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The exploitation of women in mass media is thefFr use or portrayal of women in thyffttfrYe mass media (such as television, film and advertising) to increase the appeal of media or a product to the detriment of, or without regard to, the interests of the women portrayed, or women in general. Feminists and other advocates of women's rights have criticized such 44exploitation. The most often criticized aspect of the use of women in mass media is sexual objectification, but dismemberment can be a part of the objectification as well.

Criticisms of the media

Advertising

Robert Jensen, Sut Jhally and other cultural critics accuse mass media of using sex in advertising that promotes the objectification of women to help sell their goods and services.^[1]^[2]^[3]

In Gender Advertisements, Erving Goffman sought to uncover the covert ways that popular media constructs masculinity and femininity in a detailed analysis of more than 500 advertisements. The relationship between men and women, Goffman argued, was portrayed as a parent–child relationship, one characterized by male power and female subordination.^[4]

Many contemporary studies of gender and sexualization in popular culture take as their starting point Goffman's analysis in Gender Advertisements. Among them, later research which expanded empirical framework by analyzing the aspects of women's sexualization and objectification in advertisements, M.-E Kang examined the advertisements in women's magazines between 1979 and 1991 and found out there are still showing the same stereotyped images of women: Nude or partially nude images of women increased nearly 30% from 1979 to 1991.^[5] Lindner further developed Kang's analytical framework in a study of women in advertisements and found out magazines rely on gender stereotypes, but in different ways, particularly in terms of sexualization. For example, in Vogue, sexualized images of women are the primary way of portraying women in positions of inferiority and low social power.^[6]

Latest research conducted by Eric Hatton and Mary Nell Trautner included a longitudinal content analysis of images of women and men on more than four decades of Rolling Stone magazine covers (1967–2009). It found out that in one sexualized images of men and women have increased, though intensity of sexualization between men and women is severely different in that women are increasingly likely to be hypersexualized, but men are not. Researchers argue that the simple presence of images of sexualized men does not signal equality in media representations of women and men. Sexualized images may legitimize or exacerbate violence against women and girls, sexual harassment, and anti-women attitudes among men. They concluded that similarly sexualized images can suggest victimization for women but confidence for men, consider the implications when women are sexualized at the same rate as men are not sexualized, as they were on the covers of Rolling Stone in the 2000s.^[7]

Clothing designer Calvin Klein was criticized for using images of young, sexualized girls and women in his ads, having said -

"Jeans are about sex. The abundance of bare flesh is the last gasp of advertisers trying to give redundant products a new identity."

Calvin Klein has also received media attention for its controversial advertisements in the mid-1990s. Several of Calvin Klein's advertisements featured images of teenage models, some "who were reportedly as young as 15" in overly sexual and provocative poses.^[8]

In a recent analysis, it was found that almost 30% of the clothing items available for pre-teen girls on the websites of 15 national stores had sexualizing characteristics. The clothing emphasized or revealed a sexualized body part (e.g., bikinis and push-up bras), or had characteristics associated with sexiness (e.g., red satin lingerie-like dresses). This exploitation of women is being seen in younger girls.^[9]

The overt use of sexuality to promote breast cancer awareness, through fundraising campaigns like "I Love Boobies" and "Save the Ta-tas", angers and offends breast cancer survivors and older women, who are at higher risk of developing breast cancer. Women who have breast cancer say that these advertising campaigns suggest that having sexy breasts is more important than saving their lives, which devalues them as human beings.^[10]

Another trend that has been studied in advertising is the victimization of women. A study conducted in 2008 found that women were represented as victims in 9.51% of the advertisements they were present in. Separate examination by subcategory found that the highest frequency of this is in women's fashion magazines where 16.57% of the ads featuring women present them as victims.^[11]

Film

In considering the way that films are put together, many feminist film critics have pointed to the "male gaze" that predominates in classical Hollywood film-making. Budd Boetticher summarises the view thus: "What counts is what the heroine provokes, or rather what she represents. She is the one, or rather the love or fear she inspires in the hero, or else the concern he feels for her, who makes him act the way he does. In herself the woman has not the slightest importance."^[12] Laura Mulvey's germinal essay "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema" (written in 1973 and published in 1975) expands on this conception of the passive role of women in cinema to argue that film provides visual pleasure through scopophilia and identification with the on-screen male actor.^[12] She asserts: "In their traditional exhibitionist role women are simultaneously looked at and displayed, with their appearance coded for strong visual and erotic impact so that they can be said to connote to-be-looked-at-ness," and as a result contends that in film a woman is the "bearer of meaning, not maker of meaning".^[12] Mulvey argues that Lacan's psychoanalytic theory is the key to understanding how film creates such a space for female sexual objectification and exploitation through the combination of the patriarchal order of society, and 'looking' in itself as a pleasurable act of voyeurism, as "the cinema satisfies a primordial wish for pleasurable looking".^[12]

Additionally, the sexual objectification of women in film has a detrimental affect on girls and young women. Research shows that when girls had extended exposure to films in which female super heroes were dressed in over-sexualized costumes, they became more aware of their own body competence. Additionally, the exposure impacted their view of the female gender and female roles. Such over-sexualization in popular Hollywood films takes away from girl's self-esteem and encourages them to want to alter their bodies to look more like the actresses in films and media.^[13]

The Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media is an organisation that has been lobbying the industry for years to expand the roles of women in film.^[14]

Music videos

Gan, Zillmann and Mitrook found that exposure to sexually explicit rap promotes distinctly unfavorable evaluations of black women. Following exposure to sexual rap, as compared with exposure to romantic music or to no music, the assessment of the female performers' personality resulted in a general downgrading of positive traits and a general upgrading of negative ones.^[15] A 2008 study by Zhang et al. showed that exposure to sexually explicit music videos was associated with stronger endorsement of sexual double standards (e.g., belief that it is less acceptable for women to be sexually experienced than for men). Exposure to sexual content was also associated with more permissive attitudes toward premarital sex, regardless of gender, overall television viewing, and previous sexual experience.^[16] However, Gad Saad argues that the premise that music videos yield harmful effects and that the harm would be sex-specific (e.g., women's self-concepts will be negatively affected) has not been supported by research.^[17]

A survey found that 72.2% of black, 68.0% of white, and 69.2% of Hispanic youths agree with the suggestion that rap music videos contain 'too many' references to sex.^[18]^[19]

Modeling

In her article, "Negative effect of media on girls," Monique Smith discusses the evolution of acceptable female figures throughout time. The transition between sexy meaning curvaceous to sexy meaning thin made it difficult for women to keep up with the ideal feminine figure. Striving for the virtually unattainable perfect body, women were viewed as a new way to make money.^[20]^{[self-published source]} The use of size 0 in advertisements and products of the clothing industry has been met with criticism. For example, Dawn Porter, a reporter from the UK who had been challenged to go on an extreme celebrity 'size zero' diet for a new BBC programme, Super Slim Me, logged her experiences about her journey to a size zero.^[21]

A study conducted in the UK found evidence that anorexia nervosa is a socially transmitted disease and exposure to skinny models may be a contributing factor in the cause of anorexia nervosa.^[22]

For decades most rape cases in the modeling industry go unreported. Anand Jon Alexander was a successful designer also seen on Americas Next Top Model, was sentenced to 59 years in prison having been found guilty of 16 counts, including sexual battery and performing lewd acts on a child.^[23] According to sources, Anand had raped models who worked for him and some of them were even underage.According to model, Sarah Ziff, many rape cases in the modeling industry go unreported as the people with power look out for each other. Modeling agencies view their models as independent contractors and not employees so models cannot unionize to fight the injustices they face everyday. In the modeling world there is no set fee therefore these women can be subjected to underpayment. They are asked to exploit themselves and their bodies for little respect and bad working conditions often times in return. Models are denied food on shoots to keep them thin according to model Vanessa Perron.^[24] Fernanda Ly a famous pink haired model who has walked for successful designers such as Louis Vuitton and Dior has her own similar issues she has faced in the modeling industry. She was once felt up while shooting a look book by the stylist trying to dress her at a young age. This pain still haunts her today.^[25] Due to significant lack of regulation the inhumane treatment of models in society can make these abuses completely legal. An agency in Florida got young women who were desperate for modeling work and drugged them. The models in this case were also used to create pornographic films. According to Carolyn Cramer, unless you are a supermodel you are treated like royalty but 99% of the rest of the models in the industry are treated like garbage.^[26] The lack of regulation makes it easy for bad agencies to thrive and treat workers as nothing more than a source for profit. Modeling agencies have fought back to consider these claims incorrect and state that models work at odd hours for different clients. This means they can't actually be considered employees and that they can't properly unionize to fight these injustices.Models sign on to management companies and not the other way around and for this reason they are treated as if they are being owned. Guided by a partnership between the American Guild of Musical Artists and Actors’ Equity Association, the Model Alliance provides its members with protection, advice and support in their efforts to be treated as workers in an industry that profits from their exploitation.^[27]

Pornography

In Effects of Prolonged Consumption of Pornography, a review of pornography research conducted for the Surgeon General in 1986 Dolf Zillmann noted that some inconsistencies in the literature on pornography exist, but overall concluded that extensive viewing of pornographic material may produce some negative sociological effects, including a decreased respect for long-term, monogamous relationships, and an attenuated desire for procreation.^[28] He describes the theoretical basis for these conclusions stating:

The values expressed in pornography clash so obviously with the family concept, and they potentially undermine the traditional values that favor marriage, family, and children... Pornographic scripts dwell on sexual engagements of parties who have just met, who are in no way attached or committed to each other, and who will part shortly, never to meet again... Sexual gratification in pornography is not a function of emotional attachment, of kindness, of caring, and especially not of continuance of the relationship, as such continuance would translate into responsibilities, curtailments, and costs...^[29]

Another study conducted by Svedin, Åkermana, and Priebe concluded that male partners' use of pornography might be integrated within the objectification theory framework for women, considering that pornography is a socialization agent for sexual attitudes and behavior. It often portrays men objectifying women via gazing at women's breasts and/or labia, non-permitted aggressive and sexualized touching of women's body parts, making sexual and derogatory remarks about women's body parts, and engaging in forceful oral and anal sex despite women gagging and crying. As pornography portrays women succumbing to this objectification, male viewers may internalize a view that these behaviors are acceptable.^[30] According to the tenets of social learning theory, men who view pornography may learn and transfer the objectifying behaviors they view in pornography to sexual encounters with their female partners. Men's pornography use may correspond to higher levels of experienced sexual objectification by their female partners and it may socialize men treat their female partners in objectifying ways and believe that it is acceptable to do so.

Partner's use of pornography can also be negatively linked to women's well-being. Qualitative studies of women whose male partners heavily use pornography have revealed that these women reported lower relational and psychological well-being. The women perceived that their partners pornography use was connected to their inability to be intimately and authentically open and vulnerable within their relationships. Women from this qualitative research also reported a personal struggle regarding the implications of their male partners pornography use for their own self-worth and value. These women were feeling less attractive and desirable after becoming aware of their male partner's pornography use.^[31] Similarly, women view their partners in a new way. The general conclusion that women feel is that their partner is not who they originally thought he/she was. The mate is seen as a sexually questionable and degraded being since the partner seeks sexual fulfilment through the objectification and sometimes degradation of women.^[32]

Television

Recently, television has come under fire for the sexual exploitation of women on screen, particularly when teenagers are involved. In 2013, the Parents Television Council released a report that found that it was increasingly more likely for a scene to be exploitative when a teenage girl was involved. The report also found that 43 percent of teen girls on television are the targets of sexually exploitative jokes compared to 33 percent of adult women. Rev. Delman Coates, a PTC board member said, "young people are having difficulty managing the distinction between appropriate and inappropriate sexual conduct". This report is of a series that's about media sexualization of young girls.^[33]

The researchers from the study claim that "[i]f media images communicate that sexual exploitation is neither serious nor harmful, the environment is being set for sexual exploitation to be viewed as trivial and acceptable. As long as there are media producers who continue to find the degradation of women to be humorous, and media outlets that will air the content, the impact and seriousness of sexual exploitation will continue to be understated and not meaningfully addressed in our society."^[34]

A 2012 study led by sociologist Stacy L. Smith found that in both prime-time television and family films, women were highly likely to be depicted as thin and scantily clad. They were also vastly underrepresented in STEM fields when compared to their male counterparts, and had less speaking roles. According to this study, only 28.3 percent of characters in family films, 30.8 percent of characters in children's shows, and 38.9 percent of characters on prime time television were women.^[35]

According to a report by the Women's Media Center (WMC), it found that the gender gap has not declined and that in some industries it has gotten worse. In television, it found the percentage of female TV characters has decreased and that the ones who make it on-screen are not likely to get the lead roles compared to the male characters. "According to the Center for the Study of Women in Television & Film's 'Boxed In' report, CW Television Network^[36] is the only TV network where women can be seen in accurate proportion to their representation in the U.S. population".^[37]

Video games

According to a report done by the Entertainment Software Association in 2013, 55% of game players are male and 45% are female.^[31] Women's roles in many modern games usually are less important to the game and rely heavily on stereotypes.^[38] Video games' female characters also tend be lighter skinned individuals, as are their male counterparts. Although not demonstrating blatantly racist stereotypes, many games practice racism through omission of racially diverse characters.^[39]

Video games have been found to offer a smaller range of roles to female characters compared to male characters, and these roles tend to involve being victims or prizes to be won. The majority of female characters are also not playable. These roles for women have been found to have a negative impact on the perception of women in gaming and even main playable female characters are found to be unrealistically proportioned with revealing clothing. If a sexualized female character is the main protagonist and portrayed in a positive light, studies have shown a potential negative effect if the character is hyper-sexualized in a stereotypical manner.^[40] A recent Ohio State University Study has found that sexist and violent content in games cause male gamers to identify with the male lead, and find less empathy with female victims of violence,^[41] although a 2017 review of this paper suggested several flaws and a reanalysis of the dataset using different statistical methods found no sexist effect, concluding "These results call into question whether use of “sexist” video games is a causal factor in the development of reduced empathy toward girls and women among adolescents".^[42] Similarly, the results of a 2015 study suggested that "sexist video game play is related to men perceiving women in a stereotypic and sexist way", but found that the same correlation did not occur with female players.^[43]

A German longitudinal study from 2011 to 2015 explored the connection between gaming and sexist attitudes. The results of this study concluded both that playing video games was not predictive of sexist beliefs and that sexist beliefs were not predicative of video game play. The researchers stressed, however, that the study did not, nor was intended to, disprove the existence of sexist attitudes in general.^[44] A 2012 study also raised concerns about the correlation between video games and individual attitudes. Focusing on the Singaporean subjects playing the game Grand Theft Auto, the study found some evidence of "first order cultivation effects" – which relate to the perceptions of situations and issues – but found that second order effects, relating to beliefs and issues, were provided with only limited support by the study. This led the authors to conclude that previous studies on cultivation effects from television may not directly relate to effects from video game playing.^[45]

The trend of portraying sex-typed images of women and violence against women in popular video games continues to proliferate and promulgate in video games. Video games depicting sexual objectification of women and violence against women resulted in statistically significant increased rape myths acceptance for male study participants but not for female participants.^[38] A 2016 study by Fox and Potocki had similar findings, in which they ran a survey which found that "video game consumption throughout the life span is associated with interpersonal aggression, hostile sexism, and RMA [Rape Myth Acceptance]".^[46]

Out of the top 10 video games listed midyear 2010 (New Super Mario Brothers; Call Of Duty: Modern Warfare; Battlefield: Bad Company 2; Final Fantasy XIII; Wii Fit Plus; God of War III; Pokémon SoulSilver; Wii Sports Resort, Mass Effect 2, Pokémon HeartGold Version; Morris, 2010), most have violent content, including violence against women, and some contain sexual objectification of women. Not only are gamers increasingly being exposed to video games containing sexual objectification of and violence against women, but research also indicates that such exposure can be excessive.^[38] A national sample of youth aged 8 to 18 found that "8.5 percent of video game players exhibited pathological patterns of play," which is "very similar to the prevalence demonstrated in many other studies of this age group, including across nations".^[47]

Effects on society

Critics of the prevalent portrayals of women in the mass media observe possible negative consequences for various segments of the population, such as:^[48]^[49]^[50]

Women self-objectify in terms of body surveillance by adopting a form of self-consciousness in which they habitually monitor their own body's outward appearance and spend significant amounts of attention on how others may perceive their physical appearance^[51]
Unrealistic expectations by men of how women should look or behave.
Stereotyping of women who are positively portrayed by or sexualized in the media, such as the theme of a "dumb blonde" or "blonde bimbo", limiting the societal and career opportunities for people who fit these stereotypes.^[52]
Psychological disorders such as body dysmorphic disorder, anorexia, and bulimia.
The excessively coercive nature of appeal to strong sexual instincts to sell products or promote media.
Increase in the likelihood and acceptance of sexual violence.^[53]

According to Muehlenkamp and Saris–Baglama, self-objectification of women can lead to depression, noting that "the relationship between self-objectification and depression can be explained by the anxiety and powerlessness women may experience as a result of not knowing when or where they will encounter objectification. These feelings may increase women's vulnerability to depressive symptoms. Once a woman starts to self-objectify and compare her body to others, it may be a risk factor for holistic human functioning, and may also lead to impairment in multiple life tasks, such as forming meaningful interpersonal relationships and achieving academic success."^[54]

In addition, it can lead to sexual dysfunction. Engaging in sexual activity involves another person focusing attention on one's body and during sexual relations a woman can be distracted by thoughts about her body rather than experiencing sexual pleasure.^[55]

Many studies have shown the negative effects that this exploitation of women in the media has on the mental health of young women, but recently the studies have focused on aging women in western societies. It has been observed that the exploitation of young attractive women in the media causes aging women to feel a variety of emotions including sadness, anger, concern, envy, desensitization, marginalization, and discomfort that their appearance was being judged by others.^[56]

A study done in 1994 about the effects of media on young and middle-aged women found that of adolescent girls aged 11–17, the primary desire was to "lose weight and keep it off." The results were not different for older women. When asked what they'd most like to change about their lives, the answer for over half of them was their body and weight.^[57]

A recent study done by Vanderbilt University illustrated how sexist commercials have a greater impact on wellbeing than commercials that do not exploit women. The study was designed with three different groups: one was exposed to sexist media, one was exposed to neutral media, and the control group was not exposed to media at all. Of the women exposed to sexist advertising, there was a substantial difference. The women in this group expressed having a body larger than it was in actuality and expressed feeling a greater disparity between their own body and the "ideal body." Following exposure to this kind of media, there was an immediate negative effect on their mood. It was also concluded that adolescent girls exposed to sexist media are the most highly impacted demographic.^[57]

Counter arguments

Gallup & Robinson, an advertising and marketing research firm, has reported that in more than 50 years of testing advertising effectiveness, it has found the use of the erotic to be a significantly above-average technique in communicating with the marketplace, "...although one of the more dangerous for the advertiser. Weighted down with taboos and volatile attitudes, sex is a Code Red advertising technique ... handle with care ... seller beware; all of which makes it even more intriguing." This research has led to the popular idea that "sex sells".

Camille Paglia holds that "Turning people into sex objects is one of the specialties of our species." In her view, objectification is closely tied to (and may even be identical with) the highest human faculties toward conceptualization and aesthetics.^[58]

Danish criminologist Berl Kutchinsky's Studies on Pornography and sex crimes in Denmark (1970), a scientific report ordered by the Presidential Commission on Obscenity and Pornography, found that the legalizing of pornography in Denmark had not (as expected) resulted in an increase of sex crimes.^[59] Since then, many other experiments have been conducted, either supporting or opposing the findings of Berl Kutchinsky, who would continue his study into the social effects of pornography until his death in 1995. His life's work was summed up in the publication Law, Pornography, and Crime: The Danish Experience (1999).^[60] Milton Diamond from the University of Hawaii found that the number of reported cases of child sex abuse dropped markedly immediately after the ban on sexually explicit materials was lifted in 1989.^[61]

Some researchers, such as Susan Bordo and Rosalind Gill, argue against using the phrase "sexual objectification" to describe such images because they often depict women as active, confident, and/or sexually desirous.^[62]^[63] For this argument, there have been several refutations that intensity of women's sexualization suggests that "sexual object" may indeed be the only appropriate label. The accumulation of sexualized attributes in these images leaves little room for observers to interpret them in any way other than as instruments of sexual pleasure and visual possession for a heterosexual male audience.^[31] Yet, some scholars have criticized such statements as overly homogenizing because they render invisible differences in this process of sexualization.^[64]

Some social conservatives have agreed with aspects of the feminist critique of sexual objectification. In their view however, the increase in the sexual objectification of both sexes in Western culture is one of the negative legacies of the sexual revolution.^[65]^[66]^[67]^[68]^[69] These critics, notably Wendy Shalit, advocate a return to pre-sexual revolution standards of sexual morality, which Shalit refers to as a "return to modesty", as an antidote to sexual objectification.^[66]^[70]

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^ Fox, Jesse; Potocki, Bridget (2016). "Lifetime Video Game Consumption, Interpersonal Aggression, Hostile Sexism, and Rape Myth Acceptance". Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 31 (10): 1912–1931. doi:10.1177/0886260515570747. PMID 25681166.
^ Gentile, Douglas A. (2009). Pathological video game use among youth 8 to 18: A national study. Psychological Science. pp. 594–602.
^ Fredrickson, Barbara L.; Roberts, Tomi-Ann (June 1997). "Objectification theory: toward understanding women's lived experiences and mental health risks". Psychology of Women Quarterly. 21 (2): 173–206. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)CS1 maint: postscript (link)
^ American Psychological Association, (APA) (2010). Report of the American Psychological Association task force on the sexualization of girls, executive summary (PDF). American Psychological Association (Report). Washington, DC.
^ [1] The Thing All Women Do That You Don't Know About, by Gretchen Kelly, Huffington Post, November 23, 2015
^ McKay, Tanjare (2013-09-30). "Female Self-Objectification: Causes, Consequences and Prevention". McNair Scholars Research Journal.
^ Wells, Alan; Hakanen, Ernest A. (1997). Mass media & society. Greenwich, Connecticut: Ablex Publishing Corp. p. 553. ISBN 9781567502886.
^ Jennifer Siebel Newsom (writer / director, Miss Representation), Margaret Cho (performer), Katie Couric (performer), Regina Kulik Scully, Geralyn Dreyfous, Sarah Johnson Redlich (2011). Campus sexual violence (DVD). USA: Health.arizona. Campus Health. Pdf.
^ Muehlenkamp, Jennifer J.; Saris–Baglama, Renee N. (10 Jan 2003). "Self–Objectification and its Psychological Outcomes for College Women". Psychology of Women Quarterly. 26 (4): 371–379. doi:10.1111/1471-6402.t01-1-00076.
^ Tiggemann, Marika (2011). "Mental Health risks of self-objectification: A review of the empirical evidence for disordered eating, depressed mood, and sexual dysfunction. Self- Objectification in Women; Causes, Consequences, and Counteraction". American Psychological Association.
^ Rochelle Hine (15 April 2011). "In the Margins: The Effects of Sexualized Images on the Mental Health of Aging Women" (1): 16. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ ^a ^b Spettigue, Wendy; Henderson, Katherine A. (Winter 2004). "Eating Disorders and the Role of the Media". The Canadian Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Review. 13 (1): 16–19. ISSN 1716-9119. PMC 2533817. PMID 19030149.
^ Paglia, Camille (1991). Sexual personae: art and decadence from Nefertiti to Emily Dickinson. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 9780679735793
^ Kutchinsky, Berl (1970). Studies on pornography and sex crimes in Denmark. New social science monographs. United States: Nyt fra Samfundsvidenskaberne, eksp. OCLC 155896. Online. Archived October 30, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
^ Kutchinsky, Berl; Snare, Annika (1999). Law, pornography and crime: the Danish experience. Oslo: Pax Forlag A/S for The Scandinavian Research Council for Criminology. ISBN 9788253018287.
^
Diamond, Milton (1999), "The effects of pornography: an international perspective", in Elias, James; Elias, Veronica Diehl; Bullough, Vern L.; Brewer, Gwen; Douglas, Jeffrey J.; Jarvis, Will (eds.), Porn 101: eroticism, pornography, and the First Amendment, Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books, ISBN 9781573927505. {{citation}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help) Transcript. Archived 2012-02-03 at the Wayback Machine
- Parts of the paper were also presented at the World Pornography Conference. Sheraton Universal Hotel, Universal City, California. August 7, 1998.
- Portions of the paper were also published in: Diamond, Milton; Uchiyama, Ayako (January–February 1999). "Pornography, rape, and sex crimes in Japan". International Journal of Law and Psychiatry. 22 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1016/S0160-2527(98)00035-1. PMID 10086287. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)CS1 maint: postscript (link)
^ Bordo, Susan (1999). The male body: A new look at men in public and in private. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
^ Gill, Rosalind (2007). Gender and the media. Cambridge, U.K: Polity Press.
^ Gill, Rosalind (April 2009). "Beyond the sexualization of culture thesis: An intersectional analysis of sixpacks, midriffs and hot lesbians in advertising". Sexualities. 12 (2): 137–160. doi:10.1177/1363460708100916.
^ "Dr. James Dobson". The Interim: Canada's life and family newspaper. Toronto, Canada: via True Media. 12 January 1997.
^ ^a ^b Shalit, Wendy (2000). A return to modesty: discovering the lost virtue. New York: Touchstone. ISBN 9780684863177.
^ Reisman, Judith A. (1991). "Soft porn" plays hardball: its tragic effects on women, children, and the family. Lafayette, Louisiana: Huntington House Publishers. ISBN 9780910311922. (pp. 32-46, p. 173)
^ Holz, Adam R. (2007). "Is average the new ugly?". Plugged In Online. Focus on the Family. Archived from the original on 2012-02-23. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^ National Coalition for the Protection of Children & Families (July 1997). "Subtle Dangers of Pornography (special report by the National Coalition for the Protection of Children & Families)". Pure Intimacy (website). Focus on the Family. Retrieved 1 August 2012.
^ Shalit, Wendy (2000). "Modesty revisited". orthodoxytoday.org. Fr. Johannes Jacobse.

^[1]

^ Heldman, Caroline (2 July 2012). "Sexual Objectification (Part 1): What is It? - Sociological Images". thesocietypages.org. Retrieved 2017-12-11. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |dead-url= (help)

[Jensen-1] Jensen, Robert (1997), "Using pornography", in Dines, Gail; Jensen, Robert; Russo, Ann (eds.), Pornography: the production and consumption of inequality, New York, New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780195105568. {{citation}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

[Jhally-2] Jhally, Sut (director) (1997). Dreamworlds II: desire, sex, power in music (Documentary). USA: Media Education Foundation.

[Frith-3] Frith, Katherine; Shaw, Ping; Cheng, Hong (March 2005). "The construction of beauty: a cross-cultural analysis of women's magazine advertising". Journal of Communication. 55 (1): 56–70. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2005.tb02658.x. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)CS1 maint: postscript (link)

[4] Goffman, Erving (1979). Gender Advertisements. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

[5] Kang, Mee-Eun (December 1997). "The portrayal of women's images in magazine advertisements: Goffman's gender analysis revisited". Sex Roles. 37 (11–12): 979–996. doi:10.1007/BF02936350.

[6] Lindner, Katharina (October 2004). "Images of Women in General Interest and Fashion Magazine Advertisements from 1955 to 2002". Sex Roles. 51 (7/8): 409–421. doi:10.1023/B:SERS.0000049230.86869.4d.

[7] Hatton,, Erin; Trautner, Mary Nell (September 2011). "Equal Opportunity Objectification? The Sexualization of Men and Women on the Cover of Rolling Stone". Sexuality & Culture. 15 (3): 256–278. doi:10.1007/s12119-011-9093-2.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)

[8] Calvin Klein's Scandalous Advertising - Morality vs Money (Report). IBS Center for management Research.

[9] Pappas, Stephanie. "30% of Girls' Clothing is Sexualized in Major Sales Trend". Live Science. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |dead-url= (help)

[Szabo-10] Szabo, Lisa (30 October 2012). "Sexy breast cancer campaigns anger many patients". USA Today. Retrieved 9 November 2012.

[11] Stankiewicz, Julie M.; Rosselli, Francine (2008). "Women as Sex Objects and Victims in Print Advertisements". Sex Roles. 58 (7–8): 579–89. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9359-1.

[Erens1990-12] Erens, Patricia (1990). Issues in feminist film criticism. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253206107.

[13] Pennell, H.; Behm-Morawitz, E. (2015). "The Empowering (Super) Heroine? The Effects of Sexualized Female Characters in Superhero Films on Women". Sex Roles. 72 (5/6): 211–220. doi:10.1007/s11199-015-0455-3.

[14] "The aftermath of the Weinstein scandal". The Economist. 3 March 2018.

[15] Gan, Su-Lin; Zillmann, Dolf; Mitrook, Michael (September 1997). "Stereotyping effect of black women's sexual rap on white audiences". Basic and Applied Social Psychology. 19 (3): 381–399. doi:10.1207/s15324834basp1903_7. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)CS1 maint: postscript (link)

[16] Zhang, Yuanyuan; Miller, Laura E.; Harrison, Kristen (August 2008). "The relationship between exposure to sexual music videos and young adults' sexual attitudes". Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media. 52 (3): 368–386. doi:10.1080/08838150802205462. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)CS1 maint: postscript (link)

[GS-17] Saad, Gad (2007), "The Darwinian roots of cultural products: music videos", in Saad, Gad (ed.), The evolutionary bases of consumption, Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., pp. 196–197, ISBN 9780805851502. {{citation}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

[18] Cohen, Cathy; Celestine-Michener, Jamila (2010), ""Minority Report": Kanye West, Barack Obama, and political alienation", in Cohen, Cathy (ed.), Democracy remixed: black youth and the future of American politics, Oxford New York: Oxford University Press, p. 71, ISBN 9780195378009. {{citation}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

[19] Conlon, Michael (February 1, 2007). "Young U.S. blacks believe in politics: study". Reuters. Chicago.

[20] Smith, Monique E. "Negative effect of media on girls". Academia.edu. Retrieved 22 July 2015.

[21] Porter, Dawn (1 February 2007). "'My quest for size zero'". Daily Mail.

[22] Boseley, Sarah (1 March 2012). "'Anorexia research finds government intervention justified'". The Guardian.

[23] Waxman, Sharon. "The Designer Who Liked Models". The New York Times. The New York Times. Retrieved 28 November 2017.

[24] Mongelli, Lorena. "Agencies Refuse to Feed Models during 14 hour shoot". New York Post. NYP Holdings. Retrieved 28 November 2017.

[25] Hsieh, Vanessa. "More models come forward with stories of mistreatment". Dazed. Retrieved 28 November 2017.

[26] Ellis, Blake. "How the modeling industry exploits young and vulnerable wokers". CNN Money.

[27] Gordon, Alan. "Exploitation of Models". The New York Times.

[prolonged-28] Zillmann, Dolf (June 1986). Effects of prolonged consumption of pornography. United States. Public Health Service. Office of the Surgeon General. Arlington, Virginia. Retrieved 14 March 2013. Pdf.

[29] Zillmann, pages 16-17

[30] Svedina, Carl Göran; Åkermana, Ingrid; Priebeb, Gisela (2 October 2010). "Frequent users of pornography. A population based epidemiological study of Swedish male adolescents". Journal of Adolescence. 34 (4): 779–788. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2010.04.010. PMID 20888038.

[:0-31] Tylka, Tracy L.; Diest, Ashley M. Kroon Van (February 6, 2014). "You Looking at Her "Hot" Body May Not be "Cool" for Me Integrating Male Partners' Pornography Use into Objectification Theory for Women". Psychology of Women Quarterly. 39: 67–84. doi:10.1177/0361684314521784.

[32] Bergner, R. M.; Bridges, A. J. (2002). "The significance of heavy pornography involvement for romantic partners: Research and clinical implications". Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy. 28 (3): 193–206. doi:10.1080/009262302760328235. PMID 11995598.

[33] Elber, Lynn (10 July 2013). "Are women On TV being sexually exploited? Female TV characters are sexual targets, says new study". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 21 November 2014.

[34] Ramirez, Ximena (25 July 2013). "Study finds girls sexually exploited on television with humor". Care2. care2.com. Retrieved 21 November 2014.

[35] Bahadur, Nina (13 November 2012). "Women in the media: Female TV and film characters still sidelined and sexualized, study finds". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 21 November 2014.

[36] CWTV.com

[37] Schilling, Malia (25 February 2013). "Surprise! Women are still under-represented in media". Ms. Liberty Media for Women. Retrieved 16 December 2014.

[:1-38] Beck, Victoria Simpson; Boys, Stephanie; Rose, Christopher; Beck, Eric (April 30, 2012). "Violence Against Women in Video Games A Prequel or Sequel to Rape Myth Acceptance?". Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 27 (15): 3016–3031. doi:10.1177/0886260512441078. PMID 22550147.

[39] Anonymous, Anonymous. "Video Games Have a Diversity Problem That Runs Deeper Than Race or Gender". The Guardian. Retrieved 17 November 2017.

[:2-40] "The Effects of the Sexualization of Female Video Game Characters on Gender Stereotyping and Female Self-Concept". www.academia.edu. Retrieved 2016-03-15.

[41] "Sexist video games decrease empathy for female violence victims". www.sciencedaily.com. Retrieved 2016-04-21.

[42] Ferguson, Christopher J. (21 June 2017). "Are Associations Between "Sexist" Video Games and Decreased Empathy Toward Women Robust? A Reanalysis of Gabbiadini et al. 2016". Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 46 (12): 2446–2459. doi:10.1007/s10964-017-0700-x. PMID 28639206.

[43] Stermer, S. Paul; Burkley, Melissa (2015). "SeX-Box: Exposure to Sexist Video Games Predicts Benevolent Sexism". Psychology of Popular Media Culture. 4 (1): 47–55. doi:10.1037/a0028397.

[44] Totilo, Stephen (April 17, 2015). "What To Make Of A Study About Gaming And Sexism". Kotaku. Retrieved September 29, 2016.

[45] Gabriel Chong, Yew; Scott Teng, Kie; Amy Siew, Sok; Skoric, Marko; (2012). "Cultivation Effects of Video Games: A Longer-Term Experimental Test of First- and Second-Order Effects", Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, Vol.31(9), pp.952-971. ISSN 0736-7236

[46] Fox, Jesse; Potocki, Bridget (2016). "Lifetime Video Game Consumption, Interpersonal Aggression, Hostile Sexism, and Rape Myth Acceptance". Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 31 (10): 1912–1931. doi:10.1177/0886260515570747. PMID 25681166.

[47] Gentile, Douglas A. (2009). Pathological video game use among youth 8 to 18: A national study. Psychological Science. pp. 594–602.

[fredrickson2-48] Fredrickson, Barbara L.; Roberts, Tomi-Ann (June 1997). "Objectification theory: toward understanding women's lived experiences and mental health risks". Psychology of Women Quarterly. 21 (2): 173–206. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)CS1 maint: postscript (link)

[49] American Psychological Association, (APA) (2010). Report of the American Psychological Association task force on the sexualization of girls, executive summary (PDF). American Psychological Association (Report). Washington, DC.

[50] [1] The Thing All Women Do That You Don't Know About, by Gretchen Kelly, Huffington Post, November 23, 2015

[51] McKay, Tanjare (2013-09-30). "Female Self-Objectification: Causes, Consequences and Prevention". McNair Scholars Research Journal.

[Wells-52] Wells, Alan; Hakanen, Ernest A. (1997). Mass media & society. Greenwich, Connecticut: Ablex Publishing Corp. p. 553. ISBN 9781567502886.

[53] Jennifer Siebel Newsom (writer / director, Miss Representation), Margaret Cho (performer), Katie Couric (performer), Regina Kulik Scully, Geralyn Dreyfous, Sarah Johnson Redlich (2011). Campus sexual violence (DVD). USA: Health.arizona. Campus Health. Pdf.

[54] Muehlenkamp, Jennifer J.; Saris–Baglama, Renee N. (10 Jan 2003). "Self–Objectification and its Psychological Outcomes for College Women". Psychology of Women Quarterly. 26 (4): 371–379. doi:10.1111/1471-6402.t01-1-00076.

[55] Tiggemann, Marika (2011). "Mental Health risks of self-objectification: A review of the empirical evidence for disordered eating, depressed mood, and sexual dysfunction. Self- Objectification in Women; Causes, Consequences, and Counteraction". American Psychological Association.

[56] Rochelle Hine (15 April 2011). "In the Margins: The Effects of Sexualized Images on the Mental Health of Aging Women" (1): 16. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

[:3-57] Spettigue, Wendy; Henderson, Katherine A. (Winter 2004). "Eating Disorders and the Role of the Media". The Canadian Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Review. 13 (1): 16–19. ISSN 1716-9119. PMC 2533817. PMID 19030149.

[58] Paglia, Camille (1991). Sexual personae: art and decadence from Nefertiti to Emily Dickinson. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 9780679735793

[59] Kutchinsky, Berl (1970). Studies on pornography and sex crimes in Denmark. New social science monographs. United States: Nyt fra Samfundsvidenskaberne, eksp. OCLC 155896. Online. Archived October 30, 2007, at the Wayback Machine

[60] Kutchinsky, Berl; Snare, Annika (1999). Law, pornography and crime: the Danish experience. Oslo: Pax Forlag A/S for The Scandinavian Research Council for Criminology. ISBN 9788253018287.

[61] Diamond, Milton (1999), "The effects of pornography: an international perspective", in Elias, James; Elias, Veronica Diehl; Bullough, Vern L.; Brewer, Gwen; Douglas, Jeffrey J.; Jarvis, Will (eds.), Porn 101: eroticism, pornography, and the First Amendment, Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books, ISBN 9781573927505. {{citation}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help) Transcript. Archived 2012-02-03 at the Wayback Machine
Parts of the paper were also presented at the World Pornography Conference. Sheraton Universal Hotel, Universal City, California. August 7, 1998.

Portions of the paper were also published in: Diamond, Milton; Uchiyama, Ayako (January–February 1999). "Pornography, rape, and sex crimes in Japan". International Journal of Law and Psychiatry. 22 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1016/S0160-2527(98)00035-1. PMID 10086287. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)CS1 maint: postscript (link)

[62] Parts of the paper were also presented at the World Pornography Conference. Sheraton Universal Hotel, Universal City, California. August 7, 1998.

[63] Portions of the paper were also published in: Diamond, Milton; Uchiyama, Ayako (January–February 1999). "Pornography, rape, and sex crimes in Japan". International Journal of Law and Psychiatry. 22 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1016/S0160-2527(98)00035-1. PMID 10086287. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)CS1 maint: postscript (link)

[62] Bordo, Susan (1999). The male body: A new look at men in public and in private. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

[63] Gill, Rosalind (2007). Gender and the media. Cambridge, U.K: Polity Press.

[64] Gill, Rosalind (April 2009). "Beyond the sexualization of culture thesis: An intersectional analysis of sixpacks, midriffs and hot lesbians in advertising". Sexualities. 12 (2): 137–160. doi:10.1177/1363460708100916.

[65] "Dr. James Dobson". The Interim: Canada's life and family newspaper. Toronto, Canada: via True Media. 12 January 1997.

[shalit1-66] Shalit, Wendy (2000). A return to modesty: discovering the lost virtue. New York: Touchstone. ISBN 9780684863177.

[67] Reisman, Judith A. (1991). "Soft porn" plays hardball: its tragic effects on women, children, and the family. Lafayette, Louisiana: Huntington House Publishers. ISBN 9780910311922. (pp. 32-46, p. 173)

[68] Holz, Adam R. (2007). "Is average the new ugly?". Plugged In Online. Focus on the Family. Archived from the original on 2012-02-23. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)

[69] National Coalition for the Protection of Children & Families (July 1997). "Subtle Dangers of Pornography (special report by the National Coalition for the Protection of Children & Families)". Pure Intimacy (website). Focus on the Family. Retrieved 1 August 2012.

[shalit2-70] Shalit, Wendy (2000). "Modesty revisited". orthodoxytoday.org. Fr. Johannes Jacobse.

[71] Heldman, Caroline (2 July 2012). "Sexual Objectification (Part 1): What is It? - Sociological Images". thesocietypages.org. Retrieved 2017-12-11. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |dead-url= (help)

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@@ Line 4: / Line 4: @@
 ===Advertising===
-[[Robert W. Jensen|Robert Jensen]], [[Sut Jhally]] and other cultural critics accuse [[mass media]] of using [[sex in advertising]] that promotes the objectification of women to help sell their goods and services.<ref name= Jensen>{{citation | last = Jensen | first = Robert | author-link = Robert Jensen | contribution = Using pornography | editor-last1 = Dines | editor-first1 = Gail | editor-last2 = Jensen | editor-first2 = Robert | editor-last3 = Russo | editor-first3 = Ann | editor-link1 = Gail Dines | editor-link2 = Robert Jensen | title = Pornography: the production and consumption of inequality | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = New York, New York | year = 1997 | isbn = 9780195105568 | ref = harv | postscript = .}}</ref><ref name=Jhally>{{cite AV media | last = Jhally | first = Sut (director) | author-link = Sut Jhally | date = 1997 | title = Dreamworlds II: desire, sex, power in music | medium= Documentary | location= USA | publisher= [[Media Education Foundation]] }}</ref><ref name=Frith>{{Cite journal | last1 = Frith | first1 = Katherine | last2 = Shaw | first2 = Ping | last3 = Cheng | first3 = Hong | title = The construction of beauty: a cross-cultural analysis of women's magazine advertising | journal = [[Journal of Communication]] | volume = 55 | issue = 1 | pages = 56–70 | publisher = [[Wiley-Blackwell|Wiley]] | doi = 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2005.tb02658.x | date = March 2005 | url = https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2005.tb02658.x | ref = harv| postscript = .}}</ref>
+[[Robert W. Jensen|Robert Jensen]], [[Sut Jhally]] and other cultural critics accuse [[mass media]] of using [[sex in advertising]] that promotes the objectification of women to help sell their goods and services.<ref name= Jensen>{{citation | last = Jensen | first = Robert | author-link = Robert Jensen | contribution = Using pornography | editor-last1 = Dines | editor-first1 = Gail | editor-last2 = Jensen | editor-first2 = Robert | editor-last3 = Russo | editor-first3 = Ann | editor-link1 = Gail Dines | editor-link2 = Robert Jensen | title = Pornography: the production and consumption of inequality | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = New York, New York | year = 1997 | isbn = 9780195105568 | ref = harv | postscript = .}}</ref><ref name=Jhally>{{cite AV media | last = Jhally | first = Sut (director) | author-link = Sut Jhally | date = 1997 | title = Dreamworlds II: desire, sex, power in music | medium= Documentary | location= USA | publisher= [[Media Education Foundation]] }}</ref><ref name=Frith>{{Cite journal | last1 = Frith | first1 = Katherine | last2 = Shaw | first2 = Ping | last3 = Cheng | first3 = Hong | title = The construction of beauty: a cross-cultural analysis of women's magazine advertising | journal = [[Journal of Communication]] | volume = 55 | issue = 1 | pages = 56–70 | doi = 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2005.tb02658.x | date = March 2005 | ref = harv| postscript = .}}</ref>
 In ''Gender Advertisements'', [[Erving Goffman]] sought to uncover the covert ways that popular media constructs masculinity and femininity in a detailed analysis of more than 500 advertisements. The relationship between men and women, Goffman argued, was portrayed as a parent–child relationship, one characterized by male power and female subordination.<ref>{{Cite book
@@ Line 19: / Line 19: @@
 | first = Mee-Eun
 | date = December 1997
-| title = The portrayal of women's images in magazine advertisements: Goffman's gender analysis revisited.
+| title = The portrayal of women's images in magazine advertisements: Goffman's gender analysis revisited
-| url = https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF02936350
 | journal = Sex Roles
 | volume = 37
+| issue = 11–12
 | pages = 979–996
 | doi=10.1007/BF02936350
@@ Line 30: / Line 30: @@
 | date = October 2004
 | title = Images of Women in General Interest and Fashion Magazine Advertisements from 1955 to 2002
-| url = https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023%2FB%3ASERS.0000049230.86869.4d
 | journal = Sex Roles
 | doi=10.1023/B:SERS.0000049230.86869.4d
 | volume=51
+| issue = 7/8
 | pages=409–421
 }}</ref>
@@ Line 44: / Line 44: @@
 | date = September 2011
 | title = Equal Opportunity Objectification? The Sexualization of Men and Women on the Cover of Rolling Stone
-| url = https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs12119-011-9093-2
 | journal = Sexuality & Culture
 | doi=10.1007/s12119-011-9093-2
 | volume=15
+| issue = 3
 | pages=256–278
 }}</ref>
@@ Line 71: / Line 71: @@
 ===Music videos===
-Gan, Zillmann and Mitrook found that exposure to sexually explicit rap promotes [[Misogyny in rap music|distinctly unfavorable evaluations of black women]]. Following exposure to sexual rap, as compared with exposure to romantic music or to no music, the assessment of the female performers' personality resulted in a general downgrading of positive traits and a general upgrading of negative ones.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Gan | first1 = Su-Lin | last2 = Zillmann | first2 = Dolf | last3 = Mitrook | first3 = Michael | title = Stereotyping effect of black women's sexual rap on white audiences | journal = [[Basic and Applied Social Psychology]] | volume = 19 | issue = 3 | pages = 381–399 | publisher = [[Taylor and Francis]] | doi = 10.1207/s15324834basp1903_7 | date = September 1997 | url = https://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp1903_7 | ref = harv| postscript = .}}</ref> A 2008 study by Zhang et al. showed that exposure to sexually explicit music videos was associated with stronger endorsement of sexual [[double standard]]s (e.g., belief that it is less acceptable for women to be sexually experienced than for men). Exposure to sexual content was also associated with more permissive attitudes toward premarital sex, regardless of gender, overall television viewing, and previous sexual experience.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Zhang | first1 = Yuanyuan | last2 = Miller | first2 = Laura E. | last3 = Harrison | first3 = Kristen | title = The relationship between exposure to sexual music videos and young adults' sexual attitudes | journal = Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media | volume = 52 | issue = 3 | pages = 368–386 | publisher = [[Taylor and Francis]] | doi = 10.1080/08838150802205462 | date = August 2008 | url = https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08838150802205462 | ref = harv | postscript = .}}</ref> However, [[Gad Saad]] argues that the premise that music videos yield harmful effects and that the harm would be sex-specific (e.g., women's self-concepts will be negatively affected) has not been supported by research.<ref name="GS">{{citation | last = Saad | first = Gad | author-link = Gad Saad | contribution = The Darwinian roots of cultural products: music videos | editor-last = Saad | editor-first = Gad | editor-link = Gad Saad | title = The evolutionary bases of consumption | pages = 196–197 | publisher = Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. | location = Mahwah, New Jersey | year = 2007 | isbn = 9780805851502 | ref = harv | postscript = .}}</ref>
+Gan, Zillmann and Mitrook found that exposure to sexually explicit rap promotes [[Misogyny in rap music|distinctly unfavorable evaluations of black women]]. Following exposure to sexual rap, as compared with exposure to romantic music or to no music, the assessment of the female performers' personality resulted in a general downgrading of positive traits and a general upgrading of negative ones.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Gan | first1 = Su-Lin | last2 = Zillmann | first2 = Dolf | last3 = Mitrook | first3 = Michael | title = Stereotyping effect of black women's sexual rap on white audiences | journal = [[Basic and Applied Social Psychology]] | volume = 19 | issue = 3 | pages = 381–399 | doi = 10.1207/s15324834basp1903_7 | date = September 1997 | ref = harv| postscript = .}}</ref> A 2008 study by Zhang et al. showed that exposure to sexually explicit music videos was associated with stronger endorsement of sexual [[double standard]]s (e.g., belief that it is less acceptable for women to be sexually experienced than for men). Exposure to sexual content was also associated with more permissive attitudes toward premarital sex, regardless of gender, overall television viewing, and previous sexual experience.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Zhang | first1 = Yuanyuan | last2 = Miller | first2 = Laura E. | last3 = Harrison | first3 = Kristen | title = The relationship between exposure to sexual music videos and young adults' sexual attitudes | journal = Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media | volume = 52 | issue = 3 | pages = 368–386 | doi = 10.1080/08838150802205462 | date = August 2008 | ref = harv | postscript = .}}</ref> However, [[Gad Saad]] argues that the premise that music videos yield harmful effects and that the harm would be sex-specific (e.g., women's self-concepts will be negatively affected) has not been supported by research.<ref name="GS">{{citation | last = Saad | first = Gad | author-link = Gad Saad | contribution = The Darwinian roots of cultural products: music videos | editor-last = Saad | editor-first = Gad | editor-link = Gad Saad | title = The evolutionary bases of consumption | pages = 196–197 | publisher = Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. | location = Mahwah, New Jersey | year = 2007 | isbn = 9780805851502 | ref = harv | postscript = .}}</ref>
 A survey found that 72.2% of black, 68.0% of white, and 69.2% of Hispanic youths agree with the suggestion that rap music videos contain 'too many' references to sex.<ref>{{citation | last1 = Cohen | first1 = Cathy | last2 = Celestine-Michener | first2 = Jamila | contribution = "Minority Report": Kanye West, Barack Obama, and political alienation | editor-last = Cohen | editor-first = Cathy | title = Democracy remixed: black youth and the future of American politics | page = 71 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford New York | year = 2010 | isbn = 9780195378009 | ref = harv | postscript = .}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | last = Conlon | first = Michael | title = Young U.S. blacks believe in politics: study | url = https://www.reuters.com/article/2007/02/01/us-usa-blacks-attitudes-idUSN3032202920070201 | work = [[Reuters]] | location = Chicago | date = February 1, 2007 }}</ref>
@@ Line 78: / Line 78: @@
 {{POV section|date=December 2017}}
-In her article, "Negative effect of media on girls," Monique Smith discusses the evolution of acceptable female figures throughout time. The transition between sexy meaning curvaceous to sexy meaning thin made it difficult for women to keep up with the ideal feminine figure. Striving for the virtually unattainable perfect body, women were viewed as a new way to make money.<ref>{{Cite web | last = Smith | first = Monique E. |title = Negative effect of media on girls|url = https://www.academia.edu/4414210/Negative_effect_of_media_on_girls | publisher = [[Academia.edu]] |accessdate = 22 July 2015}}</ref>{{Self-published inline|certain=y|date=September 2015}} The use of [[Size zero|size 0]] in advertisements and products of the clothing industry has been met with criticism. For example, [[Dawn O'Porter|Dawn Porter]], a reporter from the UK who had been challenged to go on an extreme celebrity 'size zero' diet for a new BBC programme, Super Slim Me, logged her experiences about her journey to a size zero.<ref>{{cite news | last = Porter | first = Dawn | author-link = Dawn O'Porter |work=[[Daily Mail]] | url = http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-432939/My-quest-size-zero.html | title = 'My quest for size zero'|date=1 February 2007}}</ref>
+In her article, "Negative effect of media on girls," Monique Smith discusses the evolution of acceptable female figures throughout time. The transition between sexy meaning curvaceous to sexy meaning thin made it difficult for women to keep up with the ideal feminine figure. Striving for the virtually unattainable perfect body, women were viewed as a new way to make money.<ref>{{Cite web | last = Smith | first = Monique E. |title = Negative effect of media on girls|url = https://www.academia.edu/4414210 | publisher = [[Academia.edu]] |accessdate = 22 July 2015}}</ref>{{Self-published inline|certain=y|date=September 2015}} The use of [[Size zero|size 0]] in advertisements and products of the clothing industry has been met with criticism. For example, [[Dawn O'Porter|Dawn Porter]], a reporter from the UK who had been challenged to go on an extreme celebrity 'size zero' diet for a new BBC programme, Super Slim Me, logged her experiences about her journey to a size zero.<ref>{{cite news | last = Porter | first = Dawn | author-link = Dawn O'Porter |work=[[Daily Mail]] | url = http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-432939/My-quest-size-zero.html | title = 'My quest for size zero'|date=1 February 2007}}</ref>
 A study conducted in the UK found evidence that anorexia nervosa is a socially transmitted disease and exposure to skinny models may be a contributing factor in the cause of anorexia nervosa.<ref>{{cite news | last = Boseley | first = Sarah |work=[[The Guardian]]|url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2012/mar/01/anorexia-research-government-intervention-justified?newsfeed=true|title='Anorexia research finds government intervention justified'|date= 1 March 2012}}</ref>
@@ Line 95: / Line 95: @@
 | first3 = Gisela
 | date = 2 October 2010
-| title = Frequent users of pornography. A population based epidemiological study of Swedish male adolescents.
+| title = Frequent users of pornography. A population based epidemiological study of Swedish male adolescents
 | url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140197110001387
 | journal = Journal of Adolescence
 | doi=10.1016/j.adolescence.2010.04.010
+| pmid = 20888038
 | volume=34
+| issue = 4
 | pages=779–788
 }}</ref> According to the tenets of [[social learning theory]], men who view pornography may learn and transfer the objectifying behaviors they view in pornography to sexual encounters with their female partners. Men's pornography use may correspond to higher levels of experienced sexual  objectification by their female partners and it may socialize men treat their female partners in objectifying ways and believe that it is acceptable to do so.
@@ Line 121: / Line 123: @@
 Recently, television has come under fire for the sexual exploitation of women on screen, particularly when teenagers are involved. In 2013, the Parents Television Council released a report that found that it was increasingly more likely for a scene to be exploitative when a teenage girl was involved.  The report also found that 43 percent of teen girls on television are the targets of sexually exploitative jokes compared to 33 percent of adult women. Rev. Delman Coates, a PTC board member said, "young people are having difficulty managing the distinction between appropriate and inappropriate sexual conduct". This report is of a series that's about media sexualization of young girls.<ref>{{cite news | last = Elber | first = Lynn | title = Are women On TV being sexually exploited? Female TV characters are sexual targets, says new study |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/07/10/women-on-tv-sexually-exploited_n_3570816.html | work = [[The Huffington Post]] | date = 10 July 2013 | accessdate=21 November 2014}}</ref>
-The researchers from the study claim that "[i]f media images communicate that sexual exploitation is neither serious nor harmful, the environment is being set for sexual exploitation to be viewed as trivial and acceptable.  As long as there are media producers who continue to find the degradation of women to be humorous, and media outlets that will air the content, the impact and seriousness of sexual exploitation will continue to be understated and not meaningfully addressed in our society."<ref>{{cite web | last = Ramirez | first = Ximena | title = Study finds girls sexually exploited on television with humor | url = http://www.care2.com/causes/study-finds-girls-sexually-exploited-on-television-with-humor.html | work = [[Care2]] | publisher = care2.com | date = 25 July 2013 | accessdate = 21 November 2014 }}</ref>
+The researchers from the study claim that "[i]f media images communicate that sexual exploitation is neither serious nor harmful, the environment is being set for sexual exploitation to be viewed as trivial and acceptable.  As long as there are media producers who continue to find the degradation of women to be humorous, and media outlets that will air the content, the impact and seriousness of sexual exploitation will continue to be understated and not meaningfully addressed in our society."<ref>{{cite web | last = Ramirez | first = Ximena | title = Study finds girls sexually exploited on television with humor | url = http://www.care2.com/causes/study-finds-girls-sexually-exploited-on-television-with-humor.html | website = [[Care2]] | publisher = care2.com | date = 25 July 2013 | accessdate = 21 November 2014 }}</ref>
-A 2012 study led by sociologist Stacy L. Smith found that in both prime-time television and family films, women were highly likely to be depicted as thin and scantily clad.  They were also vastly underrepresented in [[Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics|STEM]] fields when compared to their male counterparts, and had less speaking roles.  According to this study, only 28.3 percent of characters in family films, 30.8 percent of characters in children's shows, and 38.9 percent of characters on prime time television were women.<ref>{{cite web | last = Bahadur | first = Nina | title = Women in the media: Female TV and film characters still sidelined and sexualized, study finds | url = http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/11/13/women-in-the-media-female_n_2121979.html | work = [[The Huffington Post]] | date = 13 November 2012 | accessdate=21 November 2014 }}</ref>
+A 2012 study led by sociologist Stacy L. Smith found that in both prime-time television and family films, women were highly likely to be depicted as thin and scantily clad.  They were also vastly underrepresented in [[Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics|STEM]] fields when compared to their male counterparts, and had less speaking roles.  According to this study, only 28.3 percent of characters in family films, 30.8 percent of characters in children's shows, and 38.9 percent of characters on prime time television were women.<ref>{{cite web | last = Bahadur | first = Nina | title = Women in the media: Female TV and film characters still sidelined and sexualized, study finds | url = http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/11/13/women-in-the-media-female_n_2121979.html | website = [[The Huffington Post]] | date = 13 November 2012 | accessdate=21 November 2014 }}</ref>
-According to a report by the [[Women's Media Center]] (WMC), it found that the gender gap has not declined and that in some industries it has gotten worse. In television, it found the percentage of female TV characters has decreased and that the ones who make it on-screen are not likely to get the lead roles compared to the male characters. "According to the Center for the Study of Women in Television & Film's 'Boxed In' report, CW Television Network<ref>CWTV.com</ref> is the only TV network where women can be seen in accurate proportion to their representation in the U.S. population".<ref>{{cite web | last = Schilling | first = Malia | title = Surprise! Women are still under-represented in media | url = http://msmagazine.com/blog/2013/02/25/surprise-women-are-still-under-represented-in-media/ | work = [[Ms. (magazine)|Ms.]] | publisher = Liberty Media for Women | date = 25 February 2013 | accessdate = 16 December 2014 }}</ref>
+According to a report by the [[Women's Media Center]] (WMC), it found that the gender gap has not declined and that in some industries it has gotten worse. In television, it found the percentage of female TV characters has decreased and that the ones who make it on-screen are not likely to get the lead roles compared to the male characters. "According to the Center for the Study of Women in Television & Film's 'Boxed In' report, CW Television Network<ref>CWTV.com</ref> is the only TV network where women can be seen in accurate proportion to their representation in the U.S. population".<ref>{{cite web | last = Schilling | first = Malia | title = Surprise! Women are still under-represented in media | url = http://msmagazine.com/blog/2013/02/25/surprise-women-are-still-under-represented-in-media/ | website = [[Ms. (magazine)|Ms.]] | publisher = Liberty Media for Women | date = 25 February 2013 | accessdate = 16 December 2014 }}</ref>
 ===Video games===
@@ Line 133: / Line 135: @@
 According to a report done by the Entertainment Software Association  in 2013, 55% of game players are male and 45% are female.<ref name=":0" /> Women's roles in many modern games usually are less important to the game and rely heavily on stereotypes.<ref name=":1" /> Video games' female characters also tend be lighter skinned individuals, as are their male counterparts. Although not demonstrating blatantly racist stereotypes, many games practice racism through omission of racially diverse characters.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Anonymous|first1=Anonymous|title=Video Games Have a Diversity Problem That Runs Deeper Than Race or Gender|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/sep/10/video-games-diversity-problem-runs-deeper-than-race-gender|website=The Guardian|accessdate=17 November 2017}}</ref>
-Video games have been found to offer a smaller range of roles to female characters compared to male characters, and these roles tend to involve being victims or prizes to be won. The majority of female characters are also [[non-player character|not playable]]. These roles for women have been found to have a negative impact on the perception of women in gaming and even main playable female characters are found to be unrealistically proportioned with revealing clothing. If a sexualized female character is the main protagonist and portrayed in a positive light, studies have shown a potential negative effect if the character is hyper-sexualized in a stereotypical manner.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url = https://www.academia.edu/1865189/The_Effects_of_the_Sexualization_of_Female_Video_Game_Characters_on_Gender_Stereotyping_and_Female_Self-Concept|title = The Effects of the Sexualization of Female Video Game Characters on Gender Stereotyping and Female Self-Concept|website = www.academia.edu|access-date = 2016-03-15}}</ref>  A recent Ohio State University Study has found  that sexist and violent content in games cause male gamers to identify with the male lead, and find less empathy with female victims of violence,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/04/160413151057.htm|title=Sexist video games decrease empathy for female violence victims|website=www.sciencedaily.com|access-date=2016-04-21}}</ref> although a 2017 review of this paper suggested several flaws and a reanalysis of the dataset using different statistical methods found no sexist effect, concluding "These results call into question whether use of “sexist” video games is a causal factor in the development of reduced empathy toward girls and women among adolescents".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ferguson|first1=Christopher J.|title=Are Associations Between “Sexist” Video Games and Decreased Empathy Toward Women Robust? A Reanalysis of Gabbiadini et al. 2016|journal=Journal of Youth and Adolescence|date=21 June 2017|doi=10.1007/s10964-017-0700-x|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10964-017-0700-x|accessdate=25 August 2017|volume=46|pages=2446–2459}}</ref> Similarly, the results of a 2015 study suggested that "sexist video game play is related to men perceiving women in a stereotypic and sexist way", but found that the same correlation did not occur with female players.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Stermer | first1 = S. Paul | last2 = Burkley | first2 = Melissa | year = 2015 | title = SeX-Box: Exposure to Sexist Video Games Predicts Benevolent Sexism | url = | journal = Psychology of Popular Media Culture | volume = 4 | issue = 1| pages = 47–55 | doi = 10.1037/a0028397 }}</ref>
+Video games have been found to offer a smaller range of roles to female characters compared to male characters, and these roles tend to involve being victims or prizes to be won. The majority of female characters are also [[non-player character|not playable]]. These roles for women have been found to have a negative impact on the perception of women in gaming and even main playable female characters are found to be unrealistically proportioned with revealing clothing. If a sexualized female character is the main protagonist and portrayed in a positive light, studies have shown a potential negative effect if the character is hyper-sexualized in a stereotypical manner.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url = https://www.academia.edu/1865189|title = The Effects of the Sexualization of Female Video Game Characters on Gender Stereotyping and Female Self-Concept|website = www.academia.edu|access-date = 2016-03-15}}</ref>  A recent Ohio State University Study has found  that sexist and violent content in games cause male gamers to identify with the male lead, and find less empathy with female victims of violence,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/04/160413151057.htm|title=Sexist video games decrease empathy for female violence victims|website=www.sciencedaily.com|access-date=2016-04-21}}</ref> although a 2017 review of this paper suggested several flaws and a reanalysis of the dataset using different statistical methods found no sexist effect, concluding "These results call into question whether use of “sexist” video games is a causal factor in the development of reduced empathy toward girls and women among adolescents".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ferguson|first1=Christopher J.|title=Are Associations Between "Sexist" Video Games and Decreased Empathy Toward Women Robust? A Reanalysis of Gabbiadini et al. 2016|journal=Journal of Youth and Adolescence|date=21 June 2017|doi=10.1007/s10964-017-0700-x|pmid=28639206|volume=46|issue=12|pages=2446–2459}}</ref> Similarly, the results of a 2015 study suggested that "sexist video game play is related to men perceiving women in a stereotypic and sexist way", but found that the same correlation did not occur with female players.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Stermer | first1 = S. Paul | last2 = Burkley | first2 = Melissa | year = 2015 | title = SeX-Box: Exposure to Sexist Video Games Predicts Benevolent Sexism | url = | journal = Psychology of Popular Media Culture | volume = 4 | issue = 1| pages = 47–55 | doi = 10.1037/a0028397 }}</ref>
-A German longitudinal study from 2011 to 2015 explored the connection between gaming and sexist attitudes. The results of this study concluded both that playing video games was not predictive of sexist beliefs and that sexist beliefs were not predicative of video game play. The researchers stressed, however, that the study did not, nor was intended to, disprove the existence of sexist attitudes in general.<ref>{{cite web | url= http://kotaku.com/what-to-make-of-a-study-about-gaming-and-sexism-1698543308 | title=What To Make Of A Study About Gaming And Sexism | first=Stephen | last=Totilo | work=[[Kotaku]] | date=April 17, 2015 | accessdate=September 29, 2016}}</ref> A 2012 study also raised concerns about the correlation between video games and individual attitudes. Focusing on the Singaporean subjects playing the game [[Grand Theft Auto]], the study found some evidence of "first order cultivation effects" – which relate to the perceptions of situations and issues – but found that second order effects, relating to beliefs and issues, were provided with only limited support by the study. This led the authors to conclude that previous studies on cultivation effects from television may not directly relate to effects from video game playing.<ref>Gabriel Chong, Yew; Scott Teng, Kie; Amy Siew, Sok; Skoric, Marko; (2012). "Cultivation Effects of Video Games: A Longer-Term Experimental Test of First- and Second-Order Effects", ''Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology'', Vol.31(9), pp.952-971. {{ISSN|0736-7236}}</ref>
+A German longitudinal study from 2011 to 2015 explored the connection between gaming and sexist attitudes. The results of this study concluded both that playing video games was not predictive of sexist beliefs and that sexist beliefs were not predicative of video game play. The researchers stressed, however, that the study did not, nor was intended to, disprove the existence of sexist attitudes in general.<ref>{{cite web | url= http://kotaku.com/what-to-make-of-a-study-about-gaming-and-sexism-1698543308 | title=What To Make Of A Study About Gaming And Sexism | first=Stephen | last=Totilo | website=[[Kotaku]] | date=April 17, 2015 | accessdate=September 29, 2016}}</ref> A 2012 study also raised concerns about the correlation between video games and individual attitudes. Focusing on the Singaporean subjects playing the game [[Grand Theft Auto]], the study found some evidence of "first order cultivation effects" – which relate to the perceptions of situations and issues – but found that second order effects, relating to beliefs and issues, were provided with only limited support by the study. This led the authors to conclude that previous studies on cultivation effects from television may not directly relate to effects from video game playing.<ref>Gabriel Chong, Yew; Scott Teng, Kie; Amy Siew, Sok; Skoric, Marko; (2012). "Cultivation Effects of Video Games: A Longer-Term Experimental Test of First- and Second-Order Effects", ''Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology'', Vol.31(9), pp.952-971. {{ISSN|0736-7236}}</ref>
 The trend of portraying sex-typed images of women and violence against women in popular video games continues to proliferate and promulgate in video games. Video games depicting [[sexual objectification]] of women and violence against women resulted in statistically significant increased [[rape myth]]s acceptance for male study participants but not for female participants.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal
@@ Line 151: / Line 153: @@
 | journal = Journal of Interpersonal Violence
 | doi = 10.1177/0886260512441078
+| pmid = 22550147
 | volume=27
+| issue = 15
 | pages=3016–3031
-}}</ref> A 2016 study by Fox and Potocki had similar findings, in which they ran a survey which found that "video game consumption throughout the life span is associated with interpersonal aggression, hostile sexism, and RMA [Rape Myth Acceptance]".<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Fox | first1 = Jesse | last2 = Potocki | first2 = Bridget | year = 2016 | title = Lifetime Video Game Consumption, Interpersonal Aggression, Hostile Sexism, and Rape Myth Acceptance | url = | journal = Journal of Interpersonal Violence | volume = 31 | issue = 10| pages = 1912–1931 | doi = 10.1177/0886260515570747 }}</ref>
+}}</ref> A 2016 study by Fox and Potocki had similar findings, in which they ran a survey which found that "video game consumption throughout the life span is associated with interpersonal aggression, hostile sexism, and RMA [Rape Myth Acceptance]".<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Fox | first1 = Jesse | last2 = Potocki | first2 = Bridget | year = 2016 | title = Lifetime Video Game Consumption, Interpersonal Aggression, Hostile Sexism, and Rape Myth Acceptance | url = | journal = Journal of Interpersonal Violence | volume = 31 | issue = 10| pages = 1912–1931 | doi = 10.1177/0886260515570747 | pmid = 25681166 }}</ref>
 Out of the top 10 video games listed midyear 2010 (New Super Mario Brothers; Call Of Duty: Modern Warfare; Battlefield: Bad Company 2; Final Fantasy XIII; Wii Fit Plus; God of War III; Pokémon SoulSilver; Wii Sports Resort, Mass Effect 2, Pokémon HeartGold Version; Morris, 2010), most have violent content, including violence against women, and some contain sexual objectification of women. Not only are gamers increasingly being exposed to video games containing sexual objectification of and violence against women, but research also indicates that such exposure can be excessive.<ref name=":1" /> A national sample of youth aged 8 to 18 found that "8.5 percent of video game players exhibited pathological patterns of play," which is "very similar to the prevalence demonstrated in many other studies of this age group, including across nations".<ref>{{Cite book
-| title = Pathological video game use among youth 8 to 18: A national study.
+| title = Pathological video game use among youth 8 to 18: A national study
 | last = Gentile
 | first = Douglas A.
@@ Line 165: / Line 169: @@
 ==Effects on society==
-Critics of the prevalent portrayals of women in the mass media observe possible negative consequences for various segments of the population, such as:<ref name=fredrickson2>{{Cite journal | last1 = Fredrickson | first1 = Barbara L. | last2 = Roberts | first2 = Tomi-Ann | title = Objectification theory: toward understanding women's lived experiences and mental health risks | journal = [[Psychology of Women Quarterly]] | volume = 21 | issue = 2 | pages = 173–206 | publisher = [[SAGE Publications|Sage]] | doi = 10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x | date = June 1997 | url = https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x | ref = harv| postscript = .}}</ref><ref>{{Cite report | last1 = American Psychological Association | first1 = (APA) | title = Report of the American Psychological Association task force on the sexualization of girls, executive summary | journal = [[American Psychological Association]] | location = Washington, DC | year = 2010 | url = http://www.apa.org/pi/women/programs/girls/report-full.pdf }}</ref><ref>[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/gretchen-kelly/the-thing-all-women-do-you-dont-know-about_b_8630416.html?] The Thing All Women Do That You Don't Know About, by Gretchen Kelly, Huffington Post, November 23, 2015</ref>
+Critics of the prevalent portrayals of women in the mass media observe possible negative consequences for various segments of the population, such as:<ref name=fredrickson2>{{Cite journal | last1 = Fredrickson | first1 = Barbara L. | last2 = Roberts | first2 = Tomi-Ann | title = Objectification theory: toward understanding women's lived experiences and mental health risks | journal = [[Psychology of Women Quarterly]] | volume = 21 | issue = 2 | pages = 173–206 | doi = 10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x | date = June 1997 | ref = harv| postscript = .}}</ref><ref>{{Cite report | last1 = American Psychological Association | first1 = (APA) | title = Report of the American Psychological Association task force on the sexualization of girls, executive summary | journal = [[American Psychological Association]] | location = Washington, DC | year = 2010 | url = http://www.apa.org/pi/women/programs/girls/report-full.pdf }}</ref><ref>[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/gretchen-kelly/the-thing-all-women-do-you-dont-know-about_b_8630416.html?] The Thing All Women Do That You Don't Know About, by Gretchen Kelly, Huffington Post, November 23, 2015</ref>
 *Women self-objectify in terms of body surveillance by adopting a form of self-consciousness in which they habitually monitor their own body's outward appearance and spend significant amounts of attention on how others may perceive their physical appearance<ref>{{Cite journal
 | last = McKay
@@ Line 186: / Line 190: @@
 | date = 10 Jan 2003
 | title = Self–Objectification and its Psychological Outcomes for College Women
-| url = http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1471-6402.t01-1-00076/abstract
 | journal = Psychology of Women Quarterly
 | doi=10.1111/1471-6402.t01-1-00076
 | volume=26
+| issue = 4
 | pages=371–379
 }}</ref>
@@ Line 204: / Line 208: @@
 Many studies have shown the negative effects that this exploitation of women in the media has on the mental health of young women, but recently the studies have focused on aging women in western societies. It has been observed that the exploitation of young attractive women in the media causes aging women to feel a variety of emotions including sadness, anger, concern, envy, desensitization, marginalization, and discomfort that their appearance was being judged by others.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rochelle Hine|title=In the Margins: The Effects of Sexualized Images on the Mental Health of Aging Women|date=15 April 2011|issue=1|page=16}}</ref>
-A study done in 1994 about the effects of media on young and middle-aged women found that of adolescent girls aged 11–17, the primary desire was to "lose weight and keep it off." The results were not different for older women. When asked what they'd most like to change about their lives, the answer for over half of them was their body and weight.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Spettigue|first=Wendy|last2=Henderson|first2=Katherine A.|date=Winter 2004|title=Eating Disorders and the Role of the Media|journal=The Canadian child and adolescent psychiatry review|volume=13|issue=1|pages=16–19|issn=1716-9119|pmc=2533817|pmid=19030149|via=}}</ref>
+A study done in 1994 about the effects of media on young and middle-aged women found that of adolescent girls aged 11–17, the primary desire was to "lose weight and keep it off." The results were not different for older women. When asked what they'd most like to change about their lives, the answer for over half of them was their body and weight.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Spettigue|first=Wendy|last2=Henderson|first2=Katherine A.|date=Winter 2004|title=Eating Disorders and the Role of the Media|journal=The Canadian Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Review|volume=13|issue=1|pages=16–19|issn=1716-9119|pmc=2533817|pmid=19030149|via=}}</ref>
 A recent study done by [[Vanderbilt University]] illustrated how sexist commercials have a greater impact on wellbeing than commercials that do not exploit women. The study was designed with three different groups: one was exposed to sexist media, one was exposed to neutral media, and the control group was not exposed to media at all. Of the women exposed to sexist advertising, there was a substantial difference. The women in this group expressed having a body larger than it was in actuality and expressed feeling a greater disparity between their own body and the "ideal body." Following exposure to this kind of media, there was an immediate negative effect on their mood. It was also concluded that adolescent girls exposed to sexist media are the most highly impacted demographic.<ref name=":3" />
@@ Line 211: / Line 215: @@
 [[Gallup & Robinson]], an [[advertising]] and [[marketing research]] firm, has reported that in more than 50 years of testing advertising effectiveness, it has found the use of the [[Eroticism|erotic]] to be a significantly above-average technique in communicating with the marketplace, ''"...although one of the more dangerous for the advertiser. Weighted down with taboos and volatile attitudes, sex is a Code Red advertising technique ... handle with care ... seller beware; all of which makes it even more intriguing."'' This research has led to the popular idea that ''"sex sells"''.
-[[Camille Paglia]] holds that "Turning people into sex objects is one of the specialties of our species." In her view, objectification is closely tied to (and may even be identical with) the highest human faculties toward conceptualization and [[aesthetics]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Paglia | first = Camille | author-link = Camille Paglia | title = [[Sexual Personae: Art and Decadence from Nefertiti to Emily Dickinson|Sexual personae: art and decadence from Nefertiti to Emily Dickinson]] | publisher = Vintage Books | location = New York | year = 1991 }} {{ISBN|9780679735793}}</ref>
+[[Camille Paglia]] holds that "Turning people into sex objects is one of the specialties of our species." In her view, objectification is closely tied to (and may even be identical with) the highest human faculties toward conceptualization and [[aesthetics]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Paglia | first = Camille | author-link = Camille Paglia | title = Sexual personae: art and decadence from Nefertiti to Emily Dickinson | publisher = Vintage Books | location = New York | year = 1991 | title-link = Sexual Personae: Art and Decadence from Nefertiti to Emily Dickinson }} {{ISBN|9780679735793}}</ref>
-Danish criminologist [[Berl Kutchinsky]]'s ''[[President's Commission on Obscenity and Pornography#Studies undertaken|Studies on Pornography and sex crimes in Denmark]]'' (1970), a scientific report ordered by the [[President's Commission on Obscenity and Pornography|Presidential Commission on Obscenity and Pornography]], found that the legalizing of [[pornography in Denmark]] had not (as expected) resulted in an increase of [[sex crimes]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Kutchinsky | first = Berl | author-link = Berl Kutchinsky | title = [[President's Commission on Obscenity and Pornography#Studies undertaken|Studies on pornography and sex crimes in Denmark]] | publisher = Nyt fra Samfundsvidenskaberne, eksp. | location = United States | series = New social science monographs | year = 1970  |OCLC=155896}} [http://home20.inet.tele.dk/gorzelak/dps/anmeldelser/barbano_kutchinsky.html Online.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030030642/http://home20.inet.tele.dk/gorzelak/dps/anmeldelser/barbano_kutchinsky.html |date=October 30, 2007 }}</ref>  Since then, many other experiments have been conducted, either supporting or opposing the findings of [[Berl Kutchinsky]], who would continue his study into the social effects of pornography until his death in 1995. His life's work was summed up in the publication ''Law, Pornography, and Crime: The Danish Experience'' (1999).<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Kutchinsky | first1 = Berl | last2 = Snare | first2 = Annika | author-link1 = Berl Kutchinsky | title = Law, pornography and crime: the Danish experience | publisher = Pax Forlag A/S for The Scandinavian Research Council for Criminology | location = Oslo | year = 1999 | isbn = 9788253018287 }}</ref> Milton Diamond from the [[University of Hawaii]] found that the number of reported cases of child sex abuse dropped markedly immediately after the ban on sexually explicit materials was lifted in 1989.<ref>{{citation | last = Diamond | first = Milton | author-link = Milton Diamond | contribution = The effects of pornography: an international perspective | editor-last1 = Elias | editor-first1 = James | editor-last2 = Elias | editor-first2 = Veronica Diehl | editor-last3 = Bullough | editor-first3 = Vern L.| editor-last4 = Brewer | editor-first4 = Gwen | editor-last5 = Douglas | editor-first5 = Jeffrey J. | editor-last6 = Jarvis | editor-first6 = Will | title = Porn 101: eroticism, pornography, and the First Amendment | publisher = Prometheus Books | location = Amherst, New York | year = 1999 | isbn = 9781573927505 | ref = harv | postscript = .}} [http://www2.hu-berlin.de/sexology/BIB/DIAM/effects_pornography.htm Transcript.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203171037/http://www2.hu-berlin.de/sexology/BIB/DIAM/effects_pornography.htm |date=2012-02-03 }}
+Danish criminologist [[Berl Kutchinsky]]'s ''[[President's Commission on Obscenity and Pornography#Studies undertaken|Studies on Pornography and sex crimes in Denmark]]'' (1970), a scientific report ordered by the [[President's Commission on Obscenity and Pornography|Presidential Commission on Obscenity and Pornography]], found that the legalizing of [[pornography in Denmark]] had not (as expected) resulted in an increase of [[sex crimes]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Kutchinsky | first = Berl | author-link = Berl Kutchinsky | title = Studies on pornography and sex crimes in Denmark | publisher = Nyt fra Samfundsvidenskaberne, eksp. | location = United States | series = New social science monographs | year = 1970  |oclc=155896| title-link = President's Commission on Obscenity and Pornography#Studies undertaken }} [http://home20.inet.tele.dk/gorzelak/dps/anmeldelser/barbano_kutchinsky.html Online.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071030030642/http://home20.inet.tele.dk/gorzelak/dps/anmeldelser/barbano_kutchinsky.html |date=October 30, 2007 }}</ref>  Since then, many other experiments have been conducted, either supporting or opposing the findings of [[Berl Kutchinsky]], who would continue his study into the social effects of pornography until his death in 1995. His life's work was summed up in the publication ''Law, Pornography, and Crime: The Danish Experience'' (1999).<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Kutchinsky | first1 = Berl | last2 = Snare | first2 = Annika | author-link1 = Berl Kutchinsky | title = Law, pornography and crime: the Danish experience | publisher = Pax Forlag A/S for The Scandinavian Research Council for Criminology | location = Oslo | year = 1999 | isbn = 9788253018287 }}</ref> Milton Diamond from the [[University of Hawaii]] found that the number of reported cases of child sex abuse dropped markedly immediately after the ban on sexually explicit materials was lifted in 1989.<ref>{{citation | last = Diamond | first = Milton | author-link = Milton Diamond | contribution = The effects of pornography: an international perspective | editor-last1 = Elias | editor-first1 = James | editor-last2 = Elias | editor-first2 = Veronica Diehl | editor-last3 = Bullough | editor-first3 = Vern L.| editor-last4 = Brewer | editor-first4 = Gwen | editor-last5 = Douglas | editor-first5 = Jeffrey J. | editor-last6 = Jarvis | editor-first6 = Will | title = Porn 101: eroticism, pornography, and the First Amendment | publisher = Prometheus Books | location = Amherst, New York | year = 1999 | isbn = 9781573927505 | ref = harv | postscript = .}} [http://www2.hu-berlin.de/sexology/BIB/DIAM/effects_pornography.htm Transcript.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203171037/http://www2.hu-berlin.de/sexology/BIB/DIAM/effects_pornography.htm |date=2012-02-03 }}
 *Parts of the paper were also presented at the World Pornography Conference. Sheraton Universal Hotel, [[Universal City, California]]. August 7, 1998.
-*Portions of the paper were also published in: {{Cite journal | last1 = Diamond | first1 = Milton | last2 = Uchiyama | first2 = Ayako | author-link1 = Milton Diamond | title = Pornography, rape, and sex crimes in Japan | journal = International Journal of Law and Psychiatry | volume = 22 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–22 | doi = 10.1016/S0160-2527(98)00035-1 | date = January–February 1999 | url = https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0160-2527(98)00035-1 | ref = harv | postscript = . | pmid = 10086287 }}</ref>
+*Portions of the paper were also published in: {{Cite journal | last1 = Diamond | first1 = Milton | last2 = Uchiyama | first2 = Ayako | author-link1 = Milton Diamond | title = Pornography, rape, and sex crimes in Japan | journal = International Journal of Law and Psychiatry | volume = 22 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–22 | doi = 10.1016/S0160-2527(98)00035-1 | date = January–February 1999 | ref = harv | postscript = . | pmid = 10086287 }}</ref>
 Some researchers, such as [[Susan Bordo]] and [[Rosalind Gill]], argue against using the phrase "sexual objectification" to describe such images because they often depict women as active, confident, and/or sexually desirous.<ref>{{Cite book
 | url = http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/210862.The_Male_Body
-| title = The male body: A new look at men in public and in private.
+| title = The male body: A new look at men in public and in private
 | last = Bordo
 | first = Susan
@@ Line 227: / Line 231: @@
 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book
 | url = http://www.polity.co.uk/book.asp?ref=9780745612737
-| title = Gender and the media.
+| title = Gender and the media
 | last = Gill
 | first = Rosalind
@@ Line 237: / Line 241: @@
 | first = Rosalind
 | date = April 2009
-| title = Beyond the ''sexualization of culture'' thesis: An intersectional analysis of ''sixpacks,'' ''midriffs'' and ''hot lesbians'' in advertising.
+| title = Beyond the ''sexualization of culture'' thesis: An intersectional analysis of ''sixpacks,'' ''midriffs'' and ''hot lesbians'' in advertising
 | url = http://sex.sagepub.com/content/12/2/137.abstract
 | journal = Sexualities
 | doi = 10.1177/1363460708100916
 | volume=12
+| issue = 2
 | pages=137–160
 }}</ref>