Early modern human: Difference between revisions

Early modern human; Temporal range: 0.3–0 Ma PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N ↓ Middle Pleistocene–Present
	Male and female H s. sapiens; (Akha in northern Thailand,; 2010 photograph)
Conservation status
	; Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukaryota
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Primates
Suborder:	Haplorhini
Infraorder:	Simiiformes
Family:	Hominidae
Subfamily:	Homininae
Tribe:	Hominini
Genus:	Homo
Species:	H. sapiens
Binomial name
	Homo sapiens; Linnaeus, 1758
Subspecies
	H. s. sapiens; †H. s. idaltu; †H. s. neanderthalensis(?); †H. s. rhodesiensis(?); (others proposed)

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Homo sapiens is the systematic name used in taxonomy (also known as binomial nomenclature) for anatomically modern humans, i.e. the only extant human species. The name is Latin for "wise man" and was introduced in 1758 by Carl Linnaeus (who is himself also the type specimen).

Extinct species of the genus Homo are classified as "archaic humans". This includes at least the separate species Homo erectus, and possibly a number of other species (which are variously also considered subspecies of either H. sapiens or H. erectus). H. sapiens idaltu (2003) is a proposed extinct subspecies of H. sapiens.

The age of speciation of H. sapiens out of ancestral H. erectus (or an intermediate species such as Homo heidelbergensis) is estimated to have taken place at roughly 300,000 years ago. Sustained archaic admixture is known to have taken place both in Africa and (following the recent Out-Of-Africa expansion) in Eurasia, between about 100,000 to 30,000 years ago.

In certain contexts, the term anatomically modern humans^[2] (AMH) is used to distinguish H. sapiens as having an anatomy consistent with the range of phenotypes seen in contemporary humans from varieties of extinct archaic humans. This is useful especially for times and regions where anatomically modern and archaic humans co-existed, e.g. in Paleolithic Europe.

Name and taxonomy

The binomial name Homo sapiens was coined by Carl Linnaeus (1758).^[3] The Latin noun homō (genitive hominis) means "human being." The species is taken to have emerged from a predecessor within the Homo genus around 200,000 to 300,000 years ago.^[4]

Extant human populations have historically been divided into subspecies, but since c. the 1980s all extant groups tend to be subsumed into a single species, H. sapiens, avoiding division into subspecies altogether.^[5]

Some sources show Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis) as a subspecies (Homo sapiens neanderthalensis).^[6]^[7] Similarly, the discovered specimens of the Homo rhodesiensis species have been classified by some as a subspecies (Homo sapiens rhodesiensis), although it remains more common to treat these last two as separate species within the genus Homo rather than as subspecies within H. sapiens.^[8]

Age and speciation process

Derivation from H. erectus

The speciation of H. sapiens out of varieties of H. erectus is estimated as having taken place between 300,000 and 200,000 years ago.

The derivation of a comparatively homogeneous single species of Homo sapiens from more diverse varieties of archaic humans (all of which were descended from the dispersal of Homo erectus some 1.8 million years ago) was debated in terms of two competing models during the 1980s: "recent African origin" postulated the emergence of Homo sapiens from a single source population in Africa, which expanded and led to the extinction of all other human varieties, while the "multiregional evolution" model postulated the survival of regional forms of archaic humans, gradually converging into the modern human varieties by the mechanism of clinal variation, via genetic drift, gene flow and selection throughout the Pleistocene.^[11]

Since the 2000s, the availability of date from archaeogenetics and population genetics has led to the emergence of a much more detailed picture, intermediate between the two competing scenarios outlined above: The recent Out-of-Africa expansion accounts for the predominant part of modern human ancestry, while there were also significant admixture events with regional archaic humans.^[12]

Since the 1970s, the Omo remains, dated to some 195,000 years ago, have often been taken as the conventional cut-off point for the emergence of "anatomically modern humans". Since the 2000s, the discovery of older remains with comparable characteristics, and the discovery of ongoing hybridization between "modern" and "archaic" populations after the time of the Omo remains, have opened up a renewed debate on the "age of Homo sapiens", in journalistic publications cast into terms of "Homo sapiens may be older than previously thought".^[13]

Homo sapiens idaltu, dated to 160,000 years ago, has been postulated as an extinct subspecies of Homo sapiens in 2003.^[14] Homo neanderthalensis, which became extinct 30,000 years ago, has also been classified as a subspecies, Homo sapiens neanderthalensis; genetic studies now suggest that the functional DNA of modern humans and Neanderthals diverged 500,000 years ago.^[15]

Early Homo sapiens

Skhul V (c. 100,000 BC) exhibiting a mix of archaic and modern traits.

The term Middle Paleolithic is intended to cover the time between the first emergence of Homo sapiens (roughly 300,000 years ago) and the emergence of full behavioral modernity (roughly 50,000 years ago).

Many of the early modern human finds, like those of Omo, Herto, Skhul, and Peștera cu Oase exhibit a mix of archaic and modern traits.^[16]^[17] Skhul V, for example, has prominent brow ridges and a projecting face. However, the brain case is quite rounded and distinct from that of the Neanderthals and is similar to the brain case of modern humans. It is now known that modern humans north of Sahara and outside of Africa have some archaic human admixture, though whether the robust traits of some of the early modern humans like Skhul V reflects mixed ancestry or retention of older traits is uncertain.^[18]^[19]

The "gracile" or lightly built skeleton of anatomically modern humans has been connected to a change in behavior, including increased cooperation and "resource transport".^[20]

There is evidence that the characteristic human brain development, especially the prefrontal cortex, was due to "an exceptional acceleration of metabolome evolution ... paralleled by a drastic reduction in muscle strength. The observed rapid metabolic changes in brain and muscle, together with the unique human cognitive skills and low muscle performance, might reflect parallel mechanisms in human evolution."^[21] The Schöningen spears and their correlation of finds are evidence of complex technological skills already 300,000 years ago and are the first obvious proof for an active (big game) hunt. H. heidelbergensis already had intellectual and cognitive skills like anticipatory planning, thinking and acting that so far have only been attributed to modern man.^[22]^[23]

The ongoing admixture events within anatomically modern human populations make it difficult to give an estimate on the age of the matrilinear and patrilinear most recent common ancestors of modern populations (Mitochondrial Eve and Y-chromosomal Adam). Estimates on the age of Y-chromosomal Adam have been pushed back significantly with the discovery of an ancient Y-chromosomal lineage in 2013, likely beyond 300,000 years ago.^[24] There has, however, been no reports of the survival of Y-chromosomal or mitochondrial DNA clearly deriving from archaic humans (which would push back the age of the most recent patrilinear or matrilinear ancestor beyond 500,000 years).^[25]

Dispersal and archaic admixture

Dispersal of early H. sapiens begins soon after its emergence.

The Khoi-San of Southern Africa may be the human population with the deepest temporal division from all other contemporary populations, estimated at close to 130,000 years ago. A 2011 study has classified them as an "ancestral population cluster". The same study also located the origin of the first wave of expansion of H. sapiens, beginning roughly 130,000 years ago, in southwestern Africa, near the coastal border of Namibia and Angola.^[26] A 2017 analysis suggested that the Khoi-San diverged from West African populations even earlier, between 260,000 and 350,000 years ago, compatible with (an upper limit of) the age of H. sapiens.^[27] Homo sapiens idaltu, found at site Middle Awash in Ethiopia, lived about 160,000 years ago.^[28] The discovery of fossils attributed to H. sapiens, along with stone tools, dated to approximately 300,000 years ago, found at Jebel Irhoud, Morocco was announced in 2017.^[29]

Early H. sapiens may have reached Asia in a first wave as early as 120,000 years ago.^[30]^[31]^[32] Evidence presented in 2017 raises the possibility that a yet earlier migration, dated to around 270,000 years ago, may have left traces of admixture in Neanderthal genome.^[33]

The Recent "Out of Africa" migration of Homo sapiens took place in at least two waves, the first around 130,000 to 100,000 years ago, the second (Southern Dispersal) around 70,000 to 60,000 years ago, resulting in the colonization of Australia around 65,000 years ago,^[34] while Europe was populated by an early offshoot which settled the Near East and Europe by around 50,000 years ago.

Evidence for the overwhelming contribution of the "recent African origin" of modern populations outside of Africa was established based on mitochondrial DNA, combined with evidence based on physical anthropology of archaic specimens, during the 1990s and 2000s.^[35] The assumption of complete replacement has been revised in the 2010s with the discovery admixture events (introgression) of populations of H. sapiens with populations of archaic humans over the period of between roughly 100,000 and 30,000 years ago, both in Eurasia and in Sub-Saharan Africa. The extent of Neanderthal admixture (and introgression of genes acquired by admixture) varies significantly between contemporary racial groups, being absent in Africans, intermediate in Europeans and highest in East Asians. Certain genes related to UV-light adaptation introgressed from Neanderthals have been found to have been selected for in East Asians specifically from 45,000 years ago until around 5,000 years ago.^[36] The extent of archaic admixture is of the order of about 1% to 4% in Europeans and East Asians, and highest among Melanesians (Denisova hominin admixture), at 4% to 6%.^[37] Cumulatively, about 20% of the Neanderthal genome is estimated to remain present in contemporary populations.^[38]

Anatomy

Generally, modern humans are more lightly built than archaic humans from which they have evolved. Humans are a highly variable species; modern humans can show remarkably robust traits, and early modern humans even more so. Despite this, modern humans differ from archaic people (the Neanderthals and Denisovans) in a range of anatomical details.

Anatomical modernity

The term "anatomically modern humans" (AMH) is used with varying scope depending on context, to distinguish "anatomically modern" Homo sapiens from archaic humans such as Neanderthals. In a convention popular in the 1990s, Neanderthals were classified as a subspecies of H. sapiens, as H. s. neanderthalensis, while AMH (or European early modern humans, EEMH) was taken to refer to "Cro-Magnon" or H. s. sapiens. Under this nomenclature (Neanderthals considered H. sapiens), the term "anatomically modern Homo sapiens" (AMHS) has also been used to refer to EEMH ("Cro-Magnons").^[39] It has since become more common to designate Neanderthals as a separate species, H. neanderthalensis, so that AMH in the European context refers to H. sapiens (but the question is by no means resolved^[40]).

In this more narrow definition of Homo sapiens, the subspecies H. s. idaltu, discovered in 2003, also falls under the umbrella of "anatomically modern".^[41] The recognition of Homo sapiens idaltu as a valid subspecies of the anatomically modern human lineage would justify the description of contemporary humans with the subspecies name Homo sapiens sapiens.

A further division of AMH into "early" or "robust" vs. "post-glacial" or "gracile" subtypes has since been used for convenience. The emergence of "gracile AMH" is taken to reflect a process towards a smaller and more fine-boned skeleton beginning around 50,000–30,000 years ago.^[42]

The following is a list of human varieties which lived after 200 kya with their classification within the "modern"/"archaic" scheme^{[citation needed]}

Population	Age	Classification
Homo sapiens	300 kya–present	modern
Homo sapiens sapiens	10 kya–present	"post-glacial" modern
Red Deer Cave people	10 kya	hybrid(?)
Homo sapiens idaltu	200–160 kya	"early" modern
Denisovans^[43]	100–40 kya	archaic
Homo floresiensis	190–50 kya	archaic
Homo neanderthalensis	250–40 kya	archaic
Homo rhodesiensis	300–125 kya	archaic
Homo erectus soloensis (Solo Man)	–140 kya(?)^[44]	archaic
H. heidelbergensis^[45]^[46]	600–200 kya	archaic

Braincase anatomy

The cranium lacks a pronounced occipital bun in the neck, a bulge that anchored considerable neck muscles in Neanderthals. Modern humans, even the earlier ones, generally have a larger fore-brain than the archaic people, so that the brain sits above rather than behind the eyes. This will usually (though not always) give a higher forehead, and reduced brow ridge. Early modern people and some living people do however have quite pronounced brow ridges, but they differ from those of archaic forms by having both a supraorbital foramen or notch, forming a groove through the ridge above each eye.^[47] This splits the ridge into a central part and two distal parts. In current humans, often only the central section of the ridge is preserved (if it is preserved at all). This contrasts with archaic humans, where the brow ridge is pronounced and unbroken.^[48]

Modern humans commonly have a steep, even vertical forehead whereas their predecessors had foreheads that sloped strongly backwards.^[49] According to Desmond Morris, the vertical forehead in humans plays an important role in human communication through eyebrow movements and forehead skin wrinkling.^[50]

Jaw anatomy

Compared to archaic people, anatomically modern humans have smaller, differently shaped teeth.^[51]^[52] This results in a smaller, more receded dentary, making the rest of the jaw-line stand out, giving an often quite prominent chin. The central part of the mandible forming the chin carries a triangularly shaped area forming the apex of the chin called the mental trigon, not found in archaic humans.^[53] Particularly in living populations, the use of fire and tools require fewer jaw muscles, giving slender, more gracile jaws. Compared to archaic people, modern humans have smaller, lower faces.

Body skeleton structure

The body skeletons of even the earliest and most robustly built modern humans were less robust than those of Neanderthals (and from what little we know from Denisovans), having essentially modern proportions. Particularly regarding the long bones of the limbs, the distal bones (the radius/ulna and tibia/fibula) are nearly the same size or slightly shorter than the proximal bones (the humerus and femur). In ancient people, particularly Neanderthals, the distal bones were shorter, usually thought to be an adaptation to cold climate.^[54] The same adaptation can be found in some modern people living in the polar regions.^[55]

Recent evolution

Following the second Out-of-Africa expansion, some 70,000 to 50,000 years ago, some subpopulations of H. sapiens have been essentially isolated for tens of thousands of years prior to the early modern Age of Discovery.

Combined with archaic admixture this has resulted in significant genetic variation, which in some instances has been shown to be the result of directional selection taking place over the past 15,000 years, i.e. significantly later than possible archaic admixture events.^[56]

Some climatic adaptations, such as high-altitude adaptation in humans, are thought to have been acquired by archaic admixture. Inuit adaptation to high-fat diet and cold climate has been traced to a mutation dated the Last Glacial Maximum (20,000 years ago).^[57] Adaptations related to agriculture and animal domestication, such as the East Asian types of ADH1B associated with rice domestication,^[58] or lactase persistence,^[59] are due to recent selection pressures. Similarly, adaptations in spleen size and pupil-controlling muscles which enhance underwater sight in the Austronesian Sama-Bajau have developed under selection pressures associated with subsisting on freediving over the past thousand years or so.^[60]

Physiological or phenotypical changes have also been traced to recent (Upper Paleolithic) mutations, such as the East Asian variant of the EDAR gene, dated to c. 35,000 years ago.^[61] Alleles predictive of light skin have been found in Neanderthals, ^[62] but the alleles for light skin in Europeans and East Asians, associated with, KITLG and ASIP, are (as of 2012) thought to have not been acquired by archaic admixture but recent mutations (later than 30,000 years ago).^[63]

Behavioral modernity

Behavioral modernity, involving the development of language, figurative art and early forms of religion (etc.) is taken to have arisen before 40,000 years ago, marking the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic (in African contexts also known as the Later Stone Age).^[64]

There is considerable debate regarding whether the earliest anatomically modern humans behaved similarly to recent or existing humans. Behavioral modernity is taken to include fully developed language (requiring the capacity for abstract thought), artistic expression, early forms of religious behavior,^[65] increased cooperation and the formation of early settlements, and the production of articulated tools from lithic cores, bone or antler. The term Upper Paleolithic is intended to cover the period since the rapid expansion of modern humans throughout Eurasia, which coincides with the first appearance of Paleolithic art such as cave paintings and the development of technological innovation such as the spear-thrower. The Upper Paleolithic begins around 50,000 to 40,000 years ago, and also coincides with the disappearance of archaic humans such as the Neanderthals.

The term "behavioral modernity" is somewhat disputed. It is most often used for the set of characteristics marking the Upper Paleolithic, but some scholars use "behavioral modernity" for the emergence of H. sapiens around 200,000 years ago,^[66] while others use the term for the rapid developments occurring around 50,000 years ago.^[67]^[68]^[69] It has that the emergence of behavioral modernity was a gradual process.^[70]

In January 2018 it was announced that modern human finds at Misliya cave, Israel, in 2002, had been dated to around 185,000 years ago, the earliest evidence of their out of Africa migration.^[71]^[72]^[73]^[74]

The earliest H. sapiens (AMH) found in Europe are the "Cro-Magnon" (named after the site of first discovery in France), beginning about 40,000 to 35,000 years ago. These are also known as "European early modern humans" in contrast to the preceding Neanderthals.^[75]^[76]

The equivalent of the Eurasian Upper Paleolithic in African archaeology is known as the Later Stone Age, also beginning roughly 40,000 years ago. While most clear evidence for behavioral modernity uncovered from the later 19th century was from Europe, such as the Venus figurines and other artefacts from the Aurignacian, more recent archaeological research has shown that all essential elements of the kind of material culture typical of contemporary San hunter-gatherers in Southern Africa was also present by least 40,000 years ago, including digging sticks of similar materials used today, ostrich egg shell beads, bone arrow heads with individual maker's marks etched and embedded with red ochre, and poison applicators.^[77] There is also a suggestion that "pressure flaking best explains the morphology of lithic artifacts recovered from the c. 75-ka Middle Stone Age levels at Blombos Cave, South Africa. The technique was used during the final shaping of Still Bay bifacial points made on heat‐treated silcrete."^[78] Both pressure flaking and heat treatment of materials were previously thought to have occurred much later in prehistory, and both indicate a behaviourally modern sophistication in the use of natural materials. Further reports of research on cave sites along the southern African coast indicate that "the debate as to when cultural and cognitive characteristics typical of modern humans first appeared" may be coming to an end, as "advanced technologies with elaborate chains of production" which "often demand high-fidelity transmission and thus language" have been found at Pinnacle Point Site 5–6. These have been dated to approximately 71,000 years ago. The researchers suggest that their research "shows that microlithic technology originated early in South Africa, evolved over a vast time span (c. 11,000 years), and was typically coupled to complex heat treatment that persisted for nearly 100,000 years. Advanced technologies in Africa were early and enduring; a small sample of excavated sites in Africa is the best explanation for any perceived 'flickering' pattern."^[79] These results suggest that Late Stone Age foragers in Sub-Saharan Africa had developed modern cognition and behaviour by at least 50,000 years ago.^[80] The change in behavior has been speculated to have been a consequence of an earlier climatic change to much drier and colder conditions between 135,000 and 75,000 years ago.^[81] This might have led to human groups who were seeking refuge from the inland droughts, expanded along the coastal marshes rich in shellfish and other resources. Since sea levels were low due to so much water tied up in glaciers, such marshlands would have occurred all along the southern coasts of Eurasia. The use of rafts and boats may well have facilitated exploration of offshore islands and travel along the coast, and eventually permitted expansion to New Guinea and then to Australia.^[82]

References

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^ This is a matter of convention (rather than a factual dispute), and there is no universal consensus on terminology. Some scholars include humans of up to 600,000 years ago under the same species. See Handbook of Death and Dying, Volume 1. Clifton D. Bryant. 2003. p. 811. See also: Masters of the Planet: The Search for Our Human Origins. Ian Tattersall. Page 82 (cf. Unfortunately this consensus in principle hardly clarifies matters much in practice. For there is no agreement on what the 'qualities of a man' actually are," [...]).
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External links

Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016).

[IUCN-1] Global Mammal Assessment Team (2008). "Homo sapiens". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008. IUCN: e.T136584A4313662. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T136584A4313662.en. Retrieved 12 January 2018.

[2] Nitecki, Matthew H. and Nitecki, Doris V. (1994). Origins of Anatomically Modern Humans. Springer.

[3] Linné, Carl von (1758). Systema naturæ. Regnum animale (10th ed.). pp. 18, 20. Retrieved 19 November 2012..

[4] This is a matter of convention (rather than a factual dispute), and there is no universal consensus on terminology. Some scholars include humans of up to 600,000 years ago under the same species. See Handbook of Death and Dying, Volume 1. Clifton D. Bryant. 2003. p. 811. See also: Masters of the Planet: The Search for Our Human Origins. Ian Tattersall. Page 82 (cf. Unfortunately this consensus in principle hardly clarifies matters much in practice. For there is no agreement on what the 'qualities of a man' actually are," [...]).

[5] The history of claimed or proposed subspecies of H. sapiens is complicated and fraught with controversy. The only widely recognized archaic subspecies is H. sapiens idaltu (2003). The name H. s. sapiens is due to Linnaeus (1758), and refers by definition the subspecies of which Linnaeus himself is the type specimen. However, Linnaeus postulated four other extant subspecies, viz. H. s. afer, H. s. americanus, H. s. asiaticus and H. s. ferus for Africans, Americans, Asians and Malay. This classification remained in common usage until the mid 20th century, sometimes alongide H. s. tasmanianus for Australians. See e.g. John Wendell Bailey, The Mammals of Virginia (1946), p. 356.; Journal of Mammalogy 26-27 (1945), p. 359.; The Mankind Quarterly 1-2 (1960), 113ff ("Zoological Subspecies of Man"). The division of extant human populations into taxonomic subspecies was gradually given up in the 1970s (e.g. Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia, Volume 11, p. 55).

[HublinOrigin-6] Hublin, J. J. (2009). "The origin of Neandertals". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106 (38): 16022–7. Bibcode:2009PNAS..10616022H. doi:10.1073/pnas.0904119106. JSTOR 40485013. PMC 2752594. PMID 19805257.

[HFMcN-7] Harvati, K.; Frost, S.R.; McNulty, K.P. (2004). "Neanderthal taxonomy reconsidered: implications of 3D primate models of intra- and interspecific differences". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101 (5): 1147–52. Bibcode:2004PNAS..101.1147H. doi:10.1073/pnas.0308085100. PMC 337021. PMID 14745010.

[8] "Homo neanderthalensis King, 1864". Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Human Evolution. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. 2013. pp. 328–331.

[9] Stringer, C. (2012). "What makes a modern human". Nature. 485 (7396): 33–35. doi:10.1038/485033a. PMID 22552077.

[10] sed on Schlebusch et al., "Southern African ancient genomes estimate modern human divergence to 350,000 to 260,000 years ago" Science, 28 Sep 2017, DOI: 10.1126/science.aao6266, Fig. 3 (H. sapiens divergence times) and Stringer, C. (2012). "What makes a modern human". Nature. 485 (7396): 33–35. Bibcode:2012Natur.485...33S. doi:10.1038/485033a. PMID 22552077. (archaic admixture).

[dx.doi.org-11] Wolpoff, M. H.; Spuhler, J. N.; Smith, F. H.; Radovcic, J.; Pope, G.; Frayer, D. W.; Eckhardt, R.; Clark, G. (1988). "Modern Human Origins". Science. 241 (4867): 772–4. Bibcode:1988Sci...241..772W. doi:10.1126/science.3136545. PMID 3136545.

[12] Green, RE; Krause, J; Briggs, Adrian W.; Maricic, Tomislav; Stenzel, Udo; Kircher, Martin; Patterson, Nick; Li, Heng; Zhai, Weiwei; Fritz, Markus Hsi-Yang; Hansen, Nancy F.; Durand, Eric Y.; Malaspinas, Anna-Sapfo; Jensen, Jeffrey D.; Marques-Bonet, Tomas; Alkan, Can; Prüfer, Kay; Meyer, Matthias; Burbano, Hernán A.; Good, Jeffrey M.; Schultz, Rigo; Aximu-Petri, Ayinuer; Butthof, Anne; Höber, Barbara; Höffner, Barbara; Siegemund, Madlen; Weihmann, Antje; Nusbaum, Chad; Lander, Eric S.; et al. (May 2010). "A draft sequence of the Neandertal genome". Science. 328 (5979): 710–22. Bibcode:2010Sci...328..710G. doi:10.1126/science.1188021. PMC 5100745. PMID 20448178. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |name-list-format= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help) Reich, D; Patterson, Nick; Kircher, Martin; Delfin, Frederick; Nandineni, Madhusudan R.; Pugach, Irina; Ko, Albert Min-Shan; Ko, Ying-Chin; Jinam, Timothy A.; Phipps, Maude E.; Saitou, Naruya; Wollstein, Andreas; Kayser, Manfred; Pääbo, Svante; Stoneking, Mark (2011). "Denisova admixture and the first modern human dispersals into southeast Asia and oceania". Am J Hum Genet. 89 (4): 516–28. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.09.005. PMC 3188841. PMID 21944045. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |name-list-format= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help)

[13] "New Clues Add 40,000 Years to Age of Human Species – NSF – National Science Foundation". www.nsf.gov. "Age of ancient humans reassessed". BBC News. February 16, 2005. Retrieved April 10, 2010. The Oldest Homo Sapiens: – URL retrieved May 15, 2009 Alemseged, Z.; Coppens, Y.; Geraads, D. (2002). "Hominid cranium from Homo: Description and taxonomy of Homo-323-1976-896". Am J Phys Anthropol. 117 (2): 103–12. doi:10.1002/ajpa.10032. PMID 11815945. Stoneking, Mark; Soodyall, Himla (1996). "Human evolution and the mitochondrial genome". Current Opinion in Genetics & Development. 6 (6): 731–6. doi:10.1016/S0959-437X(96)80028-1.

[14] Human evolution: the fossil evidence in 3D, by Philip L. Walker and Edward H. Hagen, Dept. of Anthropology, University of California, Santa Barbara. Retrieved April 5, 2005.

[15] Green, R. E.; Krause, J; Ptak, S. E.; Briggs, A. W.; Ronan, M. T.; Simons, J. F.; et al. (2006). Analysis of one million base pairs of Neanderthal DNA. Nature. pp. 16, 330–336.

[Oppenheimer-16] Oppenheimer, S. (2003). Out of Eden: The Peopling of the World. ISBN 1-84119-697-5.

[17] Trinkaus, E.; Moldovan, O.; Milota, Ș.; Bîlgăr, A.; Sarcina, L.; Athreya, S.; Bailey, S. E.; Rodrigo, R.; et al. (2003). "An early modern human from Peștera cu Oase, Romania". PNAS. 100 (20): 11231–11236. Bibcode:2003PNAS..10011231T. doi:10.1073/pnas.2035108100. PMC 208740. PMID 14504393.

[Reich_et_al.-18] Reich, David; Green, Richard E.; Kircher, Martin; Krause, Johannes; Patterson, Nick; Durand, Eric Y.; Viola, Bence; Briggs, Adrian W.; et al. (2010). "Genetic history of an archaic hominin group from Denisova Cave in Siberia". Nature. 468 (7327): 1053–1060. Bibcode:2010Natur.468.1053R. doi:10.1038/nature09710. PMC 4306417. PMID 21179161. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |lastauthoramp= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help)

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v t e Big History
Themes and subjects	Chronology of the universe Cosmic evolution Deep time Time scales Goldilocks principle Modernity
Eight thresholds	1: Creation - Big Bang and cosmogony 2: Stars - creation of stars 3: Elements - creation of chemical elements inside dying stars 4: Planets - formation of planets 5: Life - abiogenesis and evolution of life 6: Humans - development of Homo sapiens Stone Age 7: Agriculture - Agricultural Revolution 8: Modernity - modern era
Web-based education	Big History Project ChronoZoom
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Related	Big History (2013 series)