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'''Low anterior resection syndrome''' is a [[surgical complication|complication]] of [[lower anterior resection]], a type of surgery performed to remove the [[rectum]], typically for [[rectal cancer]]. It is characterized by changes to bowel function that affect quality of life, and includes symptoms such as [[fecal incontinence]], incomplete defecation or the sensation of incomplete defecation ([[rectal tenesmus]]), changes in stool frequency or consistency, unpredictable bowel function, and painful defecation (dyschezia).<ref name=Keane2020>{{cite journal |last1=Keane |first1=C |last2=Fearnhead |first2=NS |last3=Bordeianou |first3=LG |last4=Christensen |first4=P |last5=Basany |first5=EE |last6=Laurberg |first6=S |last7=Mellgren |first7=A |last8=Messick |first8=C |last9=Orangio |first9=GR |last10=Verjee |first10=A |last11=Wing |first11=K |last12=Bissett |first12=I |last13=LARS International Collaborative |first13=Group |title=International Consensus Definition of Low Anterior Resection Syndrome. |journal=Diseases of the Colon and Rectum |date=March 2020 |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=274–284 |doi=10.1097/DCR.0000000000001583 |pmid=32032141|pmc=7034376 }}</ref> Treatment options include symptom management, such as use of [[Enema|enemas]], or surgical management, such as creation of a [[colostomy]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ridolfi |first1=Timothy J. |last2=Berger |first2=Nicholas |last3=Ludwig |first3=Kirk A. |date=September 2016 |title=Low Anterior Resection Syndrome: Current Management and Future Directions |journal=Clinics in Colon and Rectal Surgery |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=239–245 |doi=10.1055/s-0036-1584500 |issn=1531-0043 |pmc=4991969 |pmid=27582649}}</ref>
'''Low anterior resection syndrome''' is a [[surgical complication|complication]] of [[lower anterior resection]], a type of surgery performed to remove the [[rectum]], typically for [[rectal cancer]]. It is characterized by changes to bowel function that affect quality of life, and includes symptoms such as [[fecal incontinence]], incomplete defecation or the sensation of incomplete defecation ([[rectal tenesmus]]), changes in stool frequency or consistency, unpredictable bowel function, and painful defecation ([[dyschezia]]).<ref name=Keane2020>{{cite journal |last1=Keane |first1=C |last2=Fearnhead |first2=NS |last3=Bordeianou |first3=LG |last4=Christensen |first4=P |last5=Basany |first5=EE |last6=Laurberg |first6=S |last7=Mellgren |first7=A |last8=Messick |first8=C |last9=Orangio |first9=GR |last10=Verjee |first10=A |last11=Wing |first11=K |last12=Bissett |first12=I |last13=LARS International Collaborative |first13=Group |title=International Consensus Definition of Low Anterior Resection Syndrome. |journal=Diseases of the Colon and Rectum |date=March 2020 |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=274–284 |doi=10.1097/DCR.0000000000001583 |pmid=32032141|pmc=7034376 }}</ref> Treatment options include symptom management, such as use of [[Enema|enemas]], or surgical management, such as creation of a [[colostomy]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ridolfi |first1=Timothy J. |last2=Berger |first2=Nicholas |last3=Ludwig |first3=Kirk A. |date=September 2016 |title=Low Anterior Resection Syndrome: Current Management and Future Directions |journal=Clinics in Colon and Rectal Surgery |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=239–245 |doi=10.1055/s-0036-1584500 |issn=1531-0043 |pmc=4991969 |pmid=27582649}}</ref>


==Signs and symptoms==
==Signs and symptoms==
Low anterior resection syndrome falls into two groups. Fecal urgency, incontinence, and increased frequency make up the first. Constipation, a sense of incomplete evacuation, and trouble emptying the bowels are included in the second category. Some patients describe characteristics from both groups, either switching back and forth between the two patterns or going through both at once.<ref name="Nguyen Chokshi 2020">{{cite journal | last=Nguyen | first=Theresa H. | last2=Chokshi | first2=Reena V. | title=Low Anterior Resection Syndrome | journal=Current Gastroenterology Reports | volume=22 | issue=10 | date=2020 | issn=1522-8037 | pmid=32749603 | pmc=8370104 | doi=10.1007/s11894-020-00785-z | page=}}</ref>
Low anterior resection syndrome falls into two groups. Fecal urgency, [[Incontinence (fecal)|incontinence]], and increased frequency make up the first. [[Constipation]], a sense of incomplete evacuation, and trouble emptying the bowels are included in the second category. Some patients describe characteristics from both groups, either switching back and forth between the two patterns or going through both at once.<ref name="Nguyen Chokshi 2020">{{cite journal | last=Nguyen | first=Theresa H. | last2=Chokshi | first2=Reena V. | title=Low Anterior Resection Syndrome | journal=Current Gastroenterology Reports | volume=22 | issue=10 | date=2020 | issn=1522-8037 | pmid=32749603 | pmc=8370104 | doi=10.1007/s11894-020-00785-z | page=}}</ref>


==Causes==
==Causes==
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===Risk factors===
===Risk factors===
The two factors that negatively affect patients' bowel function after lower anterior resection are low tumour height and radiation, either pre- or post-operative. Additionally linked to worse bowel function are stomas that are temporary in nature and those that have been in place for an extended length of time. This, however, is probably a reflection of the height of the tumor and potential surgical complications, which may also have a deleterious effect on bowel function.<ref name="A meta-analysis">{{cite journal | last=Croese | first=Alexander D. | last2=Lonie | first2=James M. | last3=Trollope | first3=Alexandra F. | last4=Vangaveti | first4=Venkat N. | last5=Ho | first5=Yik-Hong | title=A meta-analysis of the prevalence of Low Anterior Resection Syndrome and systematic review of risk factors | journal=International Journal of Surgery | publisher=Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health) | volume=56 | year=2018 | issn=1743-9191 | doi=10.1016/j.ijsu.2018.06.031 | pages=234–241}}</ref>
The two factors that negatively affect patients' bowel function after lower anterior resection are low tumor height and [[Radiation therapy|radiation]], either pre- or post-operative. Additionally linked to worse bowel function are [[Stoma (medicine)|stomas]] that are temporary in nature and those that have been in place for an extended length of time. This, however, is probably a reflection of the height of the tumor and potential surgical complications, which may also have a deleterious effect on bowel function.<ref name="A meta-analysis">{{cite journal | last=Croese | first=Alexander D. | last2=Lonie | first2=James M. | last3=Trollope | first3=Alexandra F. | last4=Vangaveti | first4=Venkat N. | last5=Ho | first5=Yik-Hong | title=A meta-analysis of the prevalence of Low Anterior Resection Syndrome and systematic review of risk factors | journal=International Journal of Surgery | publisher=Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health) | volume=56 | year=2018 | issn=1743-9191 | doi=10.1016/j.ijsu.2018.06.031 | pages=234–241}}</ref>


==Mechanism==
==Mechanism==
Multiple factors likely contribute to low anterior resection syndrome. During intersphincteric resection, the internal anal sphincter may sustain direct structural damage that leads to fecal incontinence, or secondary damage from the insertion of an anastomotic device through the anus during low anterior resection.<ref name="Endosonographic evidence">{{cite journal | last=Farouk | first=Ridzuan | last2=Duthie | first2=Graeme S. | last3=Lee | first3=Peter W. R. | last4=Monson | first4=John R. T. | title=Endosonographic evidence of injury to the internal anal sphincter after low anterior resection | journal=Diseases of the Colon &amp; Rectum | publisher=Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health) | volume=41 | issue=7 | year=1998 | issn=0012-3706 | doi=10.1007/bf02235373 | pages=888–891}}</ref> In particular, if the surgical approach reaches the posterolateral side of the prostate (in men), where both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibers enter the rectal wall, damage to the internal anal sphincter's nerve supply may also result in dysfunction.<ref name="Koda Yamazaki Shuto Kosugi 2019 pp. 803–808">{{cite journal | last=Koda | first=Keiji | last2=Yamazaki | first2=Masato | last3=Shuto | first3=Kiyohiko | last4=Kosugi | first4=Chihiro | last5=Mori | first5=Mikito | last6=Narushima | first6=Kazuo | last7=Hosokawa | first7=Isamu | last8=Shimizu | first8=Hiroaki | title=Etiology and management of low anterior resection syndrome based on the normal defecation mechanism | journal=Surgery Today | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=49 | issue=10 | date=April 1, 2019 | issn=0941-1291 | doi=10.1007/s00595-019-01795-9 | pages=803–808}}</ref><ref name="Ishiyama Hinata Kinugasa Murakami 2014 pp. 1033–1042">{{cite journal | last=Ishiyama | first=Gentaro | last2=Hinata | first2=Nobuyuki | last3=Kinugasa | first3=Yusuke | last4=Murakami | first4=Gen | last5=Fujimiya | first5=Mineko | title=Nerves supplying the internal anal sphincter: an immunohistochemical study using donated elderly cadavers | journal=Surgical and Radiologic Anatomy | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=36 | issue=10 | date=April 2, 2014 | issn=0930-1038 | doi=10.1007/s00276-014-1289-3 | pages=1033–1042}}</ref>
Multiple factors likely contribute to low anterior resection syndrome. During intersphincteric resection, the [[internal anal sphincter]] may sustain direct structural damage that leads to fecal [[Fecal incontinence|incontinence]], or secondary damage from the insertion of an anastomotic device through the [[anus]] during low anterior resection.<ref name="Endosonographic evidence">{{cite journal | last=Farouk | first=Ridzuan | last2=Duthie | first2=Graeme S. | last3=Lee | first3=Peter W. R. | last4=Monson | first4=John R. T. | title=Endosonographic evidence of injury to the internal anal sphincter after low anterior resection | journal=Diseases of the Colon &amp; Rectum | publisher=Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health) | volume=41 | issue=7 | year=1998 | issn=0012-3706 | doi=10.1007/bf02235373 | pages=888–891}}</ref> In particular, if the surgical approach reaches the posterolateral side of the [[prostate]] (in men), where both the [[Sympathetic nervous system|sympathetic]] and [[Parasympathetic nervous system|parasympathetic]] [[nerve fibers]] enter the rectal wall, damage to the [[internal anal sphincter]]'s nerve supply may also result in dysfunction.<ref name="Koda Yamazaki Shuto Kosugi 2019 pp. 803–808">{{cite journal | last=Koda | first=Keiji | last2=Yamazaki | first2=Masato | last3=Shuto | first3=Kiyohiko | last4=Kosugi | first4=Chihiro | last5=Mori | first5=Mikito | last6=Narushima | first6=Kazuo | last7=Hosokawa | first7=Isamu | last8=Shimizu | first8=Hiroaki | title=Etiology and management of low anterior resection syndrome based on the normal defecation mechanism | journal=Surgery Today | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=49 | issue=10 | date=April 1, 2019 | issn=0941-1291 | doi=10.1007/s00595-019-01795-9 | pages=803–808}}</ref><ref name="Ishiyama Hinata Kinugasa Murakami 2014 pp. 1033–1042">{{cite journal | last=Ishiyama | first=Gentaro | last2=Hinata | first2=Nobuyuki | last3=Kinugasa | first3=Yusuke | last4=Murakami | first4=Gen | last5=Fujimiya | first5=Mineko | title=Nerves supplying the internal anal sphincter: an immunohistochemical study using donated elderly cadavers | journal=Surgical and Radiologic Anatomy | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=36 | issue=10 | date=April 2, 2014 | issn=0930-1038 | doi=10.1007/s00276-014-1289-3 | pages=1033–1042}}</ref>


When performing a low anterior resection, the conjoint longitudinal muscle may also sustain damage during the surgical dissection of the intersphincteric space.<ref name="Nguyen Chokshi 2020" /> Furthermore, in order to achieve a sufficient horizontal marginanally, the rectococcygeus muscle is frequently divided, which impairs the muscle's functionality.<ref name="Koda Yamazaki Shuto Kosugi 2019 pp. 803–808" />
When performing a low anterior resection, the conjoint longitudinal muscle may also sustain damage during the surgical dissection of the intersphincteric space.<ref name="Nguyen Chokshi 2020" /> Furthermore, in order to achieve a sufficient horizontal marginanally, the [[Rectococcygeal muscle|rectococcygeus muscle]] is frequently divided, which impairs the muscle's functionality.<ref name="Koda Yamazaki Shuto Kosugi 2019 pp. 803–808" />


A decrease in the maximum allowable rectal volume following low anterior resection and an increase in the false urge to urinate can result from poor compliance brought on by rectal volume loss.<ref name="Williamson Lewis Holdsworth Finan 1994 pp. 1228–1231">{{cite journal | last=Williamson | first=Michael E.R. | last2=Lewis | first2=Wyn G. | last3=Holdsworth | first3=Peter J. | last4=Finan | first4=Paul J. | last5=Johnston | first5=David | title=Decrease in the anorectal pressure gradient after low anterior resection of the rectum | journal=Diseases of the Colon &amp; Rectum | publisher=Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health) | volume=37 | issue=12 | year=1994 | issn=0012-3706 | doi=10.1007/bf02257786 | pages=1228–1231}}</ref>
A decrease in the maximum allowable rectal volume following low anterior resection and an increase in the false urge to urinate can result from poor compliance brought on by rectal volume loss.<ref name="Williamson Lewis Holdsworth Finan 1994 pp. 1228–1231">{{cite journal | last=Williamson | first=Michael E.R. | last2=Lewis | first2=Wyn G. | last3=Holdsworth | first3=Peter J. | last4=Finan | first4=Paul J. | last5=Johnston | first5=David | title=Decrease in the anorectal pressure gradient after low anterior resection of the rectum | journal=Diseases of the Colon &amp; Rectum | publisher=Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health) | volume=37 | issue=12 | year=1994 | issn=0012-3706 | doi=10.1007/bf02257786 | pages=1228–1231}}</ref>


The extrinsic spinal cord nerves that mediate the rectoanal inhibitory reflex may also be injured during a low anterior resection, resulting in intestinal dysfunction.<ref name="Remes-Troche De-Ocampo Valestin Rao 2010 pp. 1047–1054">{{cite journal | last=Remes-Troche | first=Jose M. | last2=De-Ocampo | first2=Sherrie | last3=Valestin | first3=Jessica | last4=Rao | first4=Satish S. C. | title=Rectoanal Reflexes and Sensorimotor Response in Rectal Hyposensitivity | journal=Diseases of the Colon &amp; Rectum | publisher=Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health) | volume=53 | issue=7 | year=2010 | issn=0012-3706 | doi=10.1007/dcr.0b013e3181dcb2d6 | pages=1047–1054}}</ref><ref name="Meunier Mollard 1977 pp. 233–239">{{cite journal | last=Meunier | first=Patrick | last2=Mollard | first2=Pierre | title=Control of the internal anal sphincter (manometric study with human subjects) | journal=Pflugers Archiv European Journal of Physiology | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=370 | issue=3 | year=1977 | issn=0031-6768 | doi=10.1007/bf00585532 | pages=233–239}}</ref>
The extrinsic [[spinal cord]] nerves that mediate the rectoanal inhibitory reflex may also be injured during a low anterior resection, resulting in intestinal dysfunction.<ref name="Remes-Troche De-Ocampo Valestin Rao 2010 pp. 1047–1054">{{cite journal | last=Remes-Troche | first=Jose M. | last2=De-Ocampo | first2=Sherrie | last3=Valestin | first3=Jessica | last4=Rao | first4=Satish S. C. | title=Rectoanal Reflexes and Sensorimotor Response in Rectal Hyposensitivity | journal=Diseases of the Colon &amp; Rectum | publisher=Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health) | volume=53 | issue=7 | year=2010 | issn=0012-3706 | doi=10.1007/dcr.0b013e3181dcb2d6 | pages=1047–1054}}</ref><ref name="Meunier Mollard 1977 pp. 233–239">{{cite journal | last=Meunier | first=Patrick | last2=Mollard | first2=Pierre | title=Control of the internal anal sphincter (manometric study with human subjects) | journal=Pflugers Archiv European Journal of Physiology | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=370 | issue=3 | year=1977 | issn=0031-6768 | doi=10.1007/bf00585532 | pages=233–239}}</ref>


==Diagnosis==
==Diagnosis==
Low anterior resection syndrome can be assessed using two patient questionnaires that have been validated.<ref name="Nguyen Chokshi 2020" /> After sphincter-preserving surgery, the 18-item validated Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center Bowel Function Instrument (MSKCC-BFI) can be used to assess bowel function. It was developed in 2004.<ref name="Temple Bacik Savatta Gottesman 2005 pp. 1353–1365">{{cite journal | last=Temple | first=Larissa K. | last2=Bacik | first2=Jennifer | last3=Savatta | first3=Salvatore G. | last4=Gottesman | first4=Lester | last5=Paty | first5=Philip B. | last6=Weiser | first6=Martin R. | last7=Guillem | first7=José G. | last8=Minsky | first8=Bruce D. | last9=Kalman | first9=Michelle | last10=Thaler | first10=Howard T. | last11=Schrag | first11=Deborah | last12=Wong | first12=Douglas W. | title=The Development of a Validated Instrument to Evaluate Bowel Function After Sphincter-Preserving Surgery for Rectal Cancer | journal=Diseases of the Colon &amp; Rectum | publisher=Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health) | volume=48 | issue=7 | year=2005 | issn=0012-3706 | doi=10.1007/s10350-004-0942-z | pages=1353–1365}}</ref> A 5-item validated questionnaire called the LARS score was developed in 2012 by Emmertsen et al. in a Danish population as a second scoring system to evaluate bowel function following sphincter-preserving surgery for rectal cancer.<ref name="Juul Battersby Christensen Janjua 2015 pp. 908–916">{{cite journal | last=Juul | first=T. | last2=Battersby | first2=N. J. | last3=Christensen | first3=P. | last4=Janjua | first4=A. Z. | last5=Branagan | first5=G. | last6=Laurberg | first6=S. | last7=Emmertsen | first7=K. J. | last8=Moran | first8=B. | title=Validation of the English translation of the low anterior resection syndrome score | journal=Colorectal Disease | publisher=Wiley | volume=17 | issue=10 | date=September 11, 2015 | issn=1462-8910 | doi=10.1111/codi.12952 | pages=908–916}}</ref>
Low anterior resection syndrome can be assessed using two patient questionnaires that have been validated.<ref name="Nguyen Chokshi 2020" /> After sphincter-preserving surgery, the 18-item validated [[Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center]] Bowel Function Instrument (MSKCC-BFI) can be used to assess bowel function. It was developed in 2004.<ref name="Temple Bacik Savatta Gottesman 2005 pp. 1353–1365">{{cite journal | last=Temple | first=Larissa K. | last2=Bacik | first2=Jennifer | last3=Savatta | first3=Salvatore G. | last4=Gottesman | first4=Lester | last5=Paty | first5=Philip B. | last6=Weiser | first6=Martin R. | last7=Guillem | first7=José G. | last8=Minsky | first8=Bruce D. | last9=Kalman | first9=Michelle | last10=Thaler | first10=Howard T. | last11=Schrag | first11=Deborah | last12=Wong | first12=Douglas W. | title=The Development of a Validated Instrument to Evaluate Bowel Function After Sphincter-Preserving Surgery for Rectal Cancer | journal=Diseases of the Colon &amp; Rectum | publisher=Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health) | volume=48 | issue=7 | year=2005 | issn=0012-3706 | doi=10.1007/s10350-004-0942-z | pages=1353–1365}}</ref> A 5-item validated questionnaire called the LARS score was developed in 2012 by Emmertsen et al. in a Danish population as a second scoring system to evaluate bowel function following sphincter-preserving surgery for rectal cancer.<ref name="Juul Battersby Christensen Janjua 2015 pp. 908–916">{{cite journal | last=Juul | first=T. | last2=Battersby | first2=N. J. | last3=Christensen | first3=P. | last4=Janjua | first4=A. Z. | last5=Branagan | first5=G. | last6=Laurberg | first6=S. | last7=Emmertsen | first7=K. J. | last8=Moran | first8=B. | title=Validation of the English translation of the low anterior resection syndrome score | journal=Colorectal Disease | publisher=Wiley | volume=17 | issue=10 | date=September 11, 2015 | issn=1462-8910 | doi=10.1111/codi.12952 | pages=908–916}}</ref>


Anorectal manometry objectively assesses anal sphincter function and rectal capacity by recording resting pressure, maximum squeezing pressure, rectoanal inhibitory reflex, rectal capacity, and compliance with a balloon catheter and pressure sensor. Although it can be used to direct and track the effectiveness of therapy, anorectal manometry is not necessary for the diagnosis of low anterior resection syndrome.<ref name="Cura Pales An Cruz Kim 2019 pp. 160–166">{{cite journal | last=Cura Pales | first=Chris George | last2=An | first2=Sanghyun | last3=Cruz | first3=Jan Paolo | last4=Kim | first4=Kwangmin | last5=Kim | first5=Youngwan | title=Postoperative Bowel Function After Anal Sphincter-Preserving Rectal Cancer Surgery: Risks Factors, Diagnostic Modalities, and Management | journal=Annals of Coloproctology | publisher=Korean Society of Coloproctology | volume=35 | issue=4 | date=August 31, 2019 | issn=2287-9714 | doi=10.3393/ac.2019.08.10 | pages=160–166}}</ref>
[[Anorectal manometry]] objectively assesses anal sphincter function and rectal capacity by recording resting pressure, maximum squeezing pressure, rectoanal inhibitory reflex, rectal capacity, and compliance with a balloon catheter and pressure sensor. Although it can be used to direct and track the effectiveness of therapy, [[anorectal manometry]] is not necessary for the diagnosis of low anterior resection syndrome.<ref name="Cura Pales An Cruz Kim 2019 pp. 160–166">{{cite journal | last=Cura Pales | first=Chris George | last2=An | first2=Sanghyun | last3=Cruz | first3=Jan Paolo | last4=Kim | first4=Kwangmin | last5=Kim | first5=Youngwan | title=Postoperative Bowel Function After Anal Sphincter-Preserving Rectal Cancer Surgery: Risks Factors, Diagnostic Modalities, and Management | journal=Annals of Coloproctology | publisher=Korean Society of Coloproctology | volume=35 | issue=4 | date=August 31, 2019 | issn=2287-9714 | doi=10.3393/ac.2019.08.10 | pages=160–166}}</ref>


Endoscopic rectal ultrasound is a useful tool for evaluating the pelvic floor and sphincter complex structure.<ref name="Leão Santos Goulart Caetano 2019 pp. 332–337">{{cite journal | last=Leão | first=Pedro | last2=Santos | first2=Catarina | last3=Goulart | first3=André | last4=Caetano | first4=Ana Célia | last5=Sousa | first5=Maria | last6=Hogemann | first6=Gerrit | last7=Parvaiz | first7=Amjad | last8=Figueiredo | first8=Nuno | title=TaTME: analysis of the evacuatory outcomes and EUS anal sphincter | journal=Minimally Invasive Therapy &amp; Allied Technologies | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=28 | issue=6 | date=March 19, 2019 | issn=1364-5706 | doi=10.1080/13645706.2019.1567555 | pages=332–337}}</ref>
[[Endoscopic ultrasound|Endoscopic rectal ultrasound]] is a useful tool for evaluating the [[pelvic floor]] and sphincter complex structure.<ref name="Leão Santos Goulart Caetano 2019 pp. 332–337">{{cite journal | last=Leão | first=Pedro | last2=Santos | first2=Catarina | last3=Goulart | first3=André | last4=Caetano | first4=Ana Célia | last5=Sousa | first5=Maria | last6=Hogemann | first6=Gerrit | last7=Parvaiz | first7=Amjad | last8=Figueiredo | first8=Nuno | title=TaTME: analysis of the evacuatory outcomes and EUS anal sphincter | journal=Minimally Invasive Therapy &amp; Allied Technologies | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=28 | issue=6 | date=March 19, 2019 | issn=1364-5706 | doi=10.1080/13645706.2019.1567555 | pages=332–337}}</ref>


Fecoflowmetry is a valuable technique for evaluating anorectal motor function following surgery. It works by tracking changes in flow against time and analyzing the fecal flow rate, which is the result of rectal detrusor action against anorectal outlet resistance.<ref name="Shafik Abdel-Moneim 1993 pp. 35–42">{{cite journal | last=Shafik | first=Ahmed | last2=Abdel-Moneim | first2=Khalid | title=Fecoflowmetry | journal=Diseases of the Colon &amp; Rectum | publisher=Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health) | volume=36 | issue=1 | year=1993 | issn=0012-3706 | doi=10.1007/bf02050299 | pages=35–42}}</ref>
Fecoflowmetry is a valuable technique for evaluating anorectal motor function following surgery. It works by tracking changes in flow against time and analyzing the fecal flow rate, which is the result of rectal detrusor action against anorectal outlet resistance.<ref name="Shafik Abdel-Moneim 1993 pp. 35–42">{{cite journal | last=Shafik | first=Ahmed | last2=Abdel-Moneim | first2=Khalid | title=Fecoflowmetry | journal=Diseases of the Colon &amp; Rectum | publisher=Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health) | volume=36 | issue=1 | year=1993 | issn=0012-3706 | doi=10.1007/bf02050299 | pages=35–42}}</ref>


== References ==
==Treatment==
The foundation of treatment for low anterior resection syndrome is conservative therapy, including pelvic floor rehabilitation, [[Colon cleansing|colonic irrigation]], or minimally invasive procedures, such as spinal nerve stimulation.<ref name="Treatment Algorithm">{{cite journal | last=Martellucci | first=Jacopo | title=Low Anterior Resection Syndrome: A Treatment Algorithm | journal=Diseases of the Colon & Rectum | volume=59 | issue=1 | date=2016 | issn=0012-3706 | doi=10.1097/DCR.0000000000000495 | page=79 |url=https://journals.lww.com/dcrjournal/citation/2016/01000/low_anterior_resection_syndrome__a_treatment.12.aspx | language=en-US | access-date=January 12, 2024}}</ref>

For the short-term treatment of a single symptom, certain patients should be treated with loperamide or [[Antibiotic|antibiotics]] like neomicine or [[rifaximin]] (in the event of proximal expansion of native gut microbes or [[Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth|small-intestinal bacterial overgrowth]] shown with the [[lactulose]] breath test).<ref name="Treatment Algorithm"/>

Although [[Bile acid sequestrant|bile acid sequestrants]] like [[colesevelam]] and [[5-HT3 antagonist|5-HT3 antagonists]] like [[ramosetron]] have shown intriguing early results, more research is still needed.<ref name="Treatment Algorithm"/>

Transanal irrigation is an inexpensive and successful treatment for the high frequency of defecations and incontinence linked to low anterior resection syndrome.<ref name="Rosen Robert-Yap Tentschert Lechner 2011 pp. e335–e338">{{cite journal | last=Rosen | first=H. | last2=Robert-Yap | first2=J. | last3=Tentschert | first3=G. | last4=Lechner | first4=M. | last5=Roche | first5=B. | title=Transanal irrigation improves quality of life in patients with low anterior resection syndrome | journal=Colorectal Disease | publisher=Wiley | volume=13 | issue=10 | date=September 20, 2011 | issn=1462-8910 | doi=10.1111/j.1463-1318.2011.02692.x | pages=e335–e338}}</ref><ref name="Koch Rietveld Govaert van Gemert 2009 pp. 1019–1022">{{cite journal | last=Koch | first=S. M. P. | last2=Rietveld | first2=M. P. | last3=Govaert | first3=B. | last4=van Gemert | first4=W. G. | last5=Baeten | first5=C. G. M. I. | title=Retrograde colonic irrigation for faecal incontinence after low anterior resection | journal=International Journal of Colorectal Disease | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=24 | issue=9 | date=May 19, 2009 | issn=0179-1958 | doi=10.1007/s00384-009-0719-x | pages=1019–1022}}</ref>

[[Sacral nerve stimulation]] (SNS) is associated with improved fecal incontinence and deferred defecation among individuals with normal as well as impaired sphincters, as well as in patients with low anterior resection syndrome.<ref name="Ramage Qiu Kontovounisios Tekkis 2015 pp. 762–771">{{cite journal | last=Ramage | first=L. | last2=Qiu | first2=S. | last3=Kontovounisios | first3=C. | last4=Tekkis | first4=P. | last5=Rasheed | first5=S. | last6=Tan | first6=E. | title=A systematic review of sacral nerve stimulation for low anterior resection syndrome | journal=Colorectal Disease | publisher=Wiley | volume=17 | issue=9 | date=August 8, 2015 | issn=1462-8910 | doi=10.1111/codi.12968 | pages=762–771}}</ref>

When [[fecal incontinence]] becomes unmanageable, surgery may be a viable treatment option. When all other forms of treatment have been exhausted, a [[Stoma (medicine)|stoma]] should be taken into consideration. Sphincteric substitution and other advanced surgical techniques ought to be reserved for a very select group of patients.<ref name="Treatment Algorithm"/>

==See also==
* [[Colorectal cancer]]
* [[Lower anterior resection]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal | last=Christensen | first=Peter | last2=IM Baeten | first2=Coen | last3=Espín‐Basany | first3=Eloy | last4=Martellucci | first4=Jacopo | last5=Nugent | first5=Karen P | last6=Zerbib | first6=Frank | last7=Pellino | first7=Gianluca | last8=Rosen | first8=Harald | author9=MANUEL Project Working Group | title=Management guidelines for low anterior resection syndrome&nbsp;– the MANUEL project | journal=Colorectal Disease | volume=23 | issue=2 | date=2021 | issn=1462-8910 | pmid=33411977 | pmc=7986060 | doi=10.1111/codi.15517 | pages=461–475 | doi-access=free | ref=none}}
* {{cite journal | last=Berger | first=Nicholas | last2=Ludwig | first2=Kirk | last3=Ridolfi | first3=Timothy | title=Low Anterior Resection Syndrome: Current Management and Future Directions | journal=Clinics in Colon and Rectal Surgery | publisher=Georg Thieme Verlag KG | volume=29 | issue=03 | date=August 19, 2016 | issn=1531-0043 | doi=10.1055/s-0036-1584500 | pages=239–245 | ref=none}}
* {{cite journal | last=Keane | first=C. | last2=Wells | first2=C. | last3=O'Grady | first3=G. | last4=Bissett | first4=I. P. | title=Defining low anterior resection syndrome: a systematic review of the literature | journal=Colorectal Disease | volume=19 | issue=8 | date=2017 | issn=1462-8910 | doi=10.1111/codi.13767 | pages=713–722 | ref=none}}
* {{cite journal | last=Ziv | first=Y. | last2=Zbar | first2=A. | last3=Bar-Shavit | first3=Y. | last4=Igov | first4=I. | title=Low anterior resection syndrome (LARS): cause and effect and reconstructive considerations | journal=Techniques in Coloproctology | volume=17 | issue=2 | date=2013 | issn=1123-6337 | doi=10.1007/s10151-012-0909-3 | pages=151–162 | ref=none}}
* {{cite journal | last=Dulskas | first=Audrius | last2=Smolskas | first2=Edgaras | last3=Kildusiene | first3=Inga | last4=Samalavicius | first4=Narimantas E. | title=Treatment possibilities for low anterior resection syndrome: a review of the literature | journal=International Journal of Colorectal Disease | volume=33 | issue=3 | date=2018 | issn=0179-1958 | doi=10.1007/s00384-017-2954-x | pages=251–260 | ref=none}}
* {{cite journal | last=Juul | first=Therese | last2=Ahlberg | first2=Madelene | last3=Biondo | first3=Sebastiano | last4=Espin | first4=Eloy | last5=Jimenez | first5=Luis Miguel | last6=Matzel | first6=Klaus E. | last7=Palmer | first7=Gabriella Jansson | last8=Sauermann | first8=Anna | last9=Trenti | first9=Loris | last10=Zhang | first10=Wei | last11=Laurberg | first11=Søren | last12=Christensen | first12=Peter | title=Low Anterior Resection Syndrome and Quality of Life | journal=Diseases of the Colon &amp; Rectum | publisher=Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health) | volume=57 | issue=5 | year=2014 | issn=0012-3706 | doi=10.1097/dcr.0000000000000116 | pages=585–591 | ref=none}}
* {{cite journal | last=Annicchiarico | first=Alfredo | last2=Martellucci | first2=Jacopo | last3=Solari | first3=Stefano | last4=Scheiterle | first4=Maximilian | last5=Bergamini | first5=Carlo | last6=Prosperi | first6=Paolo | title=Low anterior resection syndrome: can it be prevented? | journal=International Journal of Colorectal Disease | volume=36 | issue=12 | date=2021 | issn=0179-1958 | doi=10.1007/s00384-021-04008-3 | pages=2535–2552 | ref=none}}

==External links==
{{Medical resources
| ICD11 = <!-- {{ICD11|Xxx.x}} -->
| ICD10 = {{ICD10|K91.8}}
| ICD10CM = <!-- {{ICD10CM|Xxx.xxxx}} -->
| ICD9 = <!-- {{ICD9|xxx}} -->
| ICDO =
| OMIM =
| MeshID = D000094123
| DiseasesDB =
| SNOMED CT = 870625007
| Curlie =
| MedlinePlus =
| eMedicineSubj =
| eMedicineTopic =
| PatientUK =
| NCI =
| GeneReviewsNBK =
| GeneReviewsName =
| NORD =
| GARDNum =
| GARDName =
| RP = 74105
| AO =
| WO =
| OrthoInfo =
| Orphanet =
| Scholia = Q111487708
| OB =
}}

{{Digestive system diseases}}


[[Category:Complications of surgical and medical care]]
[[Category:Complications of surgical and medical care]]

Revision as of 22:52, 12 January 2024

Low anterior resection syndrome
SpecialtyGastroenterology

Low anterior resection syndrome is a complication of lower anterior resection, a type of surgery performed to remove the rectum, typically for rectal cancer. It is characterized by changes to bowel function that affect quality of life, and includes symptoms such as fecal incontinence, incomplete defecation or the sensation of incomplete defecation (rectal tenesmus), changes in stool frequency or consistency, unpredictable bowel function, and painful defecation (dyschezia).[1] Treatment options include symptom management, such as use of enemas, or surgical management, such as creation of a colostomy.[2]

Signs and symptoms

Low anterior resection syndrome falls into two groups. Fecal urgency, incontinence, and increased frequency make up the first. Constipation, a sense of incomplete evacuation, and trouble emptying the bowels are included in the second category. Some patients describe characteristics from both groups, either switching back and forth between the two patterns or going through both at once.[3]

Causes

Low anterior resection syndrome emerges after rectal resection.[4]

Risk factors

The two factors that negatively affect patients' bowel function after lower anterior resection are low tumor height and radiation, either pre- or post-operative. Additionally linked to worse bowel function are stomas that are temporary in nature and those that have been in place for an extended length of time. This, however, is probably a reflection of the height of the tumor and potential surgical complications, which may also have a deleterious effect on bowel function.[5]

Mechanism

Multiple factors likely contribute to low anterior resection syndrome. During intersphincteric resection, the internal anal sphincter may sustain direct structural damage that leads to fecal incontinence, or secondary damage from the insertion of an anastomotic device through the anus during low anterior resection.[6] In particular, if the surgical approach reaches the posterolateral side of the prostate (in men), where both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibers enter the rectal wall, damage to the internal anal sphincter's nerve supply may also result in dysfunction.[7][8]

When performing a low anterior resection, the conjoint longitudinal muscle may also sustain damage during the surgical dissection of the intersphincteric space.[3] Furthermore, in order to achieve a sufficient horizontal marginanally, the rectococcygeus muscle is frequently divided, which impairs the muscle's functionality.[7]

A decrease in the maximum allowable rectal volume following low anterior resection and an increase in the false urge to urinate can result from poor compliance brought on by rectal volume loss.[9]

The extrinsic spinal cord nerves that mediate the rectoanal inhibitory reflex may also be injured during a low anterior resection, resulting in intestinal dysfunction.[10][11]

Diagnosis

Low anterior resection syndrome can be assessed using two patient questionnaires that have been validated.[3] After sphincter-preserving surgery, the 18-item validated Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center Bowel Function Instrument (MSKCC-BFI) can be used to assess bowel function. It was developed in 2004.[12] A 5-item validated questionnaire called the LARS score was developed in 2012 by Emmertsen et al. in a Danish population as a second scoring system to evaluate bowel function following sphincter-preserving surgery for rectal cancer.[13]

Anorectal manometry objectively assesses anal sphincter function and rectal capacity by recording resting pressure, maximum squeezing pressure, rectoanal inhibitory reflex, rectal capacity, and compliance with a balloon catheter and pressure sensor. Although it can be used to direct and track the effectiveness of therapy, anorectal manometry is not necessary for the diagnosis of low anterior resection syndrome.[14]

Endoscopic rectal ultrasound is a useful tool for evaluating the pelvic floor and sphincter complex structure.[15]

Fecoflowmetry is a valuable technique for evaluating anorectal motor function following surgery. It works by tracking changes in flow against time and analyzing the fecal flow rate, which is the result of rectal detrusor action against anorectal outlet resistance.[16]

Treatment

The foundation of treatment for low anterior resection syndrome is conservative therapy, including pelvic floor rehabilitation, colonic irrigation, or minimally invasive procedures, such as spinal nerve stimulation.[17]

For the short-term treatment of a single symptom, certain patients should be treated with loperamide or antibiotics like neomicine or rifaximin (in the event of proximal expansion of native gut microbes or small-intestinal bacterial overgrowth shown with the lactulose breath test).[17]

Although bile acid sequestrants like colesevelam and 5-HT3 antagonists like ramosetron have shown intriguing early results, more research is still needed.[17]

Transanal irrigation is an inexpensive and successful treatment for the high frequency of defecations and incontinence linked to low anterior resection syndrome.[18][19]

Sacral nerve stimulation (SNS) is associated with improved fecal incontinence and deferred defecation among individuals with normal as well as impaired sphincters, as well as in patients with low anterior resection syndrome.[20]

When fecal incontinence becomes unmanageable, surgery may be a viable treatment option. When all other forms of treatment have been exhausted, a stoma should be taken into consideration. Sphincteric substitution and other advanced surgical techniques ought to be reserved for a very select group of patients.[17]

See also

References

  1. ^ Keane, C; Fearnhead, NS; Bordeianou, LG; Christensen, P; Basany, EE; Laurberg, S; Mellgren, A; Messick, C; Orangio, GR; Verjee, A; Wing, K; Bissett, I; LARS International Collaborative, Group (March 2020). "International Consensus Definition of Low Anterior Resection Syndrome". Diseases of the Colon and Rectum. 63 (3): 274–284. doi:10.1097/DCR.0000000000001583. PMC 7034376. PMID 32032141.
  2. ^ Ridolfi, Timothy J.; Berger, Nicholas; Ludwig, Kirk A. (September 2016). "Low Anterior Resection Syndrome: Current Management and Future Directions". Clinics in Colon and Rectal Surgery. 29 (3): 239–245. doi:10.1055/s-0036-1584500. ISSN 1531-0043. PMC 4991969. PMID 27582649.
  3. ^ a b c Nguyen, Theresa H.; Chokshi, Reena V. (2020). "Low Anterior Resection Syndrome". Current Gastroenterology Reports. 22 (10). doi:10.1007/s11894-020-00785-z. ISSN 1522-8037. PMC 8370104. PMID 32749603.
  4. ^ Garfinkle, Richard; Boutros, Marylise (2022). "Low Anterior Resection Syndrome: Predisposing Factors and Treatment". Surgical Oncology. 43. Elsevier BV: 101691. doi:10.1016/j.suronc.2021.101691. ISSN 0960-7404.
  5. ^ Croese, Alexander D.; Lonie, James M.; Trollope, Alexandra F.; Vangaveti, Venkat N.; Ho, Yik-Hong (2018). "A meta-analysis of the prevalence of Low Anterior Resection Syndrome and systematic review of risk factors". International Journal of Surgery. 56. Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health): 234–241. doi:10.1016/j.ijsu.2018.06.031. ISSN 1743-9191.
  6. ^ Farouk, Ridzuan; Duthie, Graeme S.; Lee, Peter W. R.; Monson, John R. T. (1998). "Endosonographic evidence of injury to the internal anal sphincter after low anterior resection". Diseases of the Colon & Rectum. 41 (7). Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health): 888–891. doi:10.1007/bf02235373. ISSN 0012-3706.
  7. ^ a b Koda, Keiji; Yamazaki, Masato; Shuto, Kiyohiko; Kosugi, Chihiro; Mori, Mikito; Narushima, Kazuo; Hosokawa, Isamu; Shimizu, Hiroaki (April 1, 2019). "Etiology and management of low anterior resection syndrome based on the normal defecation mechanism". Surgery Today. 49 (10). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 803–808. doi:10.1007/s00595-019-01795-9. ISSN 0941-1291.
  8. ^ Ishiyama, Gentaro; Hinata, Nobuyuki; Kinugasa, Yusuke; Murakami, Gen; Fujimiya, Mineko (April 2, 2014). "Nerves supplying the internal anal sphincter: an immunohistochemical study using donated elderly cadavers". Surgical and Radiologic Anatomy. 36 (10). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 1033–1042. doi:10.1007/s00276-014-1289-3. ISSN 0930-1038.
  9. ^ Williamson, Michael E.R.; Lewis, Wyn G.; Holdsworth, Peter J.; Finan, Paul J.; Johnston, David (1994). "Decrease in the anorectal pressure gradient after low anterior resection of the rectum". Diseases of the Colon & Rectum. 37 (12). Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health): 1228–1231. doi:10.1007/bf02257786. ISSN 0012-3706.
  10. ^ Remes-Troche, Jose M.; De-Ocampo, Sherrie; Valestin, Jessica; Rao, Satish S. C. (2010). "Rectoanal Reflexes and Sensorimotor Response in Rectal Hyposensitivity". Diseases of the Colon & Rectum. 53 (7). Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health): 1047–1054. doi:10.1007/dcr.0b013e3181dcb2d6. ISSN 0012-3706.
  11. ^ Meunier, Patrick; Mollard, Pierre (1977). "Control of the internal anal sphincter (manometric study with human subjects)". Pflugers Archiv European Journal of Physiology. 370 (3). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 233–239. doi:10.1007/bf00585532. ISSN 0031-6768.
  12. ^ Temple, Larissa K.; Bacik, Jennifer; Savatta, Salvatore G.; Gottesman, Lester; Paty, Philip B.; Weiser, Martin R.; Guillem, José G.; Minsky, Bruce D.; Kalman, Michelle; Thaler, Howard T.; Schrag, Deborah; Wong, Douglas W. (2005). "The Development of a Validated Instrument to Evaluate Bowel Function After Sphincter-Preserving Surgery for Rectal Cancer". Diseases of the Colon & Rectum. 48 (7). Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health): 1353–1365. doi:10.1007/s10350-004-0942-z. ISSN 0012-3706.
  13. ^ Juul, T.; Battersby, N. J.; Christensen, P.; Janjua, A. Z.; Branagan, G.; Laurberg, S.; Emmertsen, K. J.; Moran, B. (September 11, 2015). "Validation of the English translation of the low anterior resection syndrome score". Colorectal Disease. 17 (10). Wiley: 908–916. doi:10.1111/codi.12952. ISSN 1462-8910.
  14. ^ Cura Pales, Chris George; An, Sanghyun; Cruz, Jan Paolo; Kim, Kwangmin; Kim, Youngwan (August 31, 2019). "Postoperative Bowel Function After Anal Sphincter-Preserving Rectal Cancer Surgery: Risks Factors, Diagnostic Modalities, and Management". Annals of Coloproctology. 35 (4). Korean Society of Coloproctology: 160–166. doi:10.3393/ac.2019.08.10. ISSN 2287-9714.
  15. ^ Leão, Pedro; Santos, Catarina; Goulart, André; Caetano, Ana Célia; Sousa, Maria; Hogemann, Gerrit; Parvaiz, Amjad; Figueiredo, Nuno (March 19, 2019). "TaTME: analysis of the evacuatory outcomes and EUS anal sphincter". Minimally Invasive Therapy & Allied Technologies. 28 (6). Informa UK Limited: 332–337. doi:10.1080/13645706.2019.1567555. ISSN 1364-5706.
  16. ^ Shafik, Ahmed; Abdel-Moneim, Khalid (1993). "Fecoflowmetry". Diseases of the Colon & Rectum. 36 (1). Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health): 35–42. doi:10.1007/bf02050299. ISSN 0012-3706.
  17. ^ a b c d Martellucci, Jacopo (2016). "Low Anterior Resection Syndrome: A Treatment Algorithm". Diseases of the Colon & Rectum. 59 (1): 79. doi:10.1097/DCR.0000000000000495. ISSN 0012-3706. Retrieved January 12, 2024.
  18. ^ Rosen, H.; Robert-Yap, J.; Tentschert, G.; Lechner, M.; Roche, B. (September 20, 2011). "Transanal irrigation improves quality of life in patients with low anterior resection syndrome". Colorectal Disease. 13 (10). Wiley: e335–e338. doi:10.1111/j.1463-1318.2011.02692.x. ISSN 1462-8910.
  19. ^ Koch, S. M. P.; Rietveld, M. P.; Govaert, B.; van Gemert, W. G.; Baeten, C. G. M. I. (May 19, 2009). "Retrograde colonic irrigation for faecal incontinence after low anterior resection". International Journal of Colorectal Disease. 24 (9). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 1019–1022. doi:10.1007/s00384-009-0719-x. ISSN 0179-1958.
  20. ^ Ramage, L.; Qiu, S.; Kontovounisios, C.; Tekkis, P.; Rasheed, S.; Tan, E. (August 8, 2015). "A systematic review of sacral nerve stimulation for low anterior resection syndrome". Colorectal Disease. 17 (9). Wiley: 762–771. doi:10.1111/codi.12968. ISSN 1462-8910.

Further reading

  • Christensen, Peter; IM Baeten, Coen; Espín‐Basany, Eloy; Martellucci, Jacopo; Nugent, Karen P; Zerbib, Frank; Pellino, Gianluca; Rosen, Harald; MANUEL Project Working Group (2021). "Management guidelines for low anterior resection syndrome – the MANUEL project". Colorectal Disease. 23 (2): 461–475. doi:10.1111/codi.15517. ISSN 1462-8910. PMC 7986060. PMID 33411977.
  • Berger, Nicholas; Ludwig, Kirk; Ridolfi, Timothy (August 19, 2016). "Low Anterior Resection Syndrome: Current Management and Future Directions". Clinics in Colon and Rectal Surgery. 29 (03). Georg Thieme Verlag KG: 239–245. doi:10.1055/s-0036-1584500. ISSN 1531-0043.
  • Keane, C.; Wells, C.; O'Grady, G.; Bissett, I. P. (2017). "Defining low anterior resection syndrome: a systematic review of the literature". Colorectal Disease. 19 (8): 713–722. doi:10.1111/codi.13767. ISSN 1462-8910.
  • Ziv, Y.; Zbar, A.; Bar-Shavit, Y.; Igov, I. (2013). "Low anterior resection syndrome (LARS): cause and effect and reconstructive considerations". Techniques in Coloproctology. 17 (2): 151–162. doi:10.1007/s10151-012-0909-3. ISSN 1123-6337.
  • Dulskas, Audrius; Smolskas, Edgaras; Kildusiene, Inga; Samalavicius, Narimantas E. (2018). "Treatment possibilities for low anterior resection syndrome: a review of the literature". International Journal of Colorectal Disease. 33 (3): 251–260. doi:10.1007/s00384-017-2954-x. ISSN 0179-1958.
  • Juul, Therese; Ahlberg, Madelene; Biondo, Sebastiano; Espin, Eloy; Jimenez, Luis Miguel; Matzel, Klaus E.; Palmer, Gabriella Jansson; Sauermann, Anna; Trenti, Loris; Zhang, Wei; Laurberg, Søren; Christensen, Peter (2014). "Low Anterior Resection Syndrome and Quality of Life". Diseases of the Colon & Rectum. 57 (5). Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health): 585–591. doi:10.1097/dcr.0000000000000116. ISSN 0012-3706.
  • Annicchiarico, Alfredo; Martellucci, Jacopo; Solari, Stefano; Scheiterle, Maximilian; Bergamini, Carlo; Prosperi, Paolo (2021). "Low anterior resection syndrome: can it be prevented?". International Journal of Colorectal Disease. 36 (12): 2535–2552. doi:10.1007/s00384-021-04008-3. ISSN 0179-1958.

External links

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Low_anterior_resection_syndrome&oldid=1195235061"