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== Mushrooms == |
== Mushrooms == |
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{{Main|Mushrooms in art}} |
{{Main|Mushrooms in art}} |
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{{See also|Ethnomycology}} |
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{{Summary style section|date=March 2023}} |
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[[File:Bilibin. Baba Yaga.jpg|thumb|333x333px|Painting of Slavic folktale character [[Baba Yaga]] with mushrooms on the forest floor.{{Relevant?|date=March 2023}}]] |
[[File:Bilibin. Baba Yaga.jpg|thumb|333x333px|Painting of Slavic folktale character [[Baba Yaga]] with mushrooms on the forest floor.{{Relevant?|date=March 2023}}]] |
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[[Mushroom]]s have been represented in art traditions around the world, including in western and non-western works of art in ancient and contemporary times.<ref name="YamPast">{{Citation|last=Yamin-Pasternak|first=Sveta|title=Ethnomycology: Fungi and Mushrooms in Cultural Entanglements|date=2011-07-07|work=Ethnobiology|pages=213–230|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|doi=10.1002/9781118015872.ch13|isbn=978-1-118-01587-2}}</ref> [[Maya civilization|Mayan]] culture created symbolic mushroom stone sculptures which sometimes include faces that depict in a dreamlike or trance-like expression,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lowy|first=B.|date=September 1971|title=New Records of Mushroom Stones from Guatemala|journal=Mycologia|volume=63|issue=5|pages=983–993|doi=10.2307/3757901|jstor=3757901|pmid=5165831|issn=0027-5514}}</ref> which could signify the importance of mushrooms giving hallucinations or trances.{{cn}} Mayan [[Maya codices|codices]] also depict mushrooms.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lowy|first=Bernard|date=July 1972|title=Mushroom Symbolism in Maya Codices|journal=Mycologia|volume=64|issue=4|pages=816–821|doi=10.2307/3757936|jstor=3757936|issn=0027-5514}}</ref> Other examples of mushroom usage in art from various cultures include the Pegtymel petroglyphs of Russia and Japanese [[Netsuke]] figurines.<ref name="YamPast" /></onlyinclude> |
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Contemporary art depictions of mushrooms also exist. such as a contemporary Japanese piece that represents baskets of [[matsutake]] mushrooms laid atop bank notes, thus showing an association of mushrooms and prosperity.<ref name="YamPast" /> Anselm Kiefer's work, ''Über Deutschland'' and Sonja Bäumel's ''Objects'' use images of mushrooms.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Nai|first1=Corrado|last2=Meyer|first2=Vera|date=2016-11-29|title=The beauty and the morbid: fungi as source of inspiration in contemporary art|journal=Fungal Biology and Biotechnology|volume=3|issue=1|page=10|doi=10.1186/s40694-016-0028-4|pmid=28955469|pmc=5611638|issn=2054-3085|doi-access=free}}</ref> Some claim that themes such as [[sustainable living]], and considerations associated with the science of fungi and [[Biotechnology|biotechnologies]] are present in these works.<ref name=":1" /> Some of these contemporary artists create art that is interactive and performative.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rapp|first=Regine|date=December 2019|title=On mycohuman performances: fungi in current artistic research|journal=Fungal Biology and Biotechnology|volume=6|issue=1|page=22|doi=10.1186/s40694-019-0085-6|pmid=31827811|pmc=6892145|issn=2054-3085|doi-access=free}}</ref> |
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Early examples of mushrooms in art include: |
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Mushrooms have also appeared in [[Christianity|Christian]] paintings, for example in the [[panel painting]] by [[Hieronymus Bosch]], ''[[The Haywain Triptych]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lawrence |first=Sandra |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1328029699 |title=The magic of mushrooms : fungi in folklore, superstition and traditional medicine |date=2022 |others=Kew Royal Botanic Gardens |isbn=978-1-78739-906-8 |location=London |oclc=1328029699}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Michelot|first1=Didier|last2=Melendez-Howell|first2=Leda Maria|date=February 2003|title=Amanita muscaria: chemistry, biology, toxicology, and ethnomycology|journal=Mycological Research|volume=107|issue=2|pages=131–146|doi=10.1017/s0953756203007305|pmid=12747324|issn=0953-7562}}</ref> The Registry of Mushrooms in Works of Art is maintained by the [[North American Mycological Association]]. The stated goal of the registry is "to contribute to the understanding of the relationship between mushrooms and people as reflected in works of art from different historical periods, and to provide enjoyment to anyone interested in the subject."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://namyco.org/art_registry.php |title=Registry of Mushrooms in Works of Art: Introduction |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=North American Mycological Association |access-date=2022-04-08 |quote=}}</ref> Started by [[Moselio Schaechter|Elio Schaechter]], author of ''In the Company of Mushrooms'', the project is ongoing.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://namyco.org/contributors.php |title=Registry of Mushrooms in Works of Art: Contributors |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=North American Mycological Association |access-date=2022-04-08 |quote=}}</ref> |
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* Drawings of masked shamans with mushrooms sprouting from their heads ({{Circa|9500 BCE|7000 BCE}}), in [[Algeria]]<ref name=":20" /> |
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* Mushroom stones ({{Circa|1500 BCE}}), in [[Guatemala]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lowy |first=B. |date=1 September 1971 |title=New Records of Mushroom Stones from Guatemala |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00275514.1971.12019194 |journal=Mycologia |volume=63 |issue=5 |pages=983–993 |doi=10.1080/00275514.1971.12019194 |pmid=5165831 |issn=0027-5514}}</ref> |
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* [[Petroglyph]]s of people ({{Circa|0 CE}}) with mushroom-shaped heads from the [[Bronze Age]], near the [[Pegtymel River]] in [[Siberia]].<ref name=":33">{{Cite news |last=Skarbo |first=Svetlana |date=14 September 2021 |title=Whale hunting and magic mushroom people of 2,000-year-old Eurasia's northernmost art gallery |work=The Siberian Times |url=https://siberiantimes.com/other/others/news/whale-hunting-and-magic-mushroom-people-of-2000-year-old-eurasias-northernmost-art-gallery/ |access-date=18 November 2022}}</ref> |
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Contemporary artists are more interested in fungi than ever before.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 May 2019 |title=Mushrooms: The Art, Design and Future of Fungi |url=https://www.somersethouse.org.uk/whats-on/mushrooms-art-design-and-future-fungi |access-date=15 December 2022 |website=Somerset House |language=en}}</ref> |
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Given the mysterious, seasonal, sudden, and at times inexplicable appearance of mushrooms, as well as the hallucinogenic or toxic effects of some species, their depiction in [[Folk art|ethnic]], [[Classicism|classic]] and [[modern art]] (around 1860–1970) is often associated in Western art with the macabre, ambiguous, dangerous, mystic, obscene, disgusting, alien, or curious in paintings, illustrations, and works of fiction and literature.<ref name=":3" /> British author Sir [[Arthur Conan Doyle]] wrote in his novel ''[[Sir Nigel]]'':{{Relevant?|date=March 2023}} |
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: "The fields were spotted with monstrous fungi of a size and color never matched before—scarlet and mauve and liver and black. It was as though the sick earth had burst into foul pustules; mildew and lichen mottled the walls, and with that filthy crop Death sprang also from the water-soaked earth."<ref name=":9" /> |
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In Asian or folk art, mushrooms are generally depicted in a more positive or mystical way than in Western art.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last=Yan |first=Xiaojing |date=20 October 2022 |title=Mythical Mushrooms: Hybrid Perspectives on Transcendental Matters |url=https://doi.org/10.1162/leon_a_02319 |journal=Leonardo |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=367–373 |doi=10.1162/leon_a_02319 |issn=0024-094X |s2cid=253074757}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=Watlington |first=Emily |date=29 December 2021 |title=Mushrooms as Metaphors |url=https://www.artnews.com/art-in-america/features/mushrooms-as-metaphors-urbonas-studio-tj-shin-xiaojing-jan-1234614585/ |access-date=16 November 2022 |website=ARTnews.com |language=en-US}}</ref> |
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=== Graphic arts === |
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[[File:KostrzewskiFranciszek.Grzybobranie.1860.jpg|alt=A group of toads drinking tea sit on mushrooms in the children illustration by Beatrix Potter called 'The Toads'Tea Party' (ca. 1905)|thumb|340x340px|''Mushroom picking'' ({{Circa|1860}}), a painting depicting mushroom hunting by realist Polish artist [[Franciszek Kostrzewski]] (1826–1911).]] |
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Visual artists representing mushrooms have been very prolific throughout history. The Registry of Mushrooms in Works of Art, from the [[North American Mycological Association]], curates an extensive virtual collection of mushrooms in the visual arts.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |title=ART REGISTRY - North American Mycological Association |url=https://namyco.org/art_registry.php |access-date=16 November 2022 |website=namyco.org}}</ref> According to the registry, examples before the 15th century are rare, thus examples abound from European visual arts from 1500 onwards are the focal point. The registry includes periods such as the [[Renaissance art|Renaissance]], the [[Baroque]], [[Flemish painting|Flemish]], and [[Romanticism|Romantic]] periods.<ref name=":14" /> |
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The shaggy ink cap (''[[Coprinus comatus]]'') and the common ink cap ([[Coprinopsis atramentaria|''Coprinus atramentaria'']]) mushrooms produce black ink which is used in drawing, illustration, and calligraphy.<ref name=":19">{{Cite book |last=Sheldrake |first=Merlin |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1127137515 |title=Entangled life: how fungi make our worlds, change our minds & shape our futures |date=May 2020 |isbn=978-0-525-51031-4 |edition= |location=New York |oclc=1127137515}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Making Ink From Shaggy Ink Cap Mushrooms |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cibjfyxXtJM |language=en |access-date=17 December 2022}}</ref> |
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==== Prehistoric art ==== |
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{{See also|Fungi in art#Architecture and sculptures}} |
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{{trim|{{#section-h:Mushrooms_in_art}}}} |
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==== Paintings, tapestries, and illustrations ==== |
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Artists, painters, illustrators, naturalists, and scientists have depicted mushrooms in their artworks for millennia. Edible species, such as Caesar's mushroom (''[[Amanita caesarea]]'') and the King bolete (''[[Boletus edulis]]''), are more commonly depicted than toxic ones. Mushrooms abound in Italian, Flemish, Germanic, and Dutch [[Baroque painting|Baroque]] landscapes and [[still life]]s. Landscape paintings involving mushrooms occasionally depict mushroom or truffle hunting.<ref name=":14" /> |
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Whereas historical British artworks tend to be considered to be influenced by a 'mycophobe' attitude, 19th-century Victorian [[Fairy painting|fairy paintings]] depicting imaginary scenes involving fairies and other fantastic creatures often featured mushrooms. A great number of [[Victorian era|Victorian-era]] illustrators and children-book authors depicted mushrooms in their artworks, including Beatrix Potter, [[Hilda Boswell]], [[Molly Brett]], [[Arthur Rackham]], [[Charles Robinson (illustrator)|Charles Robinson]], and [[Cicely Mary Barker]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Lawrence |first=Sandra |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1328029699 |title=The magic of mushrooms: fungi in folklore, superstition and traditional medicine |date=2022 |others=Kew Royal Botanic Gardens |isbn=978-1-78739-906-8 |location=London |pages=107 |oclc=1328029699}}</ref> |
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[[File:Peziza tuberosa (illust. by Tulasne, 1865).jpg|alt=Painting called ''Peziza tuberosa parasit on Anemone nemorosa'' by Charles Tulasne (1865). The fungus depicted was renamed Dumontinia tuberosa.|thumb|320x320px|Illustration of the fungus ''[[Dumontinia|Dumontinia tuberosa]]'' by physician, mycologist, and illustrator [[Charles Tulasne]] (1816–1884) in the book ''Selecta Fungorum Carpologia'' (1861–65). (Name of the original work: ''Peziza tuberosa'' parasite on ''Anemone nemorosa'')]] |
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Visual artists who depicted mushrooms include: |
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* [[Lewis David de Schweinitz|Lewis David von Schweinitz]] (1780–1834): illustrations of over 1000 fungal species which along with his contribution to mycology earned him the title of "Father of North American Mycology".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lynch |first=Dana M. |date=1996 |title=Paintings of Fungi by Lewis David von Schweinitz in the Archives of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41610055 |journal=Bartonia |issue=59 |pages=125–128 |jstor=41610055 |issn=0198-7356}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Karakehian |first1=Jason M. |last2=Burk |first2=William R. |last3=Pfister |first3=Donald H. |date=June 2018 |title=New light on the mycological work of Lewis David von Schweinitz |journal=IMA Fungus |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=A17–A35 |doi=10.1007/BF03449476 |s2cid=190248487 |issn=2210-6359|doi-access=free }}</ref> |
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* [[Charles Tulasne]] (1816–1884) |
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* [[Mary Elizabeth Banning]] (1822–1903): Mary Banning is best known as the author of ''The Fungi of Maryland'', an unpublished manuscript containing scientific descriptions, mycological anecdotes, and 174 13" by 15" watercolor paintings of fungal species.<ref name=Haines>{{cite web|last=Haines|first=John|title=Women's history: Mary Banning|url=http://www.nysm.nysed.gov/womenshistory/banning.html|publisher=New York State Museum|accessdate=2 August 2013|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140225053533/http://www.nysm.nysed.gov/womenshistory/banning.html|archivedate=25 February 2014}}</ref> The [[New York State Museum]] describes these paintings as "extraordinary...a blend of science and folk art, scientifically accurate and lovely to look at."<ref name=NYSM>{{cite web|last=New York State Museum|title=Fungi: Mary Banning|url=http://www.nysm.nysed.gov/treasures/collection.cfm?coll=29|accessdate=4 August 2013|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141111000451/http://www.nysm.nysed.gov/treasures/collection.cfm?coll=29|archivedate=11 November 2014}}</ref> |
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* [[Ernst Haeckel]] (1834–1919) |
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* [[Violetta White Delafield]] (1875-1949): creations of around 600 illustrations of fungi.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hewitt |first=David |date=2002 |title=Lewis David von Schweinitz's Mycological Illustrations |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41610087 |journal=Bartonia |issue=61 |pages=48–53 |jstor=41610087 |issn=0198-7356}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Bard College Montgomery Place Campus Collection: Mushroom Drawings of Violetta White Delafield |url=https://www.jstor.org/site/bard/montgomery-place/mushroom-drawings/ |access-date=2022-12-28 |website=www.jstor.org}}</ref> {{:Violetta White Delafield|Scientific work}} |
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* [http://www.alexandermushrooms.com Alexander Viazmensky] |
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==== Photography ==== |
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Amateur and professional photographs of mushrooms abound on the Internet. Non-fiction books about fungi, especially those involving the identification of fungi, often include photographs of fungal species and their fruiting bodies. The book by Scott Chimileski and [[Roberto Kolter]] ''Life at the Edge of Sight: A Photographic Exploration of the Microbial World'' showcases 'the invisible world waiting in plain sight,' including fungi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chimileski |first=Scott |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1003317651 |title=Life at the edge of sight : a photographic exploration of the microbial world |date=2017 |others=Roberto Kolter |isbn=978-0-674-98246-8 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |oclc=1003317651}}</ref> Since 2005, the North American Mycological Association (NAMA) organises an annual Photography Art Contest on mushrooms and fungi.<ref>{{Cite web |title=PHOTOGRAPHY - North American Mycological Association |url=https://namyco.org/photography.php |access-date=17 December 2022 |website=namyco.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Photography Contest Rules - North American Mycological Association |url=https://namyco.org/photography_contest_rules.php |access-date=17 December 2022 |website=namyco.org}}</ref> |
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=== Literature === |
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==== In fiction ==== |
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{{Main category|Fictional fungi}} |
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Works of literary fiction involving mushrooms and fungi are often linked to infection, decay, toxicity, mystery, fantasy, and ambiguity, and thus have mostly a negative connotation.<ref name=":3" /> Examples of mushrooms depicted or involved in a positive way include: |
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* the children's book ''[[The Wonderful Flight to the Mushroom Planet]]'' (1954) by [[Eleanor Cameron]]<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Millman |first=Lawrence |title=Mushroom Planet |magazine=FUNGI Magazine |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=22–23}}</ref> |
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* the science-fiction novel ''[[Of Man and Manta|Omnivore]]'' (1968) by [[Piers Anthony]] (part of the ''Of Man and Manta'' trilogy)<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Millman |first=Lawrence |date=2022 |title=Mushroom Planet |url=https://fungimag.com/ |journal=FUNGI Magazine |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=23}}</ref> |
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* ''The Way Through the Woods: On Mushrooms and Mourning'' (2019) by Long Litt Woon.<ref name=":0b">{{Cite web |title=The Way Through the Woods: On Mushrooms and Mourning - North American Mycological Association |url=https://namyco.org/the_way_through_the_woods_on.php |access-date=5 January 2023 |website=namyco.org}}</ref> |
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In line with the assumption by Robert Gordon Wasson and Valentina Pavlovna Wasson that Russian society traditionally has more affinity to mushrooms,<ref name=":2" /> a scene of [[Mushroom hunting|mushroom foraging]] in [[Leo Tolstoy|Leo Tolstoy's]] ''[[Anna Karenina]]'' is associated with love, family, and a sense of commonality.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> During the [[Victorian era]], fungi started to acquire a more playful, childish, or jolly role in works of literary fiction.<ref name=":3" /> The author, artist, illustrator, and mycologist Beatrix Potter created meticulous and accurate illustrations of mushrooms, including in her children-book series of ''[[Peter Rabbit]]''.<ref name=":3" /> |
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Authors who have used fungi as a plot device include:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shroomin' – A mushroom reading list {{!}} Washington State Magazine {{!}} Washington State University |url=https://magazine.wsu.edu/web-extra/shroomin-a-mushroom-reading-list/ |access-date=25 November 2022 |language=en-US}}</ref> |
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* [[Percy Bysshe Shelley|Percy Shelley]] |
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* [[D. H. Lawrence|D.H. Lawrence]] |
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* [[H. G. Wells|H.G. Wells]] |
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* [[Ray Bradbury]] |
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Fungi are a common [[Trope (literature)|trope]] in [[science fiction]], [[Horror fiction|horror]], [[Supernatural (genre)|supernatural]], [[Fantasy literature|fantasy]] and [[crime fiction]]. In Ray Bradbury's "[[Come into My Cellar]]", mushrooms are alien invaders threatening society. The short story is one of the rare examples in which several forms of fungi appear (spores and mushrooms): In the story, an alien form of spores from fungi lands on Earth and compels humans, and kids in particular, to grow mushrooms and infect more persons, thus using humans as a medium of propagation of fungi through mind control.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bradbury |first=Ray |date=1962 |title="Come into My Cellar" |url=https://galacticjourney.org/stories/Galaxy_v21n01_1962-10.pdf |journal=Galaxy Magazine}}</ref> Fungi have occasionally appeared in the [[Crime fiction|murder mystery]] literature due to their toxicity. Crime and detective writer [[Agatha Christie]] has used mushrooms as murder weapons in her crime fiction.<ref name=":3" /> |
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The use of (toxic) mushrooms in fiction does not often reflect reality, either because a misidentified species is used (for example, a non-toxic one), because the preparation or intake of the toxic is wrong (for example, when not enough toxin is present, or when it should be deactivated by cooking), or because the progress of poisoning is unrealistic (for example, if the toxin kills too quickly).<ref name=":9" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wasson |first=R Gordon |date=7 April 1972 |title=The Death of Claudius Or Mushrooms For Murderers |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5962/p.168556 |journal=Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=101–128 |doi=10.5962/p.168556 |s2cid=87008723 |issn=0006-8098|doi-access=free }}</ref> |
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The "Bad Bug Bookclub" at [[Manchester Metropolitan University]] is a regular book club run by [[Joanna Verran]] that discusses literary works on [[microorganism]]s, including fungi.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Verran |first=Joanna |date=24 June 2021 |title=Using fiction to engage audiences with infectious disease: the effect of the coronavirus pandemic on participation in the Bad Bugs Bookclub |journal=FEMS Microbiology Letters |language=en |volume=368 |issue=12 |pages=fnab072 |doi=10.1093/femsle/fnab072 |issn=1574-6968 |pmc=8344436 |pmid=34113987}}</ref> The quarterly periodical FUNGI Magazine runs a column called ''Bookshelf Fungi'' reviewing fiction and non-fiction books on fungi. |
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==== In poetry ==== |
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Similar to in Western literature, fungi in Western culture [[poetry]] are often associated with negative feelings or sentiments. The poem ''The Mushroom'' (1896) by ''[[Emily Dickinson]]'' is unsympathetic towards mushrooms. American author of weird horror and supernatural fiction [[H. P. Lovecraft]] created a collection of cosmic horror [[sonnet]]s with fungi as subjects called ''[[Fungi from Yuggoth]]'' (1929–30). [[Margaret Atwood]]'s poem ''Mushrooms'' (1981) explores the topics of the life cycle and nature.{{Failed verification|date=February 2023}} The poem by [[Neil Gaiman]], ''The Mushroom Hunters,'' is a poem touching, through the lens of [[mushroom hunting]] throughout history, on the topics of womanhood, human creation, and destruction. The poem was written for 'Universe in Verse,' a festival combining science with poetry, and won the [[Rhysling Award]] for best long poem in 2017. The poem features in a short animated video with the voice-over of [[Amanda Palmer]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Popova |first=Maria |date=25 November 2019 |title=The Mushroom Hunters: Neil Gaiman's Subversive Feminist Celebration of Science and the Human Hunger for Truth, in a Gorgeous Animated Short Film |url=https://www.themarginalian.org/2019/11/25/the-mushroom-hunters-animation-neil-gaiman/ |access-date=15 December 2022 |website=The Marginalian |language=en-US}}</ref> |
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Several hundred Japanese [[haiku]] are about mushroom hunting. Many of them were written by poets of the [[Nara period|Nara]], [[Edo period|Edo]] and [[Meiji era|Meiji]] periods,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guy |first=Nathaniel |title=Kinoko: A window into the mystical world of Japanese mushrooms |year=2023 |publisher=Nathaniel Guy |isbn=979-8987537633}}</ref> such as: |
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* [[Matsuo Bashō]] (1644–1694) |
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* Kitamura Koshun (1650–1697) |
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* [[Mukai Kyorai]] (1651–1704) |
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* Naitō Jōsō (1662–1704) |
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* [[Hattori Ransetsu]] (1654–1707) |
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* [[Takarai Kikaku]] (1661–1707) |
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* Hirose Izen (1688?–1711) |
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* Morikawa Kyoriku (1656–1715) |
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* Yamaguchi Sodō (1642–1716) |
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* Kagami Shikō (1665–1731) |
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* Kumotsu Suikoku (1682–1734) |
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* Kuroyanagi Shōha (1727–1772) |
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==== Storytelling, oral tradition, myth, and folklore ==== |
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{{See also|Ethnomycology|Religion and drugs|Amanita muscaria#Cultural depictions}}Through [[storytelling]] and [[oral tradition]], fungi have influenced [[myth]]ology, [[folklore]], and [[religion]]s across civilizations and historical periods.<ref name=":9" /> The psychoactive properties of certain fungi have contributed to the involvement of fungi in myth and folklore.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dugan |first=Frank M. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/193173263 |title=Fungi in the ancient world: how mushrooms, mildews, molds, and yeast shaped the early civilizations of Europe, the Mediterranean, and the Near East |date=2008 |publisher=APS Press |others=American Phytopathological Society |isbn=978-0-89054-361-0 |location=St, Paul, Minn. |oclc=193173263}}</ref> In her essay ''Jesus if a Fungal God'', author Sophie Strand writes: |
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: "As we learn more about fungi, let us embrace that they have always been here. Beneath our feet. And inside our most popular myths.".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Myth & Mycelium — Myth & Mycelium |url=https://www.mythandmycelium.com/myth-mycelium |access-date=7 December 2022 |website=Sophie Strand Myth & Mycelium advaya |language=en-GB}}</ref> |
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{{multiple image |
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| image1 = Zwerg Postkarte 001.jpg |
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| alt1 = A gnome carries the fly agaric on a Christmas card (ca 1900) |
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| caption1 = A gnome carries the fly agaric (''Amanita muscaria'') on a German Christmas greeting card ({{circa|1900}}) saying {{lang|de|Viel Glück im neuen Jahre!}} ({{translation|All the best for the new year!}}). The fly agaric has inspired countless folklore tales and entered mainstream mushroom culture. |
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| image2 = Judas Hangs Himself (Judas se pend).jpg |
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| alt2 = Painting Judas Hangs Himself by French Painter James Tissot |
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| caption2 = The painting ''Judas Hangs Himself'' (ca. 1890) by [[James Tissot]]. The naming of mushrooms has been inspired by folklore. The common naming of the [[Auricularia auricula-judae|'jelly ear' fungus (''Auricularia auricula-judae)'']] is 'Jew's ear,' derived from the belief that [[Judas Iscariot]] hanged himself on an [[Sambucus|elder tree]], where the fungus often grows. |
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| direction = vertical |
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}} |
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There are [[List of deities of wine and beer|numerous deities associated with wine and beer]], which is an indirect effect of fungi in the arts. Fungi play a role in several religions, for example through fermentation (e.g. wine) and [[Leavening agent|leavening]] (e.g. bread). In the [[Parable of the Leaven]], one of the [[Parables of Jesus]], the growth of the Kingdom of God is akin to the leavening of bread through yeast. According to Matthew 13:33 (and, similarly, to Luke 13:20-21): |
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: "He told them still another parable: 'The kingdom of heaven is like yeast that a woman took and mixed into about sixty pounds of flour until it worked all through the dough.'"<ref>{{Cite bible|Matthew|13:33}}</ref> |
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However, yeast is associated with corruption in other passages of the New Testament, as in Luke 12:1: |
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: "Jesus began to speak first to his disciples, saying: 'Be on your guard against the yeast of the Pharisees, which is hypocrisy.'"<ref>{{Cite bible|Luke|12:1}}</ref> |
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Some scholars argue that the Egyptian God of the afterlife [[Osiris]] is a personification of entheogenic mushrooms. As evidence, they indicate that Egyptian crowns are shaped like [[Primordium|primordia]] of ''[[Psilocybe cubensis]]'' mushrooms. The Egyptian tale known as ''Cheops and the Magicians'' illustrates the growth of mushrooms on barley.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Berlant |first=Stephen R. |date=November 2005 |title=The entheomycological origin of Egyptian crowns and the esoteric underpinnings of Egyptian religion |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378874105005131 |journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology |language=en |volume=102 |issue=2 |pages=275–288 |doi=10.1016/j.jep.2005.07.028|pmid=16199133 |s2cid=19297225 }}</ref> In the Chinese classic tale ''The Mountain and the Sea'', the soul of a young woman becomes a mushroom as a symbol of immortality. In [[Lithuanian mythology|Lithuanian]] and [[Baltic mythology]], fungi are considered the fingers of Velnias, the God of the underworld, reaching up from the underground to feed the poor.<ref name=":9" /> In [[Slovenia]], there is a folk ritual to roll on the ground during thunder as a way to increase the amount of mushrooms harvested.<ref name=":29">{{Cite magazine |last=Dugan |first=Frank |date=Summer 2017 |title=Baba Yaga and the Mushroom |magazine=FUNGI Magazine |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=6–16}}</ref> [[Baltic states|Baltic]] and [[Ugrians|Ugric]] religions include mushroom elements, including a "Mother of Mushrooms". The popular tale ''The War of the Mushrooms'' is told in several Slavic cultures. (After the start of the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]], an exhibition at the [[Ukrainian Museum]] in New York revisited the classic story in light of current events.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Exhibition "The War of the Mushrooms" opens at the Ukrainian Museum |url=https://artdaily.com/news/145174/Exhibition--The-War-of-the-Mushrooms--opens-at-the-Ukrainian-Museum#.Y6VX6nbMK5c |access-date=23 December 2022 |website=artdaily.com}}</ref>) The supernatural being [[Baba Yaga]] in [[Slavic folklore]] is often associated with mushrooms. In some Russian tales, it often appears as a villainous wizard called Mukhomor, literally 'poison mushroom,' which is assumed to be derived from the fly agaric.<ref name=":10" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dugan |first=Frank |date=2008 |title=Fungi, folkways and fairy tales: mushrooms & mildews in stories, remedies & rituals, from Oberon to the Internet |url=http://openjournals.wsu.edu/index.php/pnwfungi/article/view/1062 |journal=North American Fungi |volume=3 |pages=23–72 |doi=10.2509/naf2008.003.0074}}</ref> |
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The [[Amanita muscaria|fly agaric (''Amanita muscaria'')]] is a mushroom with characteristic red cap and white dots and has greatly infiltrated folklore with mainstream popularity. |
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According to several interpretations, the legendary figure of [[Santa Claus]] may have been influenced by the fly agaric; evidence includes the use by [[Sámi|Saami]] shamans in the [[Lapland (Finland)|Lapland]] region, who would visit the homes of people by [[reindeer]]-drawn sleds and enter through the chimney when the entrance door was stuck by snowfalls; the fondness of reindeers in eating fly agaric mushrooms; the belief by Saami people that whoever eats an ''Amanita muscaria'' will resemble it, becoming among other things, plump and reddish; and the sense of flying that consumption of fly agaric might induce.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Millman |first=Lawrence |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1103605862 |title=Fungipedia: a brief compendium of mushroom lore |date=2019 |others=Amy Jean Porter |isbn=978-0-691-19538-4 |location=Princeton, New Jersey |pages=138–9 |oclc=1103605862}}</ref> |
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The [[Phallaceae|stinkhorn]] ''[[Phallus indusiatus]]'' (or "veiled lady") has entered folklore across many cultures, probably due to its peculiar shape. In French, ''P. indusiatus'' is commonly called {{Lang|fr|le satyre voilé}} ('the veiled [[satyr]],' from the male [[List of nature deities|nature spirit]] in Greek mythology). {{#section-h:Phallus_indusiatus|In culture}} |
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Jews have a long tradition of eating mushrooms, which are considered [[Kashrut|Kosher]] in Jewish dietary law, and mushrooms have been referred to as "Jew's Meat" at least in parts of current Germany (Rhineland area), where the term is used as a dialect term for the German "Pilz" according to the {{ill|Rheinisches Wörterbuch|de}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Why Jewish culture is mushrooming |url=https://www.thejc.com/lifestyle/food/why-jewish-culture-is-mushrooming-1.19242 |access-date=2023-03-30 |website=www.thejc.com}}</ref> Mushrooms have been used as an instrument for anti-Semitic discrimination or propaganda over the centuries. This has a disparaging connotation, especially during the [[Middle Ages]], when mushrooms were considered toxic and disgusting. In the infamous 1938 children-book ''[[Der Giftpilz]]'' ({{Translation|The poisonous mushroom}}) from [[Nazi Germany]], Jews are depicted as poisonous and difficult to distinguish from '[[Gentile]]s'.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=The dark side of funghi |url=https://www.thejc.com/lifestyle/food/the-dark-side-of-funghi-1.28722 |access-date=16 November 2022 |website=www.thejc.com}}</ref> |
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==== Non-fiction books ==== |
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{{Main|List of books about mushrooms}} |
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There is a large corpus of literature on mushrooms, including foraging, identifying, growing, and cultivating fungi. The book ''[[The Mushroom at the End of the World]]'' by Chinese-American anthropologist [[Anna Tsing|Anna Lowenhaupt Tsing]] on [[Matsutake|matsutake mushrooms]] offers insights into the cultural relevance and the significance of fungi for modern society, circularity, and decay.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tsing |first=Anna Lowenhaupt |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/894777646 |title=The mushroom at the end of the world : on the possibility of life in capitalist ruins |date=2015 |isbn=978-0-691-16275-1 |location=Princeton |oclc=894777646}}</ref> Authors of non-fictional books about fungi contribute to the increased popularity and development of mycology, fungal ecology, [[mycoremediation]], [[Conservation biology|fungal conservation]], [[Biological pest control#Fungi|biocontrol]], medicinal fungi, mushroom gathering and identification, and fungal research.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Bone |first=Eugenia |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/707329318 |title=Mycophilia: revelations from the weird world of mushrooms |date=2011 |publisher=Rodale |isbn=978-1-60529-407-0 |location=New York |oclc=707329318}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Stamets |first=Paul |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/842961074 |title=Mycelium running: how mushrooms can help save the world |date=2005 |publisher=Ten Speed Press |isbn=1-299-16631-8 |oclc=842961074}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=McCoy |first=Peter |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/941779592 |title=Radical mycology: a treatise on seeing & working with fungi |date=2016 |isbn=978-0-9863996-0-2 |location=Portland, Oregon |oclc=941779592}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Seifert |first=Keith A. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1261880063 |title=The hidden kingdom of fungi : exploring the microscopic world in our forests, homes, and bodies |date=2022 |others=Rob Dunn |isbn=978-1-77164-662-8 |location=Vancouver |oclc=1261880063}}</ref> |
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=== Cinema, TV shows, and motion pictures === |
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| image1 = Beneath, by Beth Walker (UK) at 2022 Fungi Film Festival.jpg|thumb|The experimental short movie 'Beneath' by Beth Walker (UK), presented at 2022 Fungi Film Festival |
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| alt1 = Flier from the short movie Beneath by Beth Walker |
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| caption1 = The experimental short movie ''Beneath'' by Beth Walker (UK), presented at 2022 Fungi Film Festival. |
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| image2 = Shroom Mates by Rosie Windsor (UK) at 2022 Fungi Film Festival.jpg |
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| alt2 = Flier from the short movie Shroom Mates by Rosie Windsor |
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| caption2 = The comedy short movie ''Shroom Mates'' by Rosie Windsor (UK), presented at 2022 Fungi Film Festival. |
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Adaptations of literary fiction about fungi into motion pictures include the 2016 British [[Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction|post-apocalyptic]] science fiction horror movie ''The Girl with All the Gifts'', based on the novel with the same title; and the 1963 Japanese horror film [[Matango|''Matango'' (マタンゴ)]] directed by [[Ishirō Honda]], partially based on William Hope Hodgson's short story ''The Voice in the Night'' (1907). The documentary ''[[Fantastic Fungi]]'' (2019), primarily led by mycologist [[Paul Stamets]], presents the world of fungi using time-lapse photography.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Catsoulis |first=Jeannette |date=10 October 2019 |title='Fantastic Fungi' Review: The Magic of Mushrooms |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/10/movies/fantastic-fungi-review.html |access-date=2023-03-13 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> The documentary ''The Mushroom Speaks'' (2001) by Marion Neumann covers topics such as decay, bioremediation, and symbiosis by following scientists, experts, and fungal pioneers.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-04-22 |title="The Mushroom Speaks": le champignon est l'avenir de l'homme |language=fr |work=Le Temps |url=https://www.letemps.ch/culture/the-mushroom-speaks-champignon-lavenir-lhomme |access-date=17 December 2022 |issn=1423-3967}}</ref> |
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Film festivals dedicated to fungi include the Fungi Film Festival (since 2021), by ''Radical Mycology'' author Peter McCoy;<ref>{{Cite web |title=Page |url=https://www.fungifilmfest.com/committee |access-date=2023-03-13 |website=Fungi Film Fest |language=en-US}}</ref> and the UK Fungus Day Film Festival (since 2022), by the British Mycological Society.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Film festival :: UK Fungus Day |url=https://www.ukfungusday.co.uk/join-in/films |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221017052556/https://www.ukfungusday.co.uk/join-in/films |archive-date=17 October 2022 |website=www.ukfungusday.co.uk}}</ref> |
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=== Performing arts === |
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The American stand-up comedian and satirist [[Bill Hicks]] drew inspiration from [[Terence McKenna]]'s '[[Stoned Ape Theory]]' (that psilocybin was crucial in the development of human nature<ref>{{Cite web |title=Psilocybin, the Mushroom, and Terence McKenna |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/yvqqpj/psilocybin-the-mushroom-and-terence-mckenna-439 |access-date=2023-03-13 |website=www.vice.com |date=12 August 2014 |language=en}}</ref>) in his 1993 show ''Revelation''.<ref name=":9" /><ref>{{Citation |title=Bill Hicks,The Stoned Ape Theory |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S-13bZDwKYg |language=en |access-date=6 December 2022}}</ref> |
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=== Comic books and video games === |
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In ''[[The Smurfs]]'', smurfs inhabit houses resembling mushrooms. American fantasy and science fiction comic book artist [[Frank Frazetta]] illustrated the cover image of the 1964 edition of the novel ''[[The Secret People]]'' (1935) by [[John Wyndham|John Beynon]] (pseudonym of John Wyndham), in which fictive 'little people' inhabit areas with giant mushrooms. In Nintendo's [[Super Mario]] video game, the 'super mushroom' helps the character grow in size.<ref name=":3" /> The [[video game]] franchise ''[[The Last of Us]]'' is set in a post-apocalyptic United States, after [[Fungi in art#Comic books and video games 2|spores of a mutant fungus]] wiped out humanity, turning infected people into zombies. Other video games where mushrooms appear include ''[[The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim|Skyrim]]'' (2011), ''[[Stardew Valley]]'' (2016), and [[The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild|''Zelda: Breath of the Wild'']] (2017).<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 February 2021 |title=Mushrooms in Video Games |url=https://fantasticfungi.com/mushrooms-in-video-games/ |access-date=15 December 2022 |website=Fantastic Fungi |language=en-US}}</ref> |
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=== Music === |
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Mushrooms have an influence on music as a subject, cultural reference, or medium for music creation. Numerous musicians, bands, composers, and lyricists mentioned or drew inspiration from fungi. Music can be created ''utilizing'' fungi, as in the process of [[Sonification|bio-sonification]]. American composer [[John Cage]] (1912–1992) was an enthusiastic amateur mycologist and co-founder of the [[New York Mycological Society]] who often merged his two passions in his artworks.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gottesman |first=Sarah |date=3 January 2017 |title=Why Experimental Artist John Cage Was Obsessed with Mushrooms |url=https://www.artsy.net/article/artsy-editorial-experimental-artist-john-cage-obsessed-mushrooms |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=Artsy |language=en}}</ref> |
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==== Music inspired by ==== |
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Numerous musicians, bands, composers, and lyricists mentioned or drew inspiration from fungi, like the Israeli psychedelic trance band [[Infected Mushroom]], the US heavy metal band [[Mushroomhead]], Russian romantic composer [[Modest Mussorgsky]]'s (1839-1881) song ''Gathering Mushrooms'', [[Igor Stravinsky]]'s (1882-1971) ''How the Mushrooms went to War'', and many more.<ref name=":9" /> In ''Women Gathering Mushrooms'', the musicologist [[Louis Sarno]] (1954-2017) recorded women from the [[Central Africa]] [[African Pygmies|Mbenga pygmy]] tribe of the [[Aka people|Aka]] (also Biaka, Bayaka'','' Babenzele) sideclinging while collecting mushrooms, resulting in a polyphonic composition. According to mycologist and author Merlin Sheldrake, the activity of the gatherers above ground mirrors the fungal life below ground, as "mycelium is polyphony in bodily form".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sheldrake |first=Merlin |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1127137515 |title=Entangled life: how fungi make our worlds, change our minds & shape our futures |date=May 2020 |isbn=978-0-525-51031-4 |edition= |location=New York |pages=61 |oclc=1127137515}}</ref> Icelandic [[avant-garde]] musician [[Björk]]'s 2022 album ''[[Fossora]]'' (including tracks such as ''Mycelia'', ''Sorrowful Soil'', and ''Fungal City'') is referred to as her "mushroom album".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Björk Excavates the Meaning Behind Fossora, Her "Mushroom Album" |url=https://pitchfork.com/video/watch/bjork-excavates-the-meaning-behind-fossora-her-mushroom-album/ |access-date=5 December 2022 |website=Pitchfork |language=en-US}}</ref> 'Fossora' can be translated from Latin into "she who digs".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-03 |title=Björk's New Album Is an Ode to Mushrooms |url=https://www.surfacemag.com/articles/bjork-fossora-album-cover/ |access-date=18 November 2022 |website=SURFACE |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fossora.com/|title=fossora | Björk|website=fossora}}</ref> The rap artist 'FungiFlows' composes lyrics inspired by fungi and mushrooms while wearing a fly-agaric-shaped hat.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fungi is a Recording Artist & Freestyle Rap Magician from Pittsburgh, PA. |url=https://www.fungiflows.fun/ |access-date=17 December 2022 |website=FungiFlows.fun |language=en}}</ref> The Czech composer and mycologist {{ill|Václav Hálek|cs}} (1937–2014) is said to have composed over 1,500 symphonies inspired by fungi, including the composition called ''Mycosymphony''.<ref name=":9" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Mushroom Whisperer |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/wdp5e9/Vaclav-Halek-makes-mushroom-music |access-date=7 January 2023 |website=www.vice.com |date=27 October 2011 |language=en}}</ref> |
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A non-exhaustive list of songs inspired by mushrooms (fungi) is given below: |
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* ''Mushroom Cantata'' by Lepo Sumera |
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* ''Mycosymphony'' by Václav Hálek |
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* ''Solar Waltz'' (2018) by [[Cosmo Sheldrake]] |
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* ''Fungus'' (2021) by The Narcissist Cookbook |
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* ''Mycelia'' (2022) by Björk |
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* ''Fungal City'' (2022) by Björk |
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==== Music created with ==== |
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Fungi are occasionally a direct medium for the creation of music. With the use of [[sonification]] and [[Synthesizer|synthezisers]], musicians and bioartists are able to create sounds and music by converting mushrooms' bioelectric signals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Song of the Mushrooms |url=https://digital.themushroom.pub/dec-2021/song-of-the-mushrooms/ |access-date=16 December 2022 |website=The Mushroom Magazine |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Funky fungi? Meet the musicians making melodies out of mushrooms |url=https://www.classicfm.com/discover-music/making-melodies-with-mushrooms/ |access-date=18 November 2022 |website=Classic FM |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Can You Hear the Fungi Sing? {{!}} Singapore Art Museum |url=https://www.singaporeartmuseum.sg:443/en/about/blog/can-you-hear-the-fungi-sing |access-date=18 November 2022 |website=www.singaporeartmuseum.sg |language=en}}</ref> The 'Nanotopia Midnight Mushroom Music' is a radio station devoted to streaming mushroom-generated music. Some artists creating music by sonicating mushrooms note that different mushrooms produce different sounds: for example, ''[[Ganoderma lucidum]]'' produces melodic sounds, while ''[[Pleurotus ostreatus]]'' produces constant sounds.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ep. 62: Myco Lyco - Fungal Frequencies, Biodata Sonification & the Music of Mushrooms (feat. Noah Kalos) |url=https://www.welcometomushroomhour.com/blogs/podcasts/ep-62-myco-lyco-fungal-frequencies-biodata-sonification-the-music-of-mushrooms-feat-noah-kalos |access-date=17 December 2022 |website=Mushroom Hour |date=28 December 2020 |language=en}}</ref> |
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=== Architecture and sculptures === |
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[[File:Park Güell - Pabellón de entrada.jpg|thumb|The Porter's Lodge pavilion at the entrance of [[Park Güell]] features a lookout tower with a mushroom-shaped dome''.'']] |
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In architecture and sculpture, mushrooms are mostly represented or showcased. Mushrooms are carved in buildings or depicted in sculptures or potteries, like pre-Columbian pottery mushrooms from Mesoamerica.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Borhegyi |first=Stephan F. De |date=January 1963 |title=Pre-Columbian Pottery Mushrooms from Mesoamerica |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-antiquity/article/abs/precolumbian-pottery-mushrooms-from-mesoamerica/6EA5731680E65C2156DA2E4CCC303CD7 |journal=American Antiquity |language=en |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=328–338 |doi=10.2307/278276 |jstor=278276 |s2cid=245676601 |issn=0002-7316}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Hofmann |first=Albert |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/695564591 |title=LSD - mein Sorgenkind die Entdeckung einer "Wunderdroge" |date=2010 |isbn=978-3-608-94618-5 |edition=3. Aufl |location=Stuttgart |oclc=695564591}}</ref> At the entrance of [[Park Güell]] by [[Modernisme|Catalan modernist]] architect [[Antoni Gaudí]] (1852-1926), the Porter's Lodge pavilion features a lookout tower with a mushroom-shaped dome, probably inspired by ''Amanita muscaria'' or by stinkhorns.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/39323956 |title=El Parc Güell : guia. |date=1998 |publisher=Ajuntament de Barcelona |isbn=84-7609-862-6 |location=Barcelona |oclc=39323956}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lawrence |first=Sandra |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1328029699 |title=The magic of mushrooms: fungi in folklore, superstition and traditional medicine |date=2022 |others=Kew Royal Botanic Gardens |isbn=978-1-78739-906-8 |location=London |pages=107 |oclc=1328029699}}</ref> The sculpture ''Triple Mycomorph'' by [[Bernard Reynolds]] (1915–1997) at [[Christchurch Mansion]] holds a resemblance with the stinkhorn mushroom ''[[Phallus indusiatus]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Triple Mycomorph {{!}} Art UK |url=https://artuk.org/discover/artworks/triple-mycomorph-273100 |access-date=23 December 2022 |website=artuk.org |language=en}}</ref> Mushrooms are occasionally showcased by artists who collect, manipulate, preserve, and exhibit them, as in the 'Mind The Fungi' exhibition (2019-2020) at [[Futurium]] in Berlin (Germany).<ref name=":18">{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1229035875 |title=Mind the Fungi |date=2020 |others=Vera Meyer, Regine Rapp, Technische Universität Berlin Universitätsbibliothek |isbn=978-3-7983-3168-6 |location=Berlin |oclc=1229035875}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Feature Art Lab |url=https://futurium.de/en/feature-art-lab |access-date=26 December 2022 |website=futurium.de |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Mind the Fungi |url=https://artlaboratory-berlin.org/research/mind-the-fungi/ |access-date=2022-12-26 |website=Art Laboratory Berlin |language=en-US}}</ref> |
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The mycologist William Dillon Weston (1899-1953; sometimes also spelled Dillon-Weston<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ainsworth |first1=G. C. |last2=Webster |first2=J. |last3=Moore |first3=D. |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/37448227 |title=Brief biographies of British mycologists |date=1996 |publisher=British Mycological Society |isbn=0-9527704-0-7 |oclc=37448227}}</ref>) created glass sculptures of microfungi, mostly plant pathogens, to fight bouts of insomnia. The artworks represent either magnified fungi (usually up to 400X times for fungi; up to 1200X for spores) or real-size plants affected by fungi (like in [[Corn smut|''Ustilago maydis'']] and ''[[Phytophthora infestans]]'') and are made mostly of transparent or opaque glass. The sculptures are mostly between 5–20 cm in size and often do not have a base and stand on the mycelium.<ref name=":31">{{Cite web |last=Livesey |first=James |date=16 October 2018 |title=Glass Models of Fungi |url=https://www.whipplemuseum.cam.ac.uk/explore-whipple-collections/models/glass-models-fungi |access-date=26 December 2022 |website=www.whipplemuseum.cam.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref> Almost a hundred glass sculptures are conserved at the [[Whipple Museum of the History of Science|Whipple Museum]] in [[Cambridge]] (UK). Fungi represented are among others species from the genera ''[[Alternaria]]'', [[Botrytis (fungus)|''Botrytis'']], ''[[Penicillium]]'', ''[[Cordyceps]]'', ''[[Sclerotinia]]'', ''[[Fusarium]]'', ''[[Puccinia]]'' as well as spores ([[ascospores]], [[basidiospore]]s).<ref name=":30" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Collection description: Glass botanical models of pathological fungi and photographic plates, by Dr. W. A. R. Dillon Weston |url=https://collections.whipplemuseum.cam.ac.uk/objects/14562/ |access-date=26 December 2022 |website=collections.whipplemuseum.cam.ac.uk}}</ref> The other known example of glass sculptures representing (among others) fungi is the Blaschka ''[[Glass Flowers]]'' at Harvard Museum in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] (US).<ref name=":30">{{Cite journal |last=Tribe |first=Henry T. |date=November 1998 |title=The Dillon Weston glass models of microfungi |url=https://cpb-us-e1.wpmucdn.com/blogs.uoregon.edu/dist/c/8944/files/2014/10/Tribe_Microfungi-152x4mu.pdf |journal=Mycologist |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=169–173 |doi=10.1016/s0269-915x(98)80074-8 |issn=0269-915X}}</ref> |
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=== Culinary arts === |
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Fungi enter cuisine mostly as fruiting bodies (mushrooms), yeasts, or moulds. Mushrooms are a source of protein, a staple in many cultures and cuisines, and a common ingredient in many recipes worldwide. The North American Mycological Association (NAMA) hosts a series of resources to encourage all aspects of 'mycophagy.' Most mushrooms sold commercially are the [[Agaricus bisporus|button mushroom (''Agaricus bisporus'')]], commonly known as champignons. Many mushrooms, including some coveted in [[haute cuisine]], like [[truffle]]s and [[boletus]], cannot be cultivated and need to be harvested. Due to their dietary properties and their suitability as a meat substitute, mushrooms can be considered a novel trend, including the cultivation and consumption of species that only recently became popular in cooking, like ''[[Cordyceps]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pérez-Montes |first1=Antonio |last2=Rangel-Vargas |first2=Esmeralda |last3=Lorenzo |first3=José Manuel |last4=Romero |first4=Leticia |last5=Santos |first5=Eva M |date=1 February 2021 |title=Edible mushrooms as a novel trend in the development of healthier meat products |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214799320300825 |journal=Current Opinion in Food Science |language=en |volume=37 |pages=118–124 |doi=10.1016/j.cofs.2020.10.004 |issn=2214-7993 |s2cid=225108583}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Carrasco |first1=Jaime |last2=Preston |first2=Gail M. |date=March 2020 |title=Growing edible mushrooms: a conversation between bacteria and fungi |journal=Environmental Microbiology |language=en |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=858–872 |doi=10.1111/1462-2920.14765 |pmid=31361932 |s2cid=198997937 |issn=1462-2912|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=13 March 2017 |title=How a Zombie Worm From Tibet Became an American Health Food Juggernaut |url=https://www.bonappetit.com/story/cordyceps-foraging-tibet |access-date=17 December 2022 |website=Bon Appétit |language=en-US}}</ref> Many fungi are considered [[Delicacy|delicacies]] in cuisine and gastronomy. [[Truffle]]s, which are occasionally confused with [[tuber]]s (storage organs in plants, like potatoes), are subterranean fruiting bodies (that is, mushrooms that grow below ground) of certain fungi belonging to the genera ''[[Tuber (fungus)|Tuber]]'', ''[[Geopora]]'', ''[[Peziza]]'', ''[[Choiromyces]]'', and others. Truffles have developed a distinctive aroma as a spore-dispersion strategy: Instead of relying on wind and other mechanical means, truffles attract animals that eat them and carry their spores to new locations after defecation.<ref name=":19" /> Both the mushroom and the black ink of ''C. comatus'' and [[Coprinopsis atramentaria|''Coprinopsis'' ''atramentaria'']] (the 'Common ink cap') are edible, but adverse effects might be felt if consumed together with alcohol. For this reason, ''C. atramentaria'' is also called "tippler's bane".<ref name=":9" />[[File:Corn smut on an infected ear of corn.png|thumb|Infection of maize corn with the plant pathogen ''[[Corn smut|Ustilago maydis]]'' leads to a tumor in the plant, which is consumed as a delicacy in Mexico (called ''huitlacoche'').|left]] |
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=== Contemporary arts === |
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Contemporary artworks involving fungi usually handle or utilize [[Fungi in art#Contemporary arts 2|mycelia]], [[Fungi in art#Contemporary arts 3|yeasts]], and other fungal forms rather than mushrooms. Fungi are occasionally used [[Conceptual art|conceptually]] (that is, to communicate their capabilities and potential).<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal |last1=Meyer |first1=Vera |last2=Nevoigt |first2=Elke |last3=Wiemann |first3=Philipp |date=1 April 2016 |title=The art of design |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1087184516000293 |journal=Fungal Genetics and Biology |series=The Era of Synthetic Biology in Yeast and Filamentous Fungi |language=en |volume=89 |pages=1–2 |doi=10.1016/j.fgb.2016.02.006 |issn=1087-1845 |pmid=26968149}}</ref> The video and light artist Philipp Frank creates so-called 'projection mapping' by casting light effects on mushrooms growing in nature in the 'Funky Funghy' project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Funky Funghy |url=https://philipp-frank.com/project/funky-funghy |access-date=17 December 2022 |website=Philipp Frank |language=de-DE}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Guido |first=Giulia |date=25 February 2021 |title=Philipp Frank and his light installations {{!}} Collater.al |url=https://www.collater.al/en/philipp-frank-light-installation/ |access-date=17 December 2022 |website=Collateral |language=en-US}}</ref> |
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=== Social games (board games, card games) === |
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[[Plant pathology]] scientist Lisa Vaillancourt at the [[University of Kentucky]] developed a 'Fungal Mating Game' based on standard card decks as an educational tool for students to better understand the process and concept of fungal mating using the mating of ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' (baker's yeast), ''[[Neurospora crassa]]'', ''Ustilago maydis'', and ''[[Schizophyllum commune]]'' as an example. The game can be played both collaboratively and competitively.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vaillancourt |first=Lisa |date=2018 |title=The Fungal Mating Game: A Simple Demonstration of the Genetic Regulation of Fungal Mating Compatibility. |url=https://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/foreducators/TeachingNotes/Pages/FungalMatingGame.aspx |journal=The Plant Health Instructor}}</ref><ref name=":21">{{Cite web |last=Rokas |first=Antonis |title=Where sexes come by the thousands |url=http://theconversation.com/where-sexes-come-by-the-thousands-105554 |access-date=19 November 2022 |website=The Conversation |date=30 October 2018 |language=en}}</ref> |
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== Mycelia or hyphae == |
== Mycelia or hyphae == |
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ons_2017.jpg)
- Pre-Columbian mushroom sculptures (c. 1000 BCE – c. 500 CE)
- A glass sculpture (c. 1940) by mycologist William Dillon Weston, depicting the Botrytis cinerea, a phytopathogen
- 'Champi(gn)ons' (2017), a sculpture by artist Vera Meyer made with parasol mushrooms (Macrolepiota procera, metal, shellac, 30 x 20 x 8 cm).
- 'MY-CO SPACE' (2018), a building prototype using the mycelium of Fomes fomentarius.
Fungi are a common theme or working material in art. They appear in many different artworks around the world, starting as early as around 8000 BCE.[1] Fungi appear in nearly all art forms, including literature, paintings, and graphic arts; and more recently, contemporary art, music, photography, comic books, sculptures, video games, dance, cuisine, architecture, fashion, and design. There are a few exhibitions dedicated to fungi, and even an entire museum (the Museo del Hongo in Chile).
Contemporary artists experimenting with fungi often work within the realm of BioArts and may use fungi as materials. Artists may use fungi as allegory, narrative, or props. In addition, artists may also film fungi with time-lapse photography to display fungal life cycles or try more experimental techniques. Artists using fungi may explore themes of transformation, decay, renewal, sustainability, or cycles of matter. They may also work with mycologists, ecologists, designers, or architects in a multidisciplinary way.
Artists may be indirectly influenced by fungi via derived substances (such as alcohol or psilocybin). They may depict the effects of these substances, make art under the influence of these substances, or in some cases, both.
By artistic area
In Western art, fungi have been historically saturated with negative associations, whereas Asian art and folk art are generally more favourable towards fungi. Reflecting these representations of mushrooms, Western cultures have been referred to as mycophobes (fear, loathing, or hostility towards mushrooms), a term first coined as fungophobia by British mycologist William Delisle Hay in his 1887 book An Elementary Text-Book of British Fungi,[2][3] whereas Asian cultures have been generally described as mycophiles.[4][5]
Since 2020, the annual Fungi Film Festival has recognized movies about fungi in all genres.[6]
In some stories or artworks, fungi play an allegorical role, or part of mythology and folklore. The visible parts of some fungi – particularly mushrooms with a distinctive appearance (e.g., fly agaric) – have significantly contributed to folklore.[7]
Mushrooms
Mushrooms have been represented in art traditions around the world, including in western and non-western works of art in ancient and contemporary times.[8] Mayan culture created symbolic mushroom stone sculptures which sometimes include faces that depict in a dreamlike or trance-like expression,[9] which could signify the importance of mushrooms giving hallucinations or trances.[citation needed] Mayan codices also depict mushrooms.[10] Other examples of mushroom usage in art from various cultures include the Pegtymel petroglyphs of Russia and Japanese Netsuke figurines.[8]
Contemporary art depictions of mushrooms also exist. such as a contemporary Japanese piece that represents baskets of matsutake mushrooms laid atop bank notes, thus showing an association of mushrooms and prosperity.[8] Anselm Kiefer's work, Über Deutschland and Sonja Bäumel's Objects use images of mushrooms.[11] Some claim that themes such as sustainable living, and considerations associated with the science of fungi and biotechnologies are present in these works.[11] Some of these contemporary artists create art that is interactive and performative.[12]
Mushrooms have also appeared in Christian paintings, for example in the panel painting by Hieronymus Bosch, The Haywain Triptych.[13][5] The Registry of Mushrooms in Works of Art is maintained by the North American Mycological Association. The stated goal of the registry is "to contribute to the understanding of the relationship between mushrooms and people as reflected in works of art from different historical periods, and to provide enjoyment to anyone interested in the subject."[14] Started by Elio Schaechter, author of In the Company of Mushrooms, the project is ongoing.[15]
Mycelia or hyphae
Mycelia and hyphae have seldom been represented, showcased, transformed, or utilized in the traditional arts due to their invisibility and the general overlook. Depictions of mycelia and hyphae in the graphic arts are very rare. The mycelium of certain fungi, like those of the polypore fungus Fomes fomentarius which is sometimes referred to as Amadou, has been reported throughout history as a biomaterial.[16] More recently, hyphae and mycelia have been used as working matter and transformed into contemporary artworks, or used as biomaterial for objects, textiles and constructions. Mycelium is investigated in cuisine as innovative food or as a source of meat alternatives like so-called 'mycoproteins.'[17] The filamentous, prolific, and fast growth of hyphae and mycelia (like moulds) in suitable conditions and growth media often makes these fungal forms good subjects of time-lapse photography. Indirectly, psychoactive substances present in certain fungi have inspired works of art, like in the triptych by Hieronymus Bosch, The Garden of Earthly Delights, with curious and visionary imagery inspired, according to some interpretations,[18] by ergotism poisoning caused by the sclerotia (hardened mycelium) of the phytopathogenic fungus Claviceps purpurea.
Graphic arts
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The German Renaissance painter Matthias Grünewald (c. 1470–1528) depicted in The Temptation of St. Anthony (1512-1516) a sufferer from ergotism, also referred to as St. Anthony's Fire. Ergotism is caused by the ingestion of sclerotia (hardened mycelium) of Claviceps purpurea, a fungal endophyte infecting rye and other plants. Ergotism is caused by the consumption of rye and other food contaminated with the sclerotia of the fungus, as in flour. Bread from contaminated flour looks black due to the sclerotia. The mycelium contains the fungal alkaloid ergotamine, a potent neurotoxin that can cause convulsions, cramps, gangrene of the extremities, hallucinations, and further adverse and potentially lethal effects depending on dosage. Ergotamine is a precursor molecule in the synthesis of psychedelic drug LSD.[19]
Music
Examples of hypha and mycelium influence in music are scarce. In her mushroom-inspired album Fossora (2022), Icelandic avant-garde musician Björk included tracks such as Mycelia and Fungal City. Fungi might have a direct influence on musical instruments. The process of wood spalting is often used as an aesthetic element, e.g. in the manufacturing of guitar bodies. The luthier Rachel Rosenkrantz experiments with fungi (mycelium) to create 'Mycocast,' a guitar body made of fungal biomass due to the acoustic properties of mycelium and its growth plasticity (i.e. the ability to take virtually any shape upon being cast in a desired form).[20] According to an interpretation, violins from wood infiltrated by mycelia of the fungus Xylaria polymorpha (commonly called 'dead man's fingers') produce sounds close to those from a Stradivarius violin.[7] Researchers are investigating the use of fungi to the species Physisporinus vitreus and Xylaria longipes in controlled wood decay experiments to create wood with superior qualities for musical instruments.[21][22][23] In some cases, music generation using fungi is conceptual, as in Psychotropic house (2015) and Mycomorph lab (2016) of the Zooetic Pavillion by the Urbonas Studio based in Vilnius (Lithuania) and Cambridge (Massachusetts), in which a mycelial structure is designed to act as an amplifier for sounds from nature mixed into loops.[24][25]
Architecture, sculptures, and mycelium-based biomaterials
Direct applications of fungi in architecture (as well as design and fashion) often start with artistic experimentations with fungi.[26][27][28] Mycelium is being investigated and developed by researchers and companies into a sustainable packaging solution as an alternative to polystyrene.[29] Mycelium as a working matter in sculptures is attracting interest from artists working in the contemporary arts.[30]
Early experimentations by artists with mycelia have been exhibited at the New York Museum of Modern Art.[31] Experimentations with fungi as components– and not only as contaminants or degraders of buildings – started around 1950.[32] Collaborations between scientists, artists, and society at large are investigating and developing mycelium-based structures as building materials.[33] Use of fungi from the genera Ganoderma, Fomes, Trametes, Pycnoporus, or Perenniporia (and more) in architecture include applications such as concrete replacement, 3D printing, soundproof elements, insulation, biofiltration, and self-sustaining, self-repairing structures.[34][35][36][37]
Besides the study of fungi for their beneficial application in architecture, risk assessments investigate the potential risk fungi can pose with regard to human and environmental health, including pathogenicity, mycotoxin production, insect attraction through volatile compounds, or invasiveness.[38]
Fashion, design, and mycelium-based textiles
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Historically, ritual masks made of lingzhi mushroom (species from the genera Ganoderma) have been reported in Nepal and indigenous cultures in British Columbia.[40] Fungal mycelia are molded, or rather grown, into sculptures and bio-based materials for product design, including into everyday objects, to raise awareness about circular economics and the impact that petrol-based plastics have on the environment.[41][42] Biotechnology companies like Ecovative Design, MycoWorks, and others are developing mycelium-based materials that can be used in the textile industry. Fashion brands like Adidas, Stella McCartney, and Hermès are introducing vegan alternatives to leather made from mycelium.[43][44][45][46][47][39]
The tinder polypore Fomes fomentarius (materials derived from which are referred to as 'Amadou') has been used by ancestral cultures and civilizations due to its flammable, fibrous, and insect-repellent properties.[7] Amadou was a precious resource to ancient people, allowing them to start a fire by catching sparks from flint struck against iron pyrites. Bits of fungus preserved in peat have been discovered at the Mesolithic site of Star Carr in the UK, modified presumably for this purpose. [48] Remarkable evidence for its utility is provided by the discovery of the 5,000-year-old remains of "Ötzi the Iceman", who carried it on a cross-alpine excursion before his death and subsequent ice-entombment.[49] Amadou has great water-absorbing abilities. It is used in fly fishing for drying out dry flies that have become wet.[50][51] Another use is for forming a felt-like fabric used in the making of hats and other items.[52][53] It can be used as a kind of artificial leather.[54] Mycologist Paul Stamets famously wears a hat made of amadou.[55] Fungi have been used a biomaterial since many centuries, for example as fungus-based textiles. An early example of such "mycotextiles" comes from the early 20th century: a wall pocket originating from the Tlingit, an Indigenous Population from the Pacific Northwest (US) and displayed as historical artefact at the Dartmouth College's Hood Museum of Art, turned out to be made of mycelium from the tree-decaying agarikon fungus.[56] Fungal mycelia are used as leather-like material (also known as pleather, artificial leather, or synthetic leather), including for high-end fashion design products.[57]
Beside their use in clothing, fungus-based biomaterials are used in packaging and construction.[58] There are several advantages and potentials of using fungus-based materials rather than commonly used ones. These include the smaller environmental impact compared with the use of animal products; vertical farming, able to decrease land use; the thread-like growth of mycelium, able to be molded into desirable shapes; use of growth substrate derived from agricultural wastes and the recycling of mycelium within the principles of circular economy; and mycelium as self-repairing structures.[59][60][61]
Culinary arts
Mushrooms are traditionally the main form of fungi used for direct consumption in the culinary arts. The fermentative abilities of mould and yeasts have a direct influence on a great variety of food products, including products such as beer, wine, sake, kombucha, coffee, soy sauce, tofu, cheese, and chocolate.[62] Recently, mycelium has been increasingly investigated as an innovative food source. The restaurant The Alchemist in Copenhagen (Denmark) experiments with mycelium of fungi such as Aspergillus oryzae, Pletorus (oyster mushroom), and Brettanomyces with funding from the Good Food Institute, to create novel fungus-based dishes, including the creation of mycelium-based seafood and the consumption of raw, fresh mycelium grown on a Petri dish with a nutrient-rich broth.[63] The US-based company Ecovative is creating fungus-based food as a meat alternative, including mycelium-based bacon.[64][65] The US-based company Nature's Fynd is developing various kinds of food products, including meatless patties and cream cheese substitutes, using the so-called 'Fy' protein from Fusarium.[66]
Contemporary arts
"At this point, I stepped back and let the sculpture sculpt itself."
— Xiaojing Yan, Mythical Mushrooms: Hybrid Perspectives on Transcendental Matters
Hypha and mycelium get attention as working matter in contemporary art due to their growth and plasticity and are used to explore the biological properties of degradation, decomposition, budding ('mushrooming'), and sporulation. An early form of BioArt is Agar art, where various microorganisms (including fungi) are grown on agar plates into desired shapes and colours. Thus, the agar substrate becomes a canvas for microbes, which are an analogue to the artist's colour repertoire (palette). In agar art, fungi (and other microorganisms, mostly bacteria) assume different appearances based on intrinsic characteristics of the fungus (species, morphology, fungal form, pigmentation), as well as external parameters (like inoculation technique, incubation time or temperature, nutrient growth medium, etc.). Microorganisms can also be engineered to produce colours or effects which are not intrinsic to them or are not present in nature (e.g., they are mutant from the wild type), like for example bioluminescence. The American Society for Microbiology (ASM) holds an annual 'Agar Art Contest' which attracts considerable attention and elaborate agar artworks.[67][68] An early 'agar artist' was physician, bacteriologist and Nobel Prize winner Alexander Fleming (1881-1955).[69][70]
The Folk Stone Power Plant (2017), like the Mushroom Power Plant (2019), by Lithuanian artist duo Urbonas Studio, are physical installations based on 'mycoglomerates,' which is an interpretation and representations of vaguely-described microbial symbioses aimed at energy production alternative to fossil fuel.[30][71] The Folk Stone Power Plant is a 'semi-fictional' alternative battery installed in Folkestone (UK) during the Folkestone Triennale, aiming at a reflection about symbioses (both in nature and between artists and scientists) and about unconventional power sources. The design is based on drawings from polymath and naturalist Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859), while the microbial power source, hidden within the stone, mirrors the largely unnoticed, yet crucial, contribution of mycelial networks (that is, mycorrhiza) in ecology.[30]
In Chinese-Canadian artist Xiaojing Yan's work, Linghzi Girl (2020), female bust statues cast with the mycelium of lingzhi fungus (Ganoderma lingzhi) are exhibited and left to germinate. From the mycelium-based sculptures sprout mushrooms which eventually spread; once ripe, a cocoa-powder dust of spores blooms on the bust, after which the sculptures are preserved by desiccation to stop the fungal cycle and maintain the artwork.[73] Artist Xiaojing Yan thus explains the audience's reaction to her work:
- "The uncanny appearance of these busts seems frightening for many viewers. But a Chinese viewer would recognize the lingzhi and immediately become delighted by the discovery."[40]
During an artist-in-residence project The colors of life (2021) at the Techische Universität Berlin (Germany), artist Sunanda Sharma focuses on the fungus Aspergillus niger, and visualises its black pigmentation through fungal melanin by means of video, photography, animation, and time-lapse footage. Within the same residence, the artist created an open-source database The Living Color Database (LCDB), which is an online compendium of biological colors for scientists, artists, and designers. The Living Color Database links organisms across the tree of life (in particular fungi, bacteria, and archaea) with their natural pigments, the molecules' chemistry, biosynthesis, and colour index data (HEX, RGB, and Pantone), and the corresponding scientific literature. The Living Color Database comprises 445 entries from 110 unique pigments and 380 microbial species.[72]
Spores
Fungal spores are the equivalent of seeds in plants; mushrooms are fungal structures where spores mature and are released from. Many fungi do not form spores but reproduce by budding like yeasts; other fungi form so-called 'vegetative spores,' which are specialized cells able to withstand unfavorable growth conditions, as in black yeasts. Lichens also do not reproduce and disperse by sporulation.[74]
Single fungal spores are invisible to the naked eye and examples of artworks involving spores are rarer than artworks involving other fungal forms. Fungal spores are employed as an agent of contamination, invasion, infection or decay in works of fiction (e.g. The Last of Us). In contemporary art, spores might be used to reflect on the process of transformation.[40]
Graphic arts
So-called 'spore prints' are created by pressing the underside of a mushroom to a flat surface, either white or coloured, to allow the spores to be imprinted on the sheet. Since some mushrooms can be recognized based on the colour of their spores, spore prints are a diagnostic tool as well as an illustrative technique.[7] Several artists used and modified the technique of spore printing for artistic purposes. Mycologist Sam Ristich exhibited several of his spore prints in an art gallery in Maine around 2005–2008.[7] The North American Mycological Association (NAMA) created a 'how-to guide' for people interested in creating their own spore prints.[75]
The artwork Auspicious Omen – Lingzhi Spore Painting by Chinese-Canadian artist Xiaojing Yan creates abstract compositions resembling traditional Chinese landscapes by fixing spores of the linghzi fungus with acrylic reagents.[73] The linghzi mycelial sculptures by Xiaojing Yan, including Linghzi Girl (2020) and Far From Where You Divined (2017) are allowed to germinate into mushrooms during exhibition, creating a dust of spores raining down on the female busts, children, deer, and rabbits. The artworks are then desiccated for preservation, stopping the fungal growth and the metamorphosis of the sculptures. Artworks as such, including growth of the fungus, an incontrollable transformation of the art object, and several forms in the fungal life cycle, are rare.[40]
Comic books and video games
The video game franchise The Last of Us is a post-apocalyptic, third-person action-adventure game set in North America in the near future after a mutant fungus decimates humanity. The 'fungal apocalypse' is inspired by the effect ant-pathogenic fungi like Ophiocordyceps unilateralis have on their insect prey. The infected zombie-like creatures develop cannibalism after inhaling spores and can transmit the fungal infection to other humans by biting. A television adaptation aired in January 2023. "Come into My Cellar" by Ray Bradbury has been adapted into a comic strip by Dave Gibbon and an adaptation into Italian appeared for the comic series Corto Maltese in 1992 with the name "Vieni nella mia cantina".[76]
Yeasts, moulds, or lichens
Many fungi do not reproduce and disperse by spores. Instead, they live as single cells and reproduce by budding or fission as in yeasts, or live in a symbiosis with an algal or cyanobacterial partner as in lichens. Despite being unicellular, yeasts can reproduce sexually by mating and can occasionally grow in a filamentous way.[77] Moulds do form spores ('asexual spores') but no mushrooms, and grow into filaments (hyphae and mycelia) which thrive in moist environments and spoil food. Moulds, like those which spoil food, are major natural producers of antibiotics, like penicillin.
Yeasts, moulds, and lichens did not enter into the arts very often and their direct influence in the arts remains modest. Indirectly, yeasts have influenced art, as alcohol fermentation has contributed to different cultures around the globe and across time; in La traviata (1853) by Italian opera composer Giuseppe Verdi, for example, one of the best-known opera melodies is 'Libiamo ne' lieti calici' (in English, translated into "Let's drink from the joyful cups"), which is one of numerous brindisi (toast) hymn. Other testimonies of the indirect effect of yeasts in the arts are the numerous deities and myths associated with wine and beer. Yeasts and moulds are often an agent of decay and contamination in the arts, whereas recently they are increasingly used in contemporary art in a positive or neutral way to reflect on processes of transformation, interaction, decay, circular economy, and sustainability.[26][27]
Examples of yeasts, moulds or lichens in the arts include:
- Ernst Haeckel illustrations of lichens in Kunstformen der Natur (1904)
- Chemical compounds from some lichens are used as dyeing substances[78] (this is also true for compounds derived from mushrooms[72][79])
- In the science fiction novel Trouble with Lichen (1960) by John Wyndham, a chemical extract from a lichen is able to slow down the aging process, with a profound influence on society
- In Stephen King's horror short story Gray Matter (1973), a recluse man living with his son drinks a 'foul beer' and slowly transforms into an inhuman blob-like abomination that craves warm beer and shuns light and transmutes into a fungus-like fictional creature
- The short movie Who's Who in Mycology (2016) by Marie Dvoráková,[80] involves "a young trombone player [...] trying to open an impossible bottle of wine [...] and some mold gets in his way"
- The novel Lichenwald (2019) by Ellen King Rice, author of 'Mushroom Thrillers'[81] is a crime story involving lichens, dementia, and manipulations[82]
- The Dutch textile artist Lizan Freijsen created the Fungal Wall for the microbe museum Micropia, together with TextielMuseum Tilburg, a wall-sized tapestry with tufting resembling mould growth[83][84][85]
- From Peel to Peel project (2018) by biodesigner Emma Sicher, using the metabolic properties of yeasts and bacteria to create cellulose from food waste as biodegradable packaging material[86]
- In so-called 'mould paintings,' surfaces of buildings or sculptures are intentionally overgrown with moulds to create visually appealing effects
- The contemporary artist Kathleen Ryan creates oversized, composite sculptures of rotting fruits, like in the Bad Fruit series (2020)[87][88]
- The short movie Wrought (2022) by Joel Penner and Anna Sigrithur is a series of time-lapses exploring rot, fermentation and decay displaying moulds, yeasts, mushrooms, and further decomposers[89]
Performative arts (theatre, comedy, dance, performance art)
The musical theatre show The Mould That Changed the World is a show running both in the US (in Washington, D.C. and Atlanta, Georgia) and the UK (in Edinburgh and Glasgow, Scotland) which centers around the life and legacy of Alexander Fleming, the Scottish discoverer of the antibiotic penicillin and 1945 Nobel Prize winner in Physiology or Medicine.[90][91] Alexander Fleming discovered in 1928 during his work as bacteriologist that bacteria growing on a Petri dish were inhibited by a mould contamination, namely from a fungus of the genus Penicillium, from which the antibiotic name 'penicillin' derives. The story involves jumps in time to highlight the legacy of the discovery of antibiotics and is partly set during the Great War, when Alexander Fleming served as a private, as well as the personification of some characters (e.g. Mother Earth). The musical has been developed for educational purposes to raise awareness against the tremendous, worldwide threat that the rise of antimicrobial resistance poses.[92][93] The musical provides teaching resources[90] and has been developed with the participation of the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy (BSAC).[91] The musical choir is composed of both professional singers and actors as well as health care professionals, lab technicians, and scientists, and is an example of an artistic project merging science and the arts.[90]
The dance contest for scientists called 'Dance your Ph.D.' sponsored by the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) is an annual competition established in 2008 encouraging communication and education of complex scientific topics through interpretative dance. All scientific fields and areas of research are covered (biology, chemistry, physics, and social science), and several contestant entries involved fungi, including some winners. The 2014 winner was plant pathologist and aerial acrobat Uma Nagendra from the University of Georgia (Athens) with Plant-Soil Feedbacks After Severe Tornado Damage, a trapeze-circus dance representing the effect of extreme environmental events (like tornadoes) on tree seedlings and the positive effect those events can have with regard to withstanding phytopathogenic fungi.[94] The 2022 winner was Lithuanian scientist Povilas Šimonis from Vilnius University with Electroporation of Yeast Cells, a dance illustrating the effect of electroporation (a method involving pulses of electricity to deactivate cells, or make them more porous and prone to acquire extracellular DNA, a crucial step in genetic engineering) on yeasts.[95]
Contemporary arts
In the contemporary arts, works involving fungi are often interactive and/or performative and tend to transform and utilize fungi rather than merely represent and showcase them.[96] In her work, Myconnect (2013), bioartist Saša Spačal invites the audience to interact with the artwork, involving Shiitake (Lentinula edodes) or Oyster mushrooms (from the genus Pleurotus), which takes the form of a capsule connecting the human with the fungus on a sensory level.[96] Bioartists use yeasts to provoke a reflection on genetic engineering. Slovenian intermedia artist Maja Smrekar's created yoghurt using genetically-modified yeast with a gene from the artist herself in Maya Yoghurt (2012).[97] In 2015, the blogger and feminist Zoe Stavri baked sourdough bread using yeast she isolated from her own vaginal yeast infection using a Dildo, which she then mixed with flour and water and let leaven, and finally ate.[98][99][100] The activity, which she documented both on her blog posts and on social media, tagging it with the hashtag #cuntsourdough, caused a lot of discussion on social media, including repulsion, hate messages, and food safety concerns, as the practice did not involve axenic isolation of the leavening yeast; however, during baking, microorganisms present in the dough are most probably heat deactivated and thus harmless.[98] As the activist herself noted: "People have been making and eating sourdough [with wild yeasts] for millennia."[101] People had experimented before with microorganisms from the vaginal microbiota to create food and incite a reflection on the topic of food fermentation and female bodily autonomy and self-determination.
The exhibition Fermenting Futures (2022) by bioartists Alex May and Anna Dumitriu in collaboration with the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU) is an artwork focusing on the role of yeast biotechnology confronting global issues of contemporary society. The artist cultured and showcased fermentation flasks of Pichia pastoris used for the bioconversion of carbon dioxide into biodegradable plastics. The artwork The Bioarchaeology of Yeast recreates by moulding the biodeterioration marks left by certain yeasts, like black yeasts, on work of art and sculptures, and displays them as aesthetic objects, reflecting on the process of erosion; the installation Culture used CRISPR technology to confer to a non-fermenting strain of Pichia pastoris the ability to ferment and work as a leavening agent as the baker's yeast.[103][104] A team of artists and researchers developed novel art techniques using the model (that is, widely studied in laboratory research) mould Aspergillus nidulans. The artist-scientist team described the development of two new techniques: 'Fungal Dot Painting' and 'Etched Fungal Art.' In Fungal Dot Painting, akin to pointillism where small dots unite to compose an image, fungal conidia are inoculated into agar droplets which are then deposited on a dark surface of black acrylic glass for contrast, and incubated at the desired condition to allow fungal growth. In 'Etched Fungal Art', an acrylic glass surface modified by etching (lathing or printmaking) is poured over with a suspension of fungal conidia in an agar-based substrate, and then incubated to permit fungal growth into the etched channels. Both art forms allow for temporal dynamism, insofar as being composed of living fungal organisms they change and evolve over time.[102]
See also
References
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Further reading
- Chan, Jonathan (2020-01-18). "The magic of mushrooms in arts – in pictures". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 15 December 2022.
- "'Everyone loves a mushroom': London show celebrates art of the fungi". The Guardian. 25 December 2022. Retrieved 2022-12-15.
- Guy, Nathaniel (2023). Kinoko: A Window into the Mystical World of Japanese Mushrooms. Self-published. ASIN B0BRN8G8KY.
External links
- The Registry of Mushrooms in Works of Art from the North American Mycological Association
- Mary Banning: Fungi of Maryland
- Digitized painting from Lewis David von Schweinitz (1780–1834) by the Academy of Natural Sciences of Drexel (Philadelphia)
- 'Bad Bug Bookclub' by the Manchester Metropolitan University
- Quarterly periodical FUNGI Magazine running a regular feature called Bookshelf Fungi reviewing fiction and non-fiction books on fungi.
- Poem by Neil Gaiman, The Mushrooms Hunter, featured in a short animated video
- The online book club 'MycoBookClub' discussing monthly a selection of mostly non-fiction books on fungi on Twitter
- Documentary Pegtymel (2001) by director Andrei Golovnev
- Documentary The Mushroom Speaks (2001) by Marion Neumann
- Short movie Wrought (2022) by Joel Penner and Anna Sigrithur
- Short movie Who's Who in Mycology (2016) by Maritree Dvoráková
- Fungi Film Festival
- UK Fungus Day Film Festival (since 2022) by the British Mycological Society
- Frank Frazetta's Cover image of the 1964 edition of the novel The Secret People (1935) by John Beynon
- The radio station 'Nanotopia Midnight Mushroom Music' devoted to streaming mushroom-generated music
- Resources to encourage all aspects of 'mycophagy' by the North American Mycological Association (NAMA)
- Telluride Mushroom Festival in Telluride, Colorado (US)
- Radical Mycology Convergence in Mulino, Oregon (US)
- Musical theatre show The Mould That Changed the World
- The Living Color Database available at www.color.bio
- Vera Meyer: Pilze zwischen Wissenschaft und Kunst (Fungi between science and art), BIOTOPIA, 2021
- Educational and field trip resources by the Fungi Foundation
- The Fungus Files aimed at educating children at elementary-school level by the North American Mycological Association (NAMA)
- Educational resources by the Mycological Society of America (MSA)
- The Society for the Protection of Underground Networks (SPUN) website
- Fungus Fest by the New York Mycological Society (NYMS)
- 'The Art of Mushroom' exhibition
- 'El Museo del Hongo' (The Fungus Museum)
- 'Nature's Mysterious Networks: Mushrooms, Mycelia and Yeasts' at Groundwork Gallery in Norfolk (UK)
- 'MUSHROOMS: The Art, Design and Future of Fungi' at Somerset House in London (UK); featured in Google Arts & Culture
- Visual Art Contests and Photography Contests by the North American Mycological Association (NAMA)
- The Fauna Flora Funga initiative
- UK Fungus Day by the British Mycological Society
- Massee Art Grant by the British Mycological Society