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Chagai-I
File:Chagai-I Atomic Tests on May 28, 1998,.jpg
The mountain is seen raised above as the chain reaction builds up by the devices.
Information
CountryPakistan
Test siteChagai Weapon-testing laboratories, Baluchistan Province
PeriodMay 1998
Number of tests5
Test typeUnderground tests
Device typeFission/Fusion
Max. yieldTotal yield ~40 kilotons of TNT (170 TJ)
See note[1]
Test chronology

Chagai-I was the codename referring to the five underground nuclear tests conducted by Pakistan at 15:15hrs (3:15 pm PST) on 28 May 1998. The tests were performed in a secret Chagai weapon-testing laboratories, located in the Chagai District of the Baluchistan Province of Pakistan.

The Chagai-I— the first public nuclear tests operation of Pakistan— is considered a milestone in the history of Pakistan that was conducted in a direct response to India's second nuclear tests, Operation Shakti, on 11 and 13 May of 1998. Nuclear weapon testings of both states resulted in a variety of economic sanctions on each other by number of major powers, particularly the United States and Japan. With the performance of the simultaneous atomic testing of the five nuclear devices, Pakistan, thus became the seventh nuclear power in the world to successfully develop and publicly test nuclear weapons, despite the international fury.

Birth of Pakistan's atomic weapons programme

Main articles: Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction, Kahuta Project, Bangladesh liberation war, and Indo-Pakistani war of 1971

The country's uneasy relationship with India, Afghanistan and the former Soviet Union explains its policy to to become a nuclear power as part of its defence strategy.[2] Since their independence from United Kingdom on August 1947, India and Pakistan had fought two declared wars over the disputed Kashmir territory; first war being fought in 1947-48 and second being fought in 1965.

Economic embargo placed by the United States, alliance with the West endangering the national security of the country,[3] and the offset the country’s conventional inferiority against India and to counter the advancing Indian nuclear programme after 1965, the country put efforts to launch a classified and clandestine atomic bomb project.[4] Shortly after the war, the country acquired its first research reactor, PARR-I, from the United States and a international research institute, Pinstesh, located in Nilore city in the Islamabad Capital Venue. In 1969, after successfully negotiating with the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA) to supply Pakistan with a nuclear fuel reprocessing site capable of extracting 360g of weapons-grade plutonium annually.[4] The PAEC chose five top scientists to receive training to gain expertise in nuclear fuel cycle as well as weapon-grade and reactor-gradeplutonium.[4] Agreements were made with Canada, France and the British consortium companies to expand the nuclear power infrastructure as part of the peaceful nuclear policy.[2]

The 1971 war and atomic bomb projects

The main turning point in Pakistan's decision-making was the 1971 war with India which led the loss of provisional state, East-Pakistan, which was succeeded as Bangladesh. Lasting only less than two weeks, around 93,000 personnel of Pakistan Armed Forces were taken as POWs by India as well as the 5,000 sq mi (13,000 km2) country's territory which held by India after the war. Although the territory and the POWs were returned to Pakistan, it left deep scars in Pakistan's civil society as well as leaving the political and military misery.[5][6] The armed liberation war and the 1971 war was an unforgettable experience and lesson to political and military establishment. For Pakistan, it was a decisive defeat, a psychological setback[6] that came from a defeat at the hands of intense rival India. Pakistan lost half its territory, a significant portion of its economy and its influential geo-political role in South Asia.[6] At foreign fronts, Pakistan failed to gather any moral and foreign support even from her long-standing allies, particularly the United States, Turkey and the People's Republic of China.[7] Since the Partition, the physical existence Pakistan seemed to be in great mortal danger and quite obviously could rely on no one but itself.[7]

Abdus Salam and Bhutto attending the Multan Meeting.

The war played a crucial and groundbreaking role in the hearts of top scientists of the country who witnessed the war and control of remaining parts of the country was given to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto as country's elected Prime minister.[8] Roughly two weeks after the disaster, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto called for a secret meeting of top and senior scientists in Multan on 20 January 1972 which later elevated as "Multan meeting".[9] There, Zulfikar Bhutto authorised, initiated, and orchestrated the scientific research on atomic weapons bringing all the nuclear infrastructure under one chain of command.[10] Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, who was "obsessed"[11] with Indian nuclear efforts, made extremely critical decisions and aggressively supervised the policy implementation of the atomic bomb project.[12] In 1972, Bhutto appointed Abdus Salam as his science adviser and at same time, called nuclear engineer Munir Ahmad Khan from International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to lead the program administratively while Bhutto controlled the program as the political administrative figure. On November 1972, Bhutto assisted by Salam and Munir Khan, inaugurated the first commercial nuclear power, Kanupp-I in Karachi, Sindh Province.[13] Along with Prof. Salam and Munir Ahmad Khan, the diameter of scientific research was expanded throughout the country.[13] In PAEC, Salam established research divisions and groups that took charge to carry out the physics and mathematical calculations regarding to the development of the weapon.[13] The atomic bomb project at an early stage was directed by Abdus Salam as he was the founding director of Theoretical Physics Group (denoted as TPG) and the and Mathematical Physics Group (denoted as MPG) at the PAEC to conduct mathematical and physics calculations regarding the fission devices.[13]

On March 1974, the research on physical developments were initiated by Munir Khan and Abdus Salam after chairing a meeting in Pinstech Institute.[14] At this meeting the word "bomb" was never used but the participants fully understood the nature of the work. This laid the foundation of "Wah Group Scientist" (denoted as WGS) with U.S. educated mechanical engineer Hafeez Qureshi as its director-general.[14] During the same time, a new Directorate of Technical Development (DTD) was set up to coordinate work on the various specialised groups working in PAEC on the design, development, and testing of nuclear weapons under chemical engineer dr. Shaikh Zaman.[14] The far more complex assembly methods of implosion-bomb design was favoured over the relatively simple gun-type method, and the productions of reactor and weapon-grade and separation of weapon-grade plutonium isotopes were massive undertakings by the PAEC.

All five atomic devices were the Implosion-type similar to one in the illustration. The government never released the details of the technical aspects of the tested weapons as a public domain due to its sensitivity.

The atomic bomb project was accelerated on May 1974 after India surprising Pakistan and the rest of the world after announcing the first explosion of nuclear device, Smiling Buddha in Pokhran Test Range of Indian Army.[15] The goal to developed the atomic bombs became impetus after launching the uranium enrichment project, the Kahuta Project.[15] In 1974, Abdul Qadeer Khan who was then working as a senior scientist at the URENCO Group directed a letter through the Embassy in Amsterdam, and officially joined the atomic bomb project in 1976.[15] The Corps of Engineers under directorship of the General Zahid Ali Akbar, built the Engineering Research Laboratories (ERL) for that purpose and situated a Abdul Qadeer Khan and his team at ERL for commercial and weapon-grade uranium enrichment.[15] Finally in 1978, weapon designing and calculations were completed and a milestone in isotope separation was reached by the PAEC. In 1981, the physical development of the atomic bomb project was completed and the ERL successfully enriched the uranium above 5% and produces first batch of HEU fuel rods.[15] On On 11 March 1983, a milestone was achieved when PAEC led by Munir Ahmad Khan carried out the first cold test of a working nuclear device, codename Kirana-I.[16] This was followed by 24 more cold tests by PAEC in which different weapon designs were tested and improved. After decades of covertly building and developing the atomic weapons program and the related atomic, Pakistan under the leadership of Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif, tested its five underground nuclear devices in Chagai Hills.[17]

Tests planning and preparation

See also: Chagai-II, No. 6 Squadron Globe Trotters, No. 11 Squadron Arrows, Chagai Hills, and Ras Koh Hills

Plans to conduct an atomic test started in 1976 when Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) research scientists frequently visiting the area to find a suitable location for an underground nuclear test, preferably a granite mountain. After a long survey, the PAEC scientists chose the granite mountain Koh Kambaran in the Ras Koh Hills range in the Chagai Division of Baluchistan in 1978. Its highest point rises to a height of 3,009 metres (sources vary). The then-martial law administrator of the province, General Rahimuddin Khan, spearheaded the construction of the potential test sites throughout the 1980s.

In March 2005, the former Pakistan Prime minister Benazir Bhutto said Pakistan may have had an atomic weapon long before, and her father had told her from his prison cell that preparations for a nuclear test had been made in 1977, and he expected to have an atomic test of a nuclear device in August 1977. However, the plan was moved on to December 1977 and later it was delayed indefinitely. In an interview with Geo TV, Samar Mubarakmand of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, has said that the team of Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission developed the design of atomic bomb in 1978 and had successfully conducted a cold test after developing the first atomic bomb in 1983.[18]

The exact origin of the name is unknown, but it is often attributed to the weapon-testing laboratory leader dr. Ishfaq Ahmad as a reference to the Chagai Hills, in spite of no nuclear experiments were performed at the vicinity of this site. It is generally believed that the codename was given in the honour of the Chagai Hills in an attempt that it would not attract international and national attention of the world at where the exact tests were actually performed. On April 2010, Nawaz Sharif, at a public function to celebrate nuclear blasts, said the then-U.S President Bill Clinton offered a package of US$5 billion for not carrying out nuclear blasts and warned about imposition of ban otherwise.[19] Nawaz said that he was in Kazakhstan in a visit to meet the President, Nursultan Nazarbayev, when India tested its nuclear device.[20] The entire nation was united in favour of nuclear blasts and Mushahid Hussain was the first person who advice that nuclear blasts should be carried out in reply of Indian nuclear explosions.[21][22] In 1999, in an interview given to Pakistani and Indian journalists in Islamabad, Sharif had said: If India had not exploded the bomb, Pakistan would not have done so. Once New Delhi did so, We [Sharif Government] had no choice because of public pressure.[23]

Test predictions and yields

See also: Ras Koh Weapon-testing laboratories
Pakistan's top academic scientists pose with Koh Kambaran in the background. The PAEC testing team that conducted the tests were the team leader Mubarakmand (right of the man in the blue beret) and Tariq Salija, Irfan Burney, and Tasneem M. Shah. The better known Abdul Qadeer Khan of KRL is left of the man in the blue beret (who may be General Zulfikar Ali, the engineer administrator of the System and Combat Engineering Divisions of the Pakistan Army Corps of Engineers.

The PAEC carried out five underground nuclear tests at the Chagai test site at 3:16 p.m. (PST) on the afternoon of 28 May 1998.[14][24] The observation post was established about 10km (about ~6.21 miles) from the test vicinity, with members of Mathematics groups and Theoretical Physics Group remained charged with calculating the yields. Calculating an accurate and precise yields are very hard to calculate even in a control environmental system, with many different possible ways the yields can be determined. The questions of politics also further disputed the exact figures. The total maximum yield of the tests was reported to be ~40 kilotons of TNT equivalent, with the largest (boosted) device yielding 30–36 kilotons.[25] However, Western seismologists remains unconvinced and estimated the yield of the largest device to be no greater than 12 kilotons, leading U.S. nuclear weapons expert David Albright also remains skeptical about Pakistan's claims.[26] U.S. scholars, based on the data they received from their computers, claimed that the possible yield ranged from 12-20kt as opposed to ~40kt by the Pakistan Government.[27]

The PAEC's mathematics division made the scientific data to public domain and published seismic activities, mathematical graphs, and mathematical formulas used to calculate the yield.[28] The equations obtained by Western observer, Terry Wallace (who applied on both India and Pakistan tests) follows:

The scientific publications were continued to be appear as public domain, the explosion measured 5.54 degrees on the Richter Scale, supporting the Pakistan government's claim.[28] After the tests, Prime minister Nawaz Sharif addressed the nation via Pakistan's government channel PTV and congratulated the entire nation and days of celebration followed throughout Pakistan.[29][30]

From scientific data received by PAEC, it appears that Pakistan did not test a thermonuclear device, as opposed to India.[8] According to Ishfaq Ahmad, PAEC had no plan to developed a three-stage thermonuclear device because of economic reasons, even though back in 1974, Riazuddin did propose such a plan to Abdus Salam, Director of Theoretical Physics Group that time.[8] From the outset, PAEC concentrated on developing smaller but tactical nuclear weapons easily installed in PAF's aircraft, naval combatant vessels, and missiles.[31]

Shortly after the tests, former chairman and technical director Munir Ahmad Khan famously quoted: "These boosted devices are like a half way stage towards a thermonuclear bomb. They use elements of the thermonuclear process, and are effectively stronger atom bombs..... Pakistan has had a nuclear capability since 1984 and all the first five devices were made with the HEU.[32] On other hand, Abdul Qadeer Khan further provided technical details on fission devices while addressing the local media as he puts it: "All boosted fission devices using U235 on 28 May. None of these explosions were thermonuclear.. Pakistan is currently doing research and can do a fusion test if only asked. But it depends on the economical circumstances, political situation and the decision of the government...".[32] As opposed to India's thermonuclear approach, Dr. N.M. Butt, senior scientist, stated that "PAEC built a sufficient number of neutron bombs— a battlefield weapon that is essentially a low yield device".[31]

Development and test teams

Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC)

Kahuta Research Laboratories (KRL)

Pakistan Army Corps of Engineers (PACE)

Reaction in Pakistan

See also: 1998 National atomic celebrations in Pakistan and Youm-e-Takbeer

The Directorate of Technical Development of PAEC which carried out the Chagai tests issued the following statement soon after the tests:[33]

The mission has, on the one hand, boosted the morale of the Pakistani nation by giving it an honorable position in the nuclear world, while on the other hand it validated scientific theory, design and previous results from cold tests. This has more than justified the creation and establishment of DTD more than 20 years back.

Through these critical years of nuclear device development, the leadership contribution changed hands from Munir Ahmad Khan to Ishfaq Ahmad and finally to Mubarakmand.

These gifted scientists and engineers along with a highly dedicated team worked logically and economically to design, produce and test an extremely rugged device for the nation which enable the Islamic Republic of Pakistan from strength to strength.[34]

Effects on Science in Pakistan

Main articles: Science in Pakistan and Electroweak interaction

On this day, Pakistani scientists earned national renown in Pakistan, with Media of Pakistan projecting their biographies all over the country.[35] Senior scientists and engineers were invited by a number of academic institutes and universities to deliver lectures on mathematical, theoretical, nuclear and particle physics.[35] The institutes bestowed hundreds of silver and gold medallions and honorary doctorates to the scientists and engineers in 1998.[35] Professor Abdus Salam (1926–1996) was also celebrated in Pakistan and Government of Pakistan released a commemorative stamp in the honour of Salam.[35] In 1998, the theory of electroweak and its discovery two decade ago by Salam, was also celebrated nationwide for which Abdus Salam was awarded the Physics's Nobel Prize in 1979.[35] In 1999, Government established Abdus Salam's museum in National Center for Physics, where his contribution to scientific programs and efforts were publicly recorded and televised.[35] The 28 May has been officially declared as Youm-e-Takbeer (Day of Greatness) to commemorate and remembrance of the first five tests that were carried out in 28 May, and as well as National Science Day in Pakistan to honour and remembrance the scientific efforts led by scientists to developed the devices.[36] The day was officially signed by the then-Prime Minister of Pakistan Nawaz Sharif. The day is celebrated by giving awards (such as Chagai-Medal) to various individuals and industries in the field of science and industries.[37] The Nawaz Sharif Government also established the Chagai-I Medal and it was first awarded to the scientists of Pakistan in 1998 who were witnessed the tests.[38] The graphite mountains are visibly shown in the gold medallion and equal ribbon stripes of yellow, red and white.[38]

Global Reactions

Pakistan's tests were generally condemned by the Non-OIC international community.[39] The United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 1172 condemning the both Indian test and that of Pakistan's. Brazil declared that it "deplores" Pakistan's decision to carry out the tests.[39] In an official statement on 28 May 1998, the French Foreign Ministry denounced India's five nuclear tests.[39] French President Jacques Chirac implored Pakistan to abstain from further testing.[39] Iran, Pakistan's strategic ally and neighbor also criticized the tests, with a formal statement by.[39] Robin Cook, Britain's foreign secretary, expressed dismay at the tests. Kofi Annan, the secretary general of the United Nations, deplored the tests saying that "they exacerbate tension in an already difficult relationship".[39]

The United Nations Security Council condemned Pakistan's five nuclear tests. "The council strongly deplores the underground nuclear tests conducted by Pakistan despite international calls for restraint," said a statement from Kenya's Njugumu Moses Mahugu, president of the 15-member council.[39] While France, Israel, and Russian globally supported Indian's stand on testing nuclear devices.[39] Pakistan founded difficult to gather support even from its long term allies. Pakistan's strategic allies Turkey, Germany, and People's Republic of China did not supported Pakistan while neither issued any statement.[citation needed]

The tests brought Pakistan in an extensive Foreign policy deadlock, with no foreign support was found.[citation needed] Pakistan, since 1971 disaster, failed to gather any support and a Foreign policy turmoil continued until Navaz Sharif was deposed in 1999.

At a news conference 28 May 1998, United States President Bill Clinton condemned Pakistan's nuclear tests saying, "I deplore the decision." He also promised to reprimand Islamabad with the same sanctions the United States has imposed on India." Clinton also signed off on economic sanctions against Pakistan that prohibited billions of dollars in loans from multilateral institutions.[39] NATO said that the tests were a "dangerous development" and also warned of sanctions.[40]

Economic effects

The United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 1172 condemning the Indian test and that of Pakistan's. United States, Japan, Australia, Sweden, Canada, and International Monetary Fund, imposed economical sanctions on Pakistan. The Japanese government had called its Ambassador from Pakistan, and suspend its foreign relations with Pakistan.[41] During the time of nuclear testing, it was reported that Pakistan had only US$ 1 Billion in its national treasure, and India had reported by be $29Billion in its State Bank.[41] By comparing to Pakistan's economy, the sanctions imposed by Resolution 1172, was exerted only with marginal effects on India’s economy and technological progress. The IMF had suspend $3Billion aid to Pakistan, and the country's economy was near facing the serious economic default.[41] Sartaj Aziz, an economist and Foreign Minister, and his economics team then briefed Nawaz Sharif that if the economy reaches to the financial default, the terms for the CTBT and NPT would be exercised more tougher on Pakistan, if Pakistan seeks a Bailout plan from the World Bank, the IMF, and the Asian Development Bank, or even the United States.[41]

The economy was already deteriorated, Aziz's team was quickly taking the steps to control the economy.[41] Prime minister Sharif ordered his Finance minister, Sartaj Aziz, to freeze the low foreign exchange reserves.[41] Aziz then asserted that such act would lead to an extreme financial default. Insead, Aziz offered the investors to sell their shares at rate of 46PKR, which was 2PKR was more that time, to the Government in order to avoid the financial default.[41] This resulted in improving the control of the economy and Nawaz Sharif government then gained the control of the economy.[41] Sharif then suspended his capitalist policies and made a move to introduced the socialist economics policies, previously introduced by former Prime minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto in 1970s.[41] Sartaz Aziz was replaced by Sharif as he opposed Sharif's plans to divert an economic recession by taking such steps.[41] Aziz was made Foreign minister and was succedeed by Dr. Ishaq Dar, a career professor of economist who took this daunting charge.[41]

In all, the United States had suspend the economical aid to the Pakistan, but continued the limited economical aid to Pakistan on humanitarian basis.[41] Increasingly, the composition of assistance to Pakistan shifted away from grants toward loans repayable in foreign exchange.[42] All new U.S. additional economic assistance to Pakistan was suspended in May 1998.[42] The sanctions were lifted by President George W. Bush after Pakistan President General Musharraf allied Pakistan with the U.S. in its war on terror.[42] Having improved its finances, the government refused further IMF assistance, and consequently the IMF program was ended.[42]

Historical Overview

External links

References

  1. ^ Approximating and calculating the exact, accurate and precise yields are difficult to calculate. Even under very controlled conditions, precise yields can be very hard to determine, and for less controlled conditions the margins of error can be quite large. There are number of different ways that the yields can be determined, including calculations based on blast size, blast brightness, seismographic data, and the strength of the shock wave. The Pakistan Government authorities puts up the yield range from 35-~40kt depending on the mathematical calculations they had performed. On other hand, independent and non-government sanctioned organizations puts the figure at the possible 15-20kt range. The explosion measured 5.54 degrees on the Richter Scale, the PAEC provided the data as public domain in the KNET sources.
  2. ^ a b Siddiqi, Muhammad Ali. "N-deterrent vital to security, says PM Bhutto". Los Angeles Times (April 20th 1995). Muhammad Ali Siddiqi, Los Angeles. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
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  11. ^ Stengel, Richard (Monday, 3 June 1985), "Who has the Bomb?", Time magazine, pp. 7/13, retrieved 23 February 2011 {{citation}}: Check |archiveurl= value (help); Check date values in: |date= (help); Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |newspaper= (help)
  12. ^ (IISS), International Institute for Strategic Studies (2006). "Bhutto was father of Pakistan's Atom Bomb Program". International Institute for Strategic Studies. Retrieved 2011. Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was the father of Pakistan's atomic weapon programme, while Munir Ahmad Khan was referred as technical father of the program. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  13. ^ a b c d Khan, former chairman of Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, Munir Ahmad (24 November 1996.). "Salam passes into History". The News International (in English). Karachi, Sindh Province: Jang Group of Newspapers. pp. 1–2. {{cite news}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
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  15. ^ a b c d e Rehman, Shahid-ur (1999), "Chapter 6§Dr. A. Q. Khan: Nothing Succeed like Success", Long Road to Chagai:, vol. 1 (1 ed.), Islamabad, Islamabad Capital Territory: PB, pp. 49–60, ISBN 969-8500-00-6
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  17. ^ Ziauddin, M. (May 30 1998). "Pakistan opts to go nuclear". Dawn News 1998. Retrieved 7 May 2012. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  18. ^ Unknown (28 May 2005). "Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD): Pakistan Nuclear Weapons". Global Security. globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  19. ^ "US offered $5b against nuclear blasts: Nawaz", The News International, 28 May 1998 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |year= / |date= mismatch (help); More than one of |work= and |newspaper= specified (help)
  20. ^ "America Offered 5Billion Dollars against the Atomic Tests", Jang Group of Newspapers, p. 1, Friday, 28 May 2010, Jamadi-us-Sani 13, 1431 A.H. {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); More than one of |work= and |newspaper= specified (help)
  21. ^ Geo News. "GEO Pakistan:US offered $5b against nuclear blasts: Nawaz".
  22. ^ "GEO Headlines: America Offers $5Billion against atomic blasts" (in Urdu). GEO News.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  23. ^ "Sweeping India off its feet". The Indian Express (in English (British)). Indian Express Group: Indian Express Group. Wednesday, 3 August 2005. p. 1. Retrieved 2011. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
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  27. ^ http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Pakistan/PakTests.html
  28. ^ a b "Broadband recording of first blasts". Broadband Seismic Data Collection Center. PAEC Mathematics Research Division. Retrieved 10 May 2012. Cite error: The named reference "PAEC Mathematics Research Division" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
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  34. ^ M.A. Chaudhri,"Pakistan's Nuclear History: Separating Myth from Reality," Defence Journal (Karachi), May 2006.
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  36. ^ "13th Youm-e-Takbeer to be observed today". 28 May 2011. Retrieved 28 July 2011.[dead link]
  37. ^ "Youm-e-Takbeer being marked today". 28 May 2011. Retrieved 28 July 2011.
  38. ^ a b "Republic of Pakistan: Chagai-I Medal". 26 April 2011. Retrieved 28 July 2011.
  39. ^ a b c d e f g h i Directorate-Group of Press Release of the Center for Nonproliferation Studies. "World Reaction to Pakistan's nuclear tests". May 30, 1998. Center for Nonproliferation Studies, 1998. Retrieved 12 May 2012.
  40. ^ "1998: World fury at Pakistan's nuclear tests". BBC News. 28 May 1998.
  41. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Rashid, Senator Pervez (Monday, 13 June of 2011). "In response to Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan and Dr. Akram Sehgal". Senator Pervez Rashid, Senator of Pakistan Muslim League (N) to the Senate Secretariat of Pakistan. Senator Pervez Rashid, (note:Text only available in Urdu). Retrieved 2011. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
  42. ^ a b c d Pakistan ends 15-year ties with IMF; Daily Times, 7 September 2004) Pakistani Newspaper Article, 2004

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