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==Alcohol tolerance in different ethnic groups==
==Alcohol tolerance in different ethnic groups==
The tolerance to alcohol is not equally distributed throughout the world's population, and genetics of [[Alcohol_dehydrogenase|alcohol dehydrogenas]]e indicate resistance has arisen independently in different ethnic groups.<ref name=Pakstis/> People of European descent on average have a high alcohol tolerance and are less likely to develop [[alcoholism]] compared to Aboriginal Australians, and Native Americans.<ref>Luczak ''& al.'' (2001): Binge drinking in Chinese, Korean, and White college students: Genetic and ethnic group differences. ''Psychology of Addictive Behavior'' no 15: pp 306–309</ref><ref>Mail ''& al.'' (eds., 2002): Alcohol Use Among American Indians and Alaska Natives: Multiple Perspectives on a Complex Problem. ''NIAAA Research Monograph'' No. 37. Bethesda, MD: [[National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism]]</ref><ref>Caetano, R. & Clark, C.L. (1998): Trends in alcohol–related problems among Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics: 1984–1995. ''Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research'' no 22: pp 534–538</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Ethnicity and Health Disparities in Alcohol Research|url=http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh40/152-160.htm}}</ref> This is related to an average higher body mass, but also to the prevalence of high levels of alcohol dehydrogenase in the population.<ref>Yin, S.J.; Cheng, T.C. & Chang, C.P. (1988): Human stomach alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenases (ALDH): A genetic model proposed for ALDH III isozymes. ''Biochemical Genetics'' no 26: pp 343–360</ref><ref> Fenna, D. L. & Mix, O. (1971). Ethanol metabolism in various racial groups. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 105, 472-475 [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1931291/ summary]</ref> The high alcohol tolerance in Europeans and some other ethnic groups have probably [[evolution|evolved]] as a consequence of centuries of exposure to alcohol in established agricultural societies.<ref name=diamond>{{cite book |title=[[Guns, Germs, and Steel]]: The Fates of Human Societies |last=Diamond |first=Jared |year=1997 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Co. |location= |isbn=0-393-06131-0 |page= |pages= |url= |accessdate=}}</ref><ref name=Pakstis>Osier M.V., Pakstis A.J., Soodyall H., Comas D., Goldman D., Odunsi A., Okonofua F., Parnas J., Schulz L.O., Bertranpetit J., Bonne-Tamir B., Lu R.B., Kidd J.R., Kidd K.K.(2002): A global perspective on genetic variation at the ADH genes reveals unusual patterns of linkage disequilibrium and diversity. ''[[American Journal of Human Genetics]]'' no 71: pp 84-99. [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B8JDD-4R30168-B-F&_cdi=43612&_user=10&_pii=S0002929707600378&_coverDate=07%2F31%2F2002&_sk=%23TOC%2343612%232002%23999289998%23673321%23FLA%23display%23Volume_71,_Issue_1,_Pages_i-ii,_1-215_%28July_2002%29%23tagged%23Volume%23first%3D71%23Issue%23first%3D1%23date%23%28July_2002%29%23&view=c&_gw=y&wchp=dGLbVzz-zSkzS&_valck=1&md5=778bd2c04902f5822ac98f3dae119dac&ie=/sdarticle.pdf pdf]</ref>
The tolerance to alcohol is not equally distributed throughout the world's population, and genetics of [[Alcohol_dehydrogenase|alcohol dehydrogenas]]e indicate resistance has arisen independently in different ethnic groups.<ref name=Pakstis/> People of European descent on average have a high alcohol tolerance and are less likely to develop [[alcoholism]] compared to Aboriginal Australians, and Native Americans.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1037/0893-164X.15.4.306}}</ref><ref>Mail ''& al.'' (eds., 2002): Alcohol Use Among American Indians and Alaska Natives: Multiple Perspectives on a Complex Problem. ''NIAAA Research Monograph'' No. 37. Bethesda, MD: [[National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism]]{{pn}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03685.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Ethnicity and Health Disparities in Alcohol Research|url=http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh40/152-160.htm}}</ref> This is related to an average higher body mass, but also to the prevalence of high levels of alcohol dehydrogenase in the population.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/BF00554070}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=5112118}}</ref> The high alcohol tolerance in Europeans and some other ethnic groups have probably [[evolution|evolved]] as a consequence of centuries of exposure to alcohol in established agricultural societies.<ref name=diamond>{{cite book |title=[[Guns, Germs, and Steel]]: The Fates of Human Societies |last=Diamond |first=Jared |year=1997 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Co. |location= |isbn=0-393-06131-0 |page= |pages= |url= |accessdate=}}{{pn}}</ref><ref name=Pakstis>{{cite journal |doi=10.1086/341290}}</ref>


Not all differences in tolerance can be traced to biochemistry.<ref>Bennion, L. & Li, T. K. (1976). Alcohol metabolism in american indian and whites. New England Journal of Medicine, 294, 9-13</ref> Differences in tolerance levels are also influenced by socio-economic and cultural difference including diet, average body weight and patterns of consumption.<ref> Waldram, J. B., Herring, A., & Young, K. (1995). Aboriginal Health in Canada: Historical, Cultural, and Epidemiological Perspectives. Toronto: University of Toronto Press [http://www.google.com/books?hl=no&lr=&id=O-jBWP_HgT8C&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=Aboriginal+Health+in+Canada:+Historical,+Cultural,+and+Epidemiological+Perspectives&ots=xUyzvUNIpP&sig=80CT2FCkwoFlAYVoa09jPZGvNcE#v=onepage&q&f=false Book online]</ref><ref>Saggers, S. & Gray, D. (1998b). Dealing with Alcohol: Indigenous Usage in Australia, New Zealand and Canada. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</ref>
Not all differences in tolerance can be traced to biochemistry.<ref>Bennion, L. & Li, T. K. (1976). Alcohol metabolism in american indian and whites. New England Journal of Medicine, 294, 9-13</ref> Differences in tolerance levels are also influenced by socio-economic and cultural difference including diet, average body weight and patterns of consumption.<ref> Waldram, J. B., Herring, A., & Young, K. (1995). Aboriginal Health in Canada: Historical, Cultural, and Epidemiological Perspectives. Toronto: University of Toronto Press [http://www.google.com/books?hl=no&lr=&id=O-jBWP_HgT8C&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=Aboriginal+Health+in+Canada:+Historical,+Cultural,+and+Epidemiological+Perspectives&ots=xUyzvUNIpP&sig=80CT2FCkwoFlAYVoa09jPZGvNcE#v=onepage&q&f=false Book online]</ref><ref>Saggers, S. & Gray, D. (1998b). Dealing with Alcohol: Indigenous Usage in Australia, New Zealand and Canada. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press{{pn}}</ref>


An estimated one out of three people in East Asian countries have an [[alcohol flush reaction]], colloquially known as "Asian Glow", a condition where the body metabolizes alcohol nearly 100-times more efficiently into acetaldehyde, a toxic metabolite.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17718397 |title=ALDH2, ADH1B, and ADH1C genotypes in Asians: a literature review |deadurl=no |accessdate=30 January 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2010/01/20-03.html |title=Is Rice Domestication to Blame for Red-Faced Asians? |deadurl=no |accessdate=30 January 2013}}</ref> Flushing, or blushing, is associated with the [[erythema]] (reddening caused by dilation of capillaries) of the face, neck, and shoulder, after consumption of alcohol.<ref name=ohta>{{cite journal |last= |first=S |authorlink=Ohta |coauthors=Ohsawa I, Kamino K, Ando F, Shimokata H. |year=2004 |month=April |title=Mitochondrial ALDH2 Deficiency as an Oxidative Stress |trans_title= |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |volume=1011 |issue= 1|pages=36–44 |id= |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118765604/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0 |accessdate=2009-08-13 |quote= |doi= 10.1196/annals.1293.004 |pmid= 15126281 |last1= Ohta }}</ref>
An estimated one out of three people in East Asian countries have an [[alcohol flush reaction]], colloquially known as "Asian Glow", a condition where the body metabolizes alcohol nearly 100-times more efficiently into acetaldehyde, a toxic metabolite.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=17718397}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2010/01/20-03.html |title=Is Rice Domestication to Blame for Red-Faced Asians? |deadurl=no |accessdate=30 January 2013}}</ref> Flushing, or blushing, is associated with the [[erythema]] (reddening caused by dilation of capillaries) of the face, neck, and shoulder, after consumption of alcohol.<ref name=ohta>{{cite journal |doi=10.1196/annals.1293.004}}</ref>


==Footnotes==
==Footnotes==
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==References==
==References==
*Carroll, Charles R. '' Drugs in Modern Society ''. NY: McGraw-Hill, 2000 (fifth ed.).
*Carroll, Charles R. '' Drugs in Modern Society ''. NY: McGraw-Hill, 2000 (fifth ed.).
*Chesher, G., & Greeley, J. Tolerance to the effects of alcohol. ''Alcohol, Drugs and Driving,'' 1992, ''8(2)'':93-106.
*{{cite journal |last1=Chesher |first1=G. |last2=Greeley |first2=J. |title=Tolerance to the effects of alcohol |journal=Alcohol, Drugs and Driving |year=1992 |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=93-106}}
*{{cite journal |pmid=10090900}}
*Osier M., Pakstis A.J., Kidd J.R., Lee J.F., Yin S.J., Ko H.C., Edenberg H.J., Lu R.B., Kidd K.K. Linkage disequilibrium at the ADH2 and ADH3 loci and risk of alcoholism // Am. J. Hum. Genet. 1999, 6: 1147-1157.
*{{cite journal |pmid=7635462}}
*Muramatsu T., Zu-Cheng W., Yi-Ru F., Kou-Bao H., Heqin Y., Yamada K., Higuchi S., Harada S., Kono H. Alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenase genotypes and drinking behavior of Chinese living in Shanghai // Hum. Genet. 1995,96: 151-154.
*{{cite journal |pmid=9500299}}
*Neumark Y.D., Friedlander Y., Thomasson H.R., Li T.K. Association of the ADH2*2 allele with reduced ethanol consumption in Jewish men in Israel: a pilot study // J. Stud. Alcohol. 1998, 59: 133-139.
*{{cite journal |pmid=16358724}}
*Borinskaya S. A., Gasemianrodsari F., Kalyina N. R., Sokolova M. V., Yankovsky N. K. Polymorphism of alcohol dehydrogenase gene ADH1B in eastern Slavic and Iranian-speaking populations. //Genetika. 2005, 41: 1563-1566 (in Russian).
*{{cite journal |pmid=19124091}}
*Borinskaya S., Kal'ina N., Marusin A., Faskhutdinova G., Morozova I., Kutuev I., Koshechkin V., Khusnutdinova E., Stepanov V.,Puzyrev V., Yankovsky N., Rogaev E. Distribution of the alcohol dehydrogenase ADH1B*47His allele in Eurasia //Am. J.Hum. Genet. 2009,84(1):89-92.
*{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1469-1809.2009.00517.x}}
*Li H., Borinskaya S., Yoshimura K., Kal'ina N., Marusin A., et al. Refined geographic distribution of the oriental ALDH2*504Lys (nee 487Lys) variant// Ann. Hum. Genet. 2009,73: 335–345
{{Alcohealth}}
{{Alcohealth}}


Revision as of 02:25, 3 February 2013

Gin Lane by William Hogarth, 1751, detailing the Gin Craze.

Alcohol tolerance refers to the bodily responses to the functional effects of ethanol in alcoholic beverages. This includes direct tolerance, speed of recovery from insobriety and resistance to the development of alcoholism.

Consumption-induced tolerance

Alcohol tolerance is increased by regular drinking.[1] This reduced sensitivity requires that higher quantities of alcohol be consumed in order to achieve the same effects as before tolerance was established. Alcohol tolerance may lead to (or be a sign of) alcohol dependency.[1] Heavy alcohol consumption over a period of years can lead to "reverse tolerance". A liver can be damaged by chronic alcohol use, leading to a buildup of fat and scar tissue. The reduced ability of such a liver to metabolize or break down alcohol means that small amounts can lead to a high blood alcohol concentration (BAC) and more rapid intoxication.

Physiology of alcohol tolerance

Alcohol dehydrogenase is a dimeric zinc metalloenzyme that catalyzes the reversible oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes

Direct alcohol tolerance is largely dependent on body size. Large-bodied people will require more alcohol to reach insobriety than lightly built people. Thus, men, being larger than women on average, will have a higher alcohol tolerance. The alcohol tolerance is also connected with activity of alcohol dehydrogenases (a group of enzymes responsible for the breakdown of alcohol) in the liver, and in the bloodstream. High level of alcohol dehydrogenase activity results in fast transformation of ethanol to more toxic acetaldehyde. Such atypical alcohol dehydrogenase levels are less frequent in alcoholics than in nonalcoholics and, alongside other symptoms, can indicate various forms of liver disease.[citation needed] Furthermore, among alcoholics, the carriers of this atypical enzyme consume lower ethanol doses, compared to the individuals without the allele.

Alcohol tolerance in different ethnic groups

The tolerance to alcohol is not equally distributed throughout the world's population, and genetics of alcohol dehydrogenase indicate resistance has arisen independently in different ethnic groups.[2] People of European descent on average have a high alcohol tolerance and are less likely to develop alcoholism compared to Aboriginal Australians, and Native Americans.[3][4][5][6] This is related to an average higher body mass, but also to the prevalence of high levels of alcohol dehydrogenase in the population.[7][8] The high alcohol tolerance in Europeans and some other ethnic groups have probably evolved as a consequence of centuries of exposure to alcohol in established agricultural societies.[9][2]

Not all differences in tolerance can be traced to biochemistry.[10] Differences in tolerance levels are also influenced by socio-economic and cultural difference including diet, average body weight and patterns of consumption.[11][12]

An estimated one out of three people in East Asian countries have an alcohol flush reaction, colloquially known as "Asian Glow", a condition where the body metabolizes alcohol nearly 100-times more efficiently into acetaldehyde, a toxic metabolite.[13][14] Flushing, or blushing, is associated with the erythema (reddening caused by dilation of capillaries) of the face, neck, and shoulder, after consumption of alcohol.[15]

Footnotes

  1. ^ a b "Alcohol and Tolerance". National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), Alcohol Alert (28). 1995. Retrieved 2009-08-13. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |trans_title= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  2. ^ a b . doi:10.1086/341290. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  3. ^ . doi:10.1037/0893-164X.15.4.306. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  4. ^ Mail & al. (eds., 2002): Alcohol Use Among American Indians and Alaska Natives: Multiple Perspectives on a Complex Problem. NIAAA Research Monograph No. 37. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism[page needed]
  5. ^ . doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03685.x. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  6. ^ "Ethnicity and Health Disparities in Alcohol Research".
  7. ^ . doi:10.1007/BF00554070. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  8. ^ . PMID 5112118. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  9. ^ Diamond, Jared (1997). Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-06131-0.[page needed]
  10. ^ Bennion, L. & Li, T. K. (1976). Alcohol metabolism in american indian and whites. New England Journal of Medicine, 294, 9-13
  11. ^ Waldram, J. B., Herring, A., & Young, K. (1995). Aboriginal Health in Canada: Historical, Cultural, and Epidemiological Perspectives. Toronto: University of Toronto Press Book online
  12. ^ Saggers, S. & Gray, D. (1998b). Dealing with Alcohol: Indigenous Usage in Australia, New Zealand and Canada. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press[page needed]
  13. ^ . PMID 17718397. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  14. ^ "Is Rice Domestication to Blame for Red-Faced Asians?". Retrieved 30 January 2013. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  15. ^ . doi:10.1196/annals.1293.004. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)

References

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