Compulsive Disorder]] :
 * [[Post traumatic stress disorder]] : Post-traumatic stress disorder is a disorder which is associated with frequently being disturbed by flashback memories and being haunted by feelings of fear and horror in the past. This contributes to the alteration of mood that occurs after a traumatic event happens, such as depression, outbursts of anger, self-destructive behaviors, and feelings of shame.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Mann |first1=Sukhmanjeet Kaur |title=Posttraumatic Stress Disorder |date=2023 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559129/ |work=StatPearls |access-date=2023-08-03 |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=32644555 |last2=Marwaha |first2=Raman}}."''The symptoms of PTSD include persistently re-experiencing the traumatic event, intrusive thoughts, nightmares, flashbacks, dissociation(detachment from oneself or reality), and intense negative emotional (sadness, guilt) and physiological reaction on being exposed to the traumatic reminder." & "Once people develop PTSD, the recurrent unbidden reliving of the trauma in visual images, emotional states, or nightmares produces a constant reexposure to the terror of the trauma" & "Negative alterations in mood and cognition that began or worsened after the traumatic event..."''</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=van der Kolk |first=B. |date=2000 |title=Posttraumatic stress disorder and the nature of trauma |journal=Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=7–22 |doi=10.31887/DCNS.2000.2.1/bvdkolk |issn=1294-8322 |pmc=3181584 |pmid=22034447 |quote=The DSM-TV Field Trial8 demonstrated that it was not the prevalence of PTSD symptoms themselves, but depression, outbursts of anger, self-destructive behaviors, and feelings of shame, self-blame, and distrust that distinguished a treatment-seeking...}}</ref>
 * [[Pregnancy]] : Women commonly experience mood swings during the pregnancy and [[postpartum period|the postpartum period]]. Hormone changes, stress and worry may be the reasons for changes of mood.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Altshuler |first1=Lori L. |last2=Hendrick |first2=Victoria |last3=Cohen |first3=Lee S. |date=2000 |title=An Update on Mood and Anxiety Disorders During Pregnancy and the Postpartum Period |journal=Primary Care Companion to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry |volume=2 |issue=6 |pages=217–222 |doi=10.4088/pcc.v02n0604 |issn=1523-5998 |pmc=181144 |pmid=15014632 |quote=Marital discord, stressful life events, and ambivalence about the pregnancy are risk factors not only for depression during pregnancy but also for postpartum depression}}</ref>
@@ Line 79: / Line 79: @@
 ==Treatment==
+It's part of human nature's mood going up and down caused by various factors.<ref>{{Citation |last=Sekhon |first=Sandeep |title=Mood Disorder |date=2023 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK558911/ |work=StatPearls |access-date=2023-08-13 |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=32644337 |quote="Neurotransmitters that play an important function in mood disorders are serotonin and...." & "Stressful life changes (death of significant other, parents, siblings, etc.) traumatic events and childhood abuse have been found to be major risk factors for the development of mood disorder later on in life...." |last2=Gupta |first2=Vikas}}</ref> Individual strength,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Peterson |first=Christopher |last2=Park |first2=Nansook |last3=Seligman |first3=Martin E. P. |date=2006 |title=Greater strengths of character and recovery from illness |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17439760500372739 |journal=The Journal of Positive Psychology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=17–26 |doi=10.1080/17439760500372739 |issn=1743-9760 |quote=A retrospective web-based study of 2087 adults found small but reliable associations between a history of physical illness and the character strengths of appreciation of beauty, bravery, curiosity, fairness, forgiveness, gratitude, humor, kindness, love of learning, and spirituality.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Xie |first=Huiting |date=2013 |title=Strengths-based approach for mental health recovery |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3939995/ |journal=Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=5–10 |issn=1735-8639 |pmc=3939995 |pmid=24644504 |quote=Findings from the literature have shown that individuals’ strengths are related to mental health improvement. These strengths can bring about positive outcomes in various aspects of life as satisfaction, functional status or health status, and have the potential to aid mental health recovery.}}</ref> coping skill or adaptation ability,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Crowe |first=Marie |date=2017 |title=Recovery and mood disorders |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jpm.12418 |journal=Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=561–562 |doi=10.1111/jpm.12418 |quote=Personal recovery involves developing the skills to live well and is a very individual process that the consumer can undertake on their own, with peers and family or through disorder-specific psychotherapies. Personal recovery can be contrasted with clinical and functional recovery and refers to the process of individual psychological adaptation to the disorder rather than the reduction of psychiatric symptoms, relapse prevention and addressing functional impairment (Tse et al., 2014)}}</ref> social support<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chan |first=Kevin Ka Shing |last2=Yip |first2=Charles Chiu Hung |last3=Tsui |first3=Jack Ka Chun |date=2023-02-27 |title=Self-Compassion Mediates the Impact of Family Support on Clinical and Personal Recovery Among People with Mental Illness |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12671-023-02088-6 |journal=Mindfulness |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=720–731 |doi=10.1007/s12671-023-02088-6 |issn=1868-8527 |quote=Our findings indicate that people with mental illness who receive greater support from the family are better able to have self-caring attitudes...They may also have more positive experiences and perceptions of recovery and attain greater levels of life satisfaction and enjoyment.}}</ref> or another [[recovery model]] might determine whether mood swings will create disruption in life or not.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Concerto |first=Carmen |last2=Rodolico |first2=Alessandro |last3=Mineo |first3=Ludovico |last4=Ciancio |first4=Alessia |last5=Marano |first5=Leonardo |last6=Romano |first6=Carla Benedicta |last7=Scavo |first7=Elisa Vita |last8=Spigarelli |first8=Riccardo |last9=Fusar-Poli |first9=Laura |last10=Furnari |first10=Rosaria |last11=Petralia |first11=Antonino |last12=Signorelli |first12=Maria Salvina |date=2023-06-16 |title=Exploring Personal Recovery in Schizophrenia: The Role of Mentalization |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jcm12124090 |journal=Journal of Clinical Medicine |volume=12 |issue=12 |pages=4090 |doi=10.3390/jcm12124090 |issn=2077-0383 |quote=It encompasses various elements, such as spirituality, empowerment, embracing the illness actively, finding hope, restoring a positive identity, creating meaning in life, combating stigma, taking charge of one’s own life, and cultivating supportive relationships [4]. PR concerns the individuals’ perceived capacity to manage mental illness, their sense of purpose, and their confidence in their ability to lead a fulfilling life, irrespective of the disorder’s severity [5]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=O’Keeffe |first=Donal |last2=Sheridan |first2=Ann |last3=Kelly |first3=Aine |last4=Doyle |first4=Roisin |last5=Madigan |first5=Kevin |last6=Lawlor |first6=Elizabeth |last7=Clarke |first7=Mary |date=2021-06-18 |title=A qualitative study exploring personal recovery meaning and the potential influence of clinical recovery status on this meaning 20 years after a first episode psychosis |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00127-021-02121-w |journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=473–483 |doi=10.1007/s00127-021-02121-w |issn=0933-7954 |quote=For many, recovery is their preferred term to describe the continuing experience of living with, managing, or overcoming mental health difficulties [5].}}</ref>
-[[Cognitive behavioral therapy]] recommends using ''emotional dampeners'' to break the self-reinforcing tendencies of either manic or depressive mood swings.<ref>{{Cite book | isbn = 978-0-465-01508-5 | title = Overcoming Depression | last1 = Gilbert | first1 = Paul | year = 1999 | page = 63  | publisher = Basic Books }}</ref>
-Exercise, treats, seeking out small (and easily attainable) triumphs, and using vicarious distractions like reading or watching TV, are among the techniques found to be regularly used by people in breaking depressive swings.<ref>Goleman, pp. 73-4</ref>
+[[Cognitive behavioral therapy|'''Cognitive behavioral therapy''']] recommends using ''emotional dampeners'' to break the self-reinforcing tendencies of either manic or depressive mood swings.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gilbert |first1=Paul |title=Overcoming Depression |publisher=Basic Books |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-465-01508-5 |page=63 }}</ref> Exercise, treats, seeking out small (and easily attainable) triumphs, and using vicarious distractions like reading or watching TV, are among the techniques found to be regularly used by people in breaking depressive swings.<ref>Goleman, pp. 73-4</ref>
+Learning to bring oneself ''down'' from [[Grandiosity|grandiose]] states of mind, or ''up'' from exaggerated shame states, is part of taking a proactive approach to managing one's own moods and varying sense of self-esteem.<ref>{{cite book |author=Terence Real |title=I Don't Want to Talk About It |date=1997 |publisher=Newleaf |isbn=978-0717127108 |page=279 |id={{ASIN|0717127109|country=uk}}}}</ref>
+[[Behavioral activation|'''Behavioral activation''']] is a component of CBT that can break the cycle (depression leads to inactivity, inactivity leads to depression).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Elfrey |first=Mary Kate |last2=Ziegelstein |first2=Roy C. |date=2009 |title=The "inactivity trap" |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2752478/ |journal=General Hospital Psychiatry |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=303–305 |doi=10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2009.05.001 |issn=1873-7714 |pmc=2752478 |pmid=19555788 |quote=It is the unfortunate result of the bidirectional relationship between depression and inactivity: depression leads to a reduced activity level, and depressive symptoms then become more severe. Berlin, et al.}}</ref> This may rely on individual strengths to "cold start" the reward system.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mazzucchelli |first=Trevor G. |last2=Kane |first2=Robert T. |last3=Rees |first3=Clare S. |date=2010 |title=Behavioral activation interventions for well-being: A meta-analysis |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2882847 |journal=The Journal of Positive Psychology |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=105–121 |doi=10.1080/17439760903569154 |issn=1743-9760 |pmc=2882847 |pmid=20539837 |quote=By intentional activity, the authors meant discrete actions or practices that individuals must choose to engage in and that require some effort to enact. This might include adopting new behaviors such as an exercise program, changing one's cognitive attitudes or practices such as practicing forgiveness, or volitional activity such as pursuing personal goals.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Karimpour-Vazifehkhorani |first=Alireza |last2=Bakhshipour Rudsari |first2=Abbas |last3=Rezvanizadeh |first3=Akram |last4=Kehtary-Harzang |first4=Leila |last5=Hasanzadeh |first5=Kamyar |date=2020 |title=Behavioral Activation Therapy on Reward Seeking Behaviors in Depressed People: An Experimental study |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7770387/ |journal=Journal of Caring Sciences |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=195–202 |doi=10.34172/jcs.2020.030 |issn=2251-9920 |pmc=7770387 |pmid=33409163 |quote="...therapies such as cognitive behavior therapy (CBT (and BAT that are used as a positive reinforcement sources are not expected to be effective.19..." & "The results of this study showed a significant increase in reward seeking and response to reward and a significant decrease in BIS and depression symptoms in depressed people. Also, the results of this study showed that BAT is effective in improving the rewards seeking behaviors in depressed people since this treatment will increase the positive reinforcement and the gaining reward from the patient."}}</ref>
+'''[[Dialectical behavior therapy|Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT)]] ''': Another manifestation of mood swing is irritability, which can lead to elation, anger or aggression.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vidal-Ribas |first=Pablo |last2=Brotman |first2=Melissa A. |last3=Valdivieso |first3=Isabel |last4=Leibenluft |first4=Ellen |last5=Stringaris |first5=Argyris |date=2016 |title=The Status of Irritability in Psychiatry: A Conceptual and Quantitative Review |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4927461/ |journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry |volume=55 |issue=7 |pages=556–570 |doi=10.1016/j.jaac.2016.04.014 |issn=1527-5418 |pmc=4927461 |pmid=27343883 |quote=Irritability describes proneness to anger... Irritability is a mood in the sense that young people can remain in states of proneness to anger for very long times and sometimes for no apparent reason, as discussed below... irritability shares a negative valence with anxiety and depression but denotes approach and is therefore linked to elation in mania.}}</ref> DBT has a lot of coping skills that can be used for emotion dysregulation, such as mindfulness with the "wise mind"<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Elices |first=Matilde |last2=Soler |first2=Joaquim |last3=Feliu-Soler |first3=Albert |last4=Carmona |first4=Cristina |last5=Tiana |first5=Thais |last6=Pascual |first6=Juan C. |last7=García-Palacios |first7=Azucena |last8=Álvarez |first8=Enric |date=2017 |title=Combining emotion regulation and mindfulness skills for preventing depression relapse: a randomized-controlled study |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5497384 |journal=Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation |volume=4 |pages=13 |doi=10.1186/s40479-017-0064-6 |issn=2051-6673 |pmc=5497384 |pmid=28690851 |quote=The first session provided an overview of the training goals and an explanation of the differences between the three states of mind (i.e., emotional mind, rational mind and wise mind)...In DBT, ER skills training is oriented to encouraging behavioral activation (BA) by training patients in “opposite action” (OA) to depressive symptoms.}}</ref> or emotion regulation with opposite action.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Frazier |first=Savannah N. |last2=Vela |first2=Jamie |date=2014 |title=Dialectical behavior therapy for the treatment of anger and aggressive behavior: A review |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2014.02.001 |journal=Aggression and Violent Behavior |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=156–163 |doi=10.1016/j.avb.2014.02.001 |issn=1359-1789 |quote="DBT was designed to treat emotional dysregulation (i.e., mood disturbance, affective liability, uncontrolled anger) and the behavioral difficulties..." & "Research has shown that there are potentially clinically significant results when using DBT to treat anger and aggression in various samples. Findings from this review suggest that treatments, even when modified show a positive impact on the reduction of anger and aggressive behaviors."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jones |first=Brett D. M. |last2=Umer |first2=Madeha |last3=Kittur |first3=Mary E. |last4=Finkelstein |first4=Ofer |last5=Xue |first5=Siqi |last6=Dimick |first6=Mikaela K. |last7=Ortiz |first7=Abigail |last8=Goldstein |first8=Benjamin I. |last9=Mulsant |first9=Benoit H. |last10=Husain |first10=Muhammad I. |date=2023-02-05 |title=A systematic review on the effectiveness of dialectical behavior therapy for improving mood symptoms in bipolar disorders |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40345-023-00288-6 |journal=International Journal of Bipolar Disorders |volume=11 |issue=1 |doi=10.1186/s40345-023-00288-6 |issn=2194-7511 |quote=While they also experienced more improvement in depressive symptoms and in their ability to control emotional states, the difference between the two groups did not reach statistical significance.}}</ref>
+'''Emotion regulation therapy (ERT)''' has a package of mindful emotion regulation skills (e.g., attention regulation skills, metacognitive regulation skills, etc.) that can be handy to have when mood swings happen.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Renna |first=Megan E. |last2=Fresco |first2=David M. |last3=Mennin |first3=Douglas S. |date=2020 |title=Emotion Regulation Therapy and Its Potential Role in the Treatment of Chronic Stress-Related Pathology Across Disorders |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32440604 |journal=Chronic Stress (Thousand Oaks, Calif.) |volume=4 |pages=2470547020905787 |doi=10.1177/2470547020905787 |issn=2470-5470 |pmc=7219947 |pmid=32440604 |quote=...first phase of treatment focusing on increasing momentary clarity of motivational responses during emotional episodes and the cultivation of mindful emotion regulation skills with the goal of promoting counteractive responding to intense emotional experiences. Skills are presented in a specific order focusing on less cognitively elaborative skills (e.g., attention regulation skills) followed by more cognitively elaborative skills (e.g., metacognitive regulation skills).}}</ref>
+[[Interpersonal and social rhythm therapy|'''Interpersonal and social rhythm therapy''']] can be used to regulate life rhythm when mood swings happen frequently and disrupt the rhythm of life.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Frank |first=Ellen |last2=Swartz |first2=Holly A |last3=Kupfer |first3=David J |date=2000-09-15 |title=Interpersonal and social rhythm therapy: managing the chaos of bipolar disorder |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006322300009690 |journal=Biological Psychiatry |volume=48 |issue=6 |pages=593–604 |doi=10.1016/S0006-3223(00)00969-0 |issn=0006-3223 |quote=Interpersonal and social rhythm therapy is a manual-based psychotherapy (E. Frank et al, unpublished data, 1999) focusing on 1) the link between mood and life events, 2) the importance of maintaining regular daily rhythms as elucidated by the SRM, 3) the identification and management of potential precipitants of rhythm dysregulation with special attention to interpersonal triggers, 4).}}</ref> Episodes of mood disorder often liberate people from daily routines by making a mess of sleep schedules, social interaction,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boland |first=Elaine M. |last2=Bender |first2=Rachel E. |last3=Alloy |first3=Lauren B. |last4=Conner |first4=Bradley T. |last5=Labelle |first5=Denise R. |last6=Abramson |first6=Lyn Y. |date=2012 |title=Life events and social rhythms in bipolar spectrum disorders: an examination of social rhythm sensitivity |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22381951 |journal=Journal of Affective Disorders |volume=139 |issue=3 |pages=264–272 |doi=10.1016/j.jad.2012.01.038 |issn=1573-2517 |pmc=3368102 |pmid=22381951 |quote=Shen, Alloy, Abramson, and Sylvia provided further evidence of social rhythm irregularities in bipolar spectrum disorder (2008). In a sample of 414 undergraduates, those diagnosed with either cyclothymia or bipolar II disorder reported significantly fewer regular activities than normal controls.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bullock |first=Ben |last2=Judd |first2=Fiona |last3=Murray |first3=Greg |date=2011 |title=Social rhythms and vulnerability to bipolar disorder |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2011.06.006 |journal=Journal of Affective Disorders |volume=135 |issue=1-3 |pages=384–388 |doi=10.1016/j.jad.2011.06.006 |issn=0165-0327 |quote=As well as being strongly associated with the clinical manifestation of BD, reduced social rhythmicity has also been demonstrated in some populations with increased risk for BD.}}</ref> or work and causing irregular [[Circadian rhythm|circadian rhythms]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Murray |first=Greg |last2=Gottlieb |first2=John |last3=Swartz |first3=Holly A. |date=2021 |title=Maintaining Daily Routines to Stabilize Mood: Theory, Data, and Potential Intervention for Circadian Consequences of COVID-19 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32909832 |journal=Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne De Psychiatrie |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=9–13 |doi=10.1177/0706743720957825 |issn=1497-0015 |pmc=7890582 |pmid=32909832 |quote=More than 30 years ago, it was observed that major life events associated with mood disorder (divorce, loss of job, life transitions) are not just psychologically challenging but also cause significant change to daily routines.10 Unemployment, for example, may be associated not just with challenges to self-esteem but also with less regular bed-, wake- and mealtimes. This instability of daily routines, in turn, may have circadian impact through weakened zeitgeber information.}}</ref>
+'''[[Acceptance and commitment therapy|Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT)]]''' has a function to increase [[psychological flexibility]] by learning to assess present experience or be mindful, accept everything internally or externally, commit action to move toward [[Recovery model|personal recovery]], etc.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bai |first=Zhenggang |last2=Luo |first2=Shiga |last3=Zhang |first3=Luyao |last4=Wu |first4=Sijie |last5=Chi |first5=Iris |date=2020 |title=Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) to reduce depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.09.040 |journal=Journal of Affective Disorders |volume=260 |pages=728–737 |doi=10.1016/j.jad.2019.09.040 |issn=0165-0327 |quote=...To foster psychological flexibility, according to Grégoire et al. (2017), ACT relies on six interrelated and overlapping processes: acceptance (i.e., willingness to open fully to unwanted experiences such as difficult thoughts, memories, or emotions), contact with the present moment (i.e., being mindful and aware of one's experiences), self as context (i.e., maintaining perspective about oneself within one's experiences), cognitive defusion (i.e., being able to step back from unwanted experiences without getting stuck in them), committed action (i.e., engaging in actions that move toward important aspects of life), and values (i.e., staying connected to personal values or areas of life that are important).}}</ref>
-Learning to bring oneself ''down'' from [[Grandiosity|grandiose]] states of mind, or ''up'' from exaggerated shame states, is part of taking a proactive approach to managing one's own moods and varying sense of self-esteem.<ref>{{cite book|author=Terence Real|title=I Don't Want to Talk About It|date=1997|publisher=Newleaf|page=279|isbn=978-0717127108|id= {{ASIN|0717127109|country=uk}}}}</ref>
 ==See also==

v t e Borderline personality disorder
General	Dimensional models of personality disorders Impulse-control disorders Trauma model of mental disorders Misdiagnosis of borderline personality disorder
Symptoms and behaviors	Dissociation Eating disorders Emotional dysregulation Feelings of emptiness Hypersexuality Idealization and devaluation Impulsivity Mood swings Projection Self-harm Splitting Suicidal ideation
Management	Dialectical behavior therapy Dynamic deconstructive psychotherapy McLean Hospital Mentalization-based treatment Schema therapy Social psychiatry Transference focused psychotherapy
Family challenges	BPDFamily (support group) Codependency Complex PTSD Emotional blackmail Family estrangement Sibling estrangement Personal boundaries