Siege of Jerusalem (636–637): Difference between revisions
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The '''Siege of Jerusalem''' was a part of a military conflict between the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the [[Rashidun Caliphate]], which took place in 637. It began when the Rashidun army, under the command of [[Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah|Abu Ubaidah]], besieged Jerusalem in November 636. After six months, the Patriarch [[Sophronius]] agreed to surrender, under the condition that he submit only to the Rashidun [[caliph]]. [[Umar|Caliph Umar]] came personally in April 637 to receive the submission of the city. The Muslim conquest of |
The '''Siege of Jerusalem''' was a part of a military conflict between the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the [[Rashidun Caliphate]], which took place in 637. It began when the Rashidun army, under the command of [[Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah|Abu Ubaidah]], besieged Jerusalem in November 636. After six months, the Patriarch [[Sophronius]] agreed to surrender, under the condition that he submit only to the Rashidun [[caliph]]. [[Umar|Caliph Umar]] came personally in April 637 to receive the submission of the city. The Muslim conquest of the city solidified Arab control over [[Palestine]], control which would not again be threatened until the [[Crusades]] in the late 11th through the 13th centuries. Thus, it came to be regarded as a holy site by [[Islam]] as well as [[Christianity]] and [[Judaism]]. After the Muslim conquest of Jerusalem, [[Jew]]s were allowed to live and practice their religion freely in Jerusalem by Caliph Umar, after nearly 500 years of expulsion from the [[Holy Land]] by the [[Roman Empire|Romans]].<ref name=g70>Gil, Moshe (1997), p.70–71.</ref> |
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==Prelude== |
==Prelude== |
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Jerusalem was |
Jerusalem was an important city of the Byzantine province of ''Palestina prima''. Just 23 years prior to the Muslim conquest, in 614 it fell to an invading [[Sassanid army]] under [[Shahrbaraz]] during the last of [[Byzantine-Sassanid War of 602-628|Byzantine-Sassanid Wars]]. The Persian looted the city and are said to have massacred 90,000 [[Christian]]s inhabitants of the city.<ref>Greatrex-Lieu (2002), p.198.</ref> It is believed that the [[Jew]]s, who were oppressed in their Roman-controlled homeland, aided the Persians. The [[True Cross]] was captured and taken to [[Ctesiphon]] as a battle-captured holy [[relic]], it was later bought back to Jerusalem by Emperor Heraclius once he was victorious against the Persians.<ref>Haldon (1990), p.46.</ref> |
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[[Prophet Mohammad]] died in 632 and was succeeded by [[Abu Bakr|Caliph Abu Bakr]], who established sovereignty over [[Arabia]] after series of campaigns known as [[Ridda Wars]]. Once Arabia was consolidated he started a war of conquest in the east by [[Muslim conquest of Persia#first invasion of Iraq (633)|invading Iraq]], then a province of the [[Sassanid empire|Sassanid Persian Empire]], and on the western front his armies invaded the Byzantine Empire.<ref>Nicolle (1994), p.12–14.</ref> |
[[Prophet Mohammad]] died in 632 and was succeeded by [[Abu Bakr|Caliph Abu Bakr]], who established sovereignty over [[Arabia]] after series of campaigns known as [[Ridda Wars]]. Once Arabia was consolidated he started a war of conquest in the east by [[Muslim conquest of Persia#first invasion of Iraq (633)|invading Iraq]], then a province of the [[Sassanid empire|Sassanid Persian Empire]], and on the western front his armies invaded the Byzantine Empire.<ref>Nicolle (1994), p.12–14.</ref> |
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In 634 Abu Bakr died and was succeeded by Umar who continued his war of conquest.<ref>Lewis (2002), p.65.</ref> Emperor [[Heraclius]], in May 636 launched a major expedition to roll back the lost territory, but his army was defeated decisively at the Battle of Yarmouk in August 636 |
In 634 Abu Bakr died and was succeeded by Umar who continued his war of conquest.<ref>Lewis (2002), p.65.</ref> Emperor [[Heraclius]], in May 636 launched a major expedition to roll back the lost territory, but his army was defeated decisively at the Battle of Yarmouk in August 636, after which Abu Ubaidah, the Muslim Commander in Chief of the Rashidun army in [[Syria]], held a council of war in early October 636 CE to discuss the future plan. Opinions of objectives varied between the coastal city of [[Caesarea]] and Jerusalem. Abu Ubaidah could see the importance of both these cities, which had so far resisted all the Muslim attempts at capture. Unable to decide the matter, he wrote to Caliph Umar for instructions. In his reply the caliph ordered the Muslims to capture the later. Abu Ubaidah accordingly marched towards Jerusalem from Jabiya, with [[Khalid ibn Walid]] and his [[Mobile guard]] leading the advance. The Muslims arrived at Jerusalem around early November, and the Byzantine garrison withdrew into the fortified city.<ref name=a296>Akram (2004), p.431.</ref> |
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==Siege== |
==Siege== |
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After the Byzantine defeat at Yarmouk, [[Patriarch of Jerusalem]] [[Sophronius]] repaired the defenses of the city.<ref name=r17>Runciman, Steven (1987). p.17.</ref> However, the town had already been well fortified after Heraclius recaptured it from the Persians. The Muslims had so far not attempted any siege of the city, but all the routes to the city were under the potential danger of the Arab forces since 634. Although it was not encircled, it was in a state of a siege since the Muslims captured the neighboring forts of [[Pella]] and [[Bosra]]. Especially after the Battle of Yarmouk the city was severed from the rest of Syria and was presumably being prepared for a siege that seemed inevitable.<ref>Gil, Moshe (1997), p.51.</ref> When the Muslim army reached [[Jericho]], Sophronius collected all the holy relics, including the [[True Cross]] and secretly sent them to the coast to be taken to the [[Constantinople]].<ref name=r17>Runciman, Steven (1987), p.17.</ref> The Muslim troops besieged the city some time in November 636. The weary Muslim troops{{cref|a}}, instead of starting a costly [[siege warfare]], decided to press the siege until the Byzantines would run short of supplies and a bloodless surrender could be negotiated.<ref name="Gibbon 1862, vol.6, p.321">Gibbon (1862), vol.6, p.321.</ref> |
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The details of the siege are not recorded in history{{cref|b}} and it appears to be a closed but bloodless siege.<ref>Akram (2004), p.432.</ref> The Byzantine garrison could not expect any help from the humbled regime of Heraclius. After a siege of four months, Sophronius offered to surrender the city and pay the [[jizya]] (''tribute'')on condition that the caliph come to Jerusalem to sign the pact and accept the surrender.<ref>Benvenisti (1998), p.14.</ref> It is said that when Sophronius' terms became known to the Muslims, Sharhabil ibn Hassana, one of the Muslim commanders, suggested that instead of waiting for |
The details of the siege are not recorded in history{{cref|b}} and it appears to be a closed but bloodless siege.<ref>Akram (2004), p.432.</ref> The Byzantine garrison could not expect any help from the humbled regime of Heraclius. After a siege of four months, Sophronius offered to surrender the city and pay the [[jizya]] (''tribute'') on condition that the caliph come to Jerusalem to sign the pact and accept the surrender.<ref>Benvenisti (1998), p.14.</ref> It is said that when Sophronius' terms became known to the Muslims, [[Sharhabil ibn Hassana]], one of the Muslim commanders, suggested that instead of waiting for the caliph to come all the way from [[Madinah]], Khalid ibn Walid should be sent forward as the caliph, as he was very similar in appearance to Umar.<ref>Waqidi, vol.I, p.162.</ref><ref>Isfahani, Vol.15, p.12–56.</ref> |
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The subterfuge however did not work. Rather Khalid was too famous in Syria, or there may have been Christian Arabs in |
The subterfuge however did not work. Rather Khalid was too famous in Syria, or there may have been Christian Arabs in the city who had visited Madinah and had seen both Umar and Khalid, noting the differences. Consequently, the Patriarch of Jerusalem refused to negotiate. When Khalid reported the failure of this mission, Abu Ubaidah wrote to caliph Umar about the situation, and invited him to come to Jerusalem and accept the surrender of the city.<ref>Akram (2004), p.433.</ref> |
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===Surrender=== |
===Surrender=== |
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[[File:Holy sepulchre exterior.jpg|thumb|alt=The Church of the [[Holy Sepulchre]], where [[Sophronius]] invited caliph Umar to offer [[Salah]].|240px|The present day building of the Church of the [[Holy Sepulchre]], where [[Sophronius]] invited caliph Umar to offer [[Salah]].]] |
[[File:Holy sepulchre exterior.jpg|thumb|alt=The Church of the [[Holy Sepulchre]], where [[Sophronius]] invited caliph Umar to offer [[Salah]].|240px|The present day building of the Church of the [[Holy Sepulchre]], where [[Sophronius]] invited caliph Umar to offer [[Salah]].]] |
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Umar arrived in Palestine in early April 637 and first |
Umar arrived in the Palestine in early April 637 and first went to Jabiya<ref>Gil, Moshe (1997), p.52.</ref>, where he was received by Abu Ubaidah, Khalid and [[Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan|Yazid]], who had traveled with an escort to receive him. [[Amr ibn al-A'as|Amr]] was left as commander of the besieging Muslim army.<ref>Akram (2004), p.434.</ref> |
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Upon Umar's arrival in Jerusalem, a pact known as |
Upon Umar's arrival in Jerusalem, a pact known as [[The Umariyya Covenant]] was drawn up. It surrendered the city and gave guarantees of civil and religious liberty to Christians in exchange for jizya. On behalf of the Muslims it was signed by caliph Umar and witnessed by Khalid, Amr, [[Abdur Rahman bin Awf]] and [[Muawiyah]] and in late April 637, Jerusalem was officially surrendered to the caliph.<ref>Gil, Moshe (1997), p.54.</ref> |
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Umar allowed Jews to live in Jerusalem, it was first time after almost 500 years of oppressive rule of Romans that Jews were allowed to enter and worship freely in |
Umar allowed Jews to live in Jerusalem, it was first time after almost 500 years of oppressive rule of Romans that Jews were allowed to enter and worship freely in their holy city.<ref name="g70"/> |
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It has been recorded in the annals of Muslim chronicles that at the time of Zuhr prayers Sophronius invited Umar to pray in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Umar, fearing that accepting the invitation might endanger the church's status as a Christian temple and that Muslims might break the treaty and turn the temple into a mosque, declined.<ref name="Gibbon 1862, vol.6, p.321"/> After staying for 10 days at Jerusalem, the caliph returned to Medina. |
It has been recorded in the annals of Muslim chronicles that at the time of the Zuhr prayers Sophronius invited Umar to pray in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Umar, fearing that accepting the invitation might endanger the church's status as a Christian temple and that Muslims might break the treaty and turn the temple into a mosque, declined.<ref name="Gibbon 1862, vol.6, p.321"/> After staying for 10 days at Jerusalem, the caliph returned to Medina. |
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==Aftermath== |
==Aftermath== |
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[[File:TempmtS.jpg|thumb|right|upright|200px|alt=Image of Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem|[[Dome of the Rock]] was constructed by Ummayad Caliph Abd al-Malik.]] |
[[File:TempmtS.jpg|thumb|right|upright|200px|alt=Image of Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem|[[Dome of the Rock]] was constructed by Ummayad Caliph Abd al-Malik.]] |
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Following the Caliph's instructions, Yazid |
Following the Caliph's instructions, Yazid proceeded to Caesarea and once again laid siege to the port city. Amr and Shurahbil marched to complete the occupation of Palestine and [[Jordan]], a task that was completed by the end of the year. Caesarea however could not be taken till 640, when at last the garrison laid down its arms before [[Muawiyah I]], then a governor of Syria. Abu Ubaidah and Khalid, with an army of 17,000 men, set off from Jerusalem to [[Muslim conquest of Syria|conquer all of northern Syria]], which ended with the [[Battle of Iron bridge|conquest of Antioch]] in late 637.<ref>Akram (2004), p.438.</ref> In 639 the Muslims [[Muslim conquest of Egypt|invaded and conquered Egypt]]. |
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During his stay in Jerusalem, Umar was led to the [[Foundation Stone]] on the [[Temple Mount]], the ''Rock'' from where, according to Muslim traditions, [[Prophet Mohammad]] ascended atop of, with Angel [[Gabriel]], to |
During his stay in Jerusalem, Umar was led to the [[Foundation Stone]] on the [[Temple Mount]], the ''Rock'' from where, according to the Muslim traditions, [[Prophet Mohammad]] ascended atop of, with Angel [[Gabriel]], to heaven in his night journey to heaven "[[Isra and Mi'raj]]" just less than 20 years ago. Umar cleared the refuses and debris from the expected site of the [[Holy of Holies]], a large rock was revealed, then more of it was exposed by more cleaning. Umar built a fence around it and ordered building a mosque near by.<ref name=h15>Hoppe (2000), p.15.</ref> |
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According to the Gaullic bishop [[Arculf]], who lived in Jerusalem from 679 to 688, the [[Mosque of Omar (Jerusalem)|Mosque of Umar]] was a rectangular wooden structure built over ruins which could accommodate 3,000 worshipers. |
According to the Gaullic bishop [[Arculf]], who lived in Jerusalem from 679 to 688, the [[Mosque of Omar (Jerusalem)|Mosque of Umar]] was a rectangular wooden structure built over ruins which could accommodate 3,000 worshipers. |
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Later on this ''Rock'', the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad caliph]] [[Abd al-Malik]] commissioned the construction of the [[Dome of the Rock]] in the late 7th century. |
Later on this ''Rock'', the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad caliph]] [[Abd al-Malik]] commissioned the construction of the [[Dome of the Rock]] in the late 7th century. |
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The 10th century historian [[al-Muqaddasi]] writes that Abd al-Malik built the shrine in order to compete in grandeur with |
The 10th century historian [[al-Muqaddasi]] writes that Abd al-Malik built the shrine in order to compete in grandeur with city's monumental churches.<ref name=h15>Hoppe (2000), p.15.</ref> Over the next four hundred years Jerusalem's prominence diminished as Arab powers in the region jockeyed for control. |
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Jerusalem remained under Muslim rule until it was [[Siege of Jerusalem (1099)|captured by Crusaders in 1099]]. |
Jerusalem remained under the Muslim rule until it was [[Siege of Jerusalem (1099)|captured by Crusaders in 1099]]. |
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== Notes == |
== Notes == |
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Revision as of 21:03, 28 January 2010
| Siege of Jerusalem (637) | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of the Muslim conquest of Syria and the Byzantine-Arab Wars | |||||||||
 The Al-Aqsa Mosque, Jerusalem, is said to be the third most sacred site of the Muslims. | |||||||||
| |||||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||||
.svg){kind=small} Rashidun Caliphate | File:Flag of the Byzantine Empire.svg Byzantine Empire | ||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
|
Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah Khalid ibn al-Walid Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan Amr ibn al-A'as Sharjeel ibn Hassana | Patriarch Sophronius | ||||||||
| Strength | |||||||||
| ~20,000[1] | Unknown | ||||||||
The Siege of Jerusalem was a part of a military conflict between the Byzantine Empire and the Rashidun Caliphate, which took place in 637. It began when the Rashidun army, under the command of Abu Ubaidah, besieged Jerusalem in November 636. After six months, the Patriarch Sophronius agreed to surrender, under the condition that he submit only to the Rashidun caliph. Caliph Umar came personally in April 637 to receive the submission of the city. The Muslim conquest of the city solidified Arab control over Palestine, control which would not again be threatened until the Crusades in the late 11th through the 13th centuries. Thus, it came to be regarded as a holy site by Islam as well as Christianity and Judaism. After the Muslim conquest of Jerusalem, Jews were allowed to live and practice their religion freely in Jerusalem by Caliph Umar, after nearly 500 years of expulsion from the Holy Land by the Romans.[2]
Prelude
Jerusalem was an important city of the Byzantine province of Palestina prima. Just 23 years prior to the Muslim conquest, in 614 it fell to an invading Sassanid army under Shahrbaraz during the last of Byzantine-Sassanid Wars. The Persian looted the city and are said to have massacred 90,000 Christians inhabitants of the city.[3] It is believed that the Jews, who were oppressed in their Roman-controlled homeland, aided the Persians. The True Cross was captured and taken to Ctesiphon as a battle-captured holy relic, it was later bought back to Jerusalem by Emperor Heraclius once he was victorious against the Persians.[4]
Prophet Mohammad died in 632 and was succeeded by Caliph Abu Bakr, who established sovereignty over Arabia after series of campaigns known as Ridda Wars. Once Arabia was consolidated he started a war of conquest in the east by invading Iraq, then a province of the Sassanid Persian Empire, and on the western front his armies invaded the Byzantine Empire.[5]
In 634 Abu Bakr died and was succeeded by Umar who continued his war of conquest.[6] Emperor Heraclius, in May 636 launched a major expedition to roll back the lost territory, but his army was defeated decisively at the Battle of Yarmouk in August 636, after which Abu Ubaidah, the Muslim Commander in Chief of the Rashidun army in Syria, held a council of war in early October 636 CE to discuss the future plan. Opinions of objectives varied between the coastal city of Caesarea and Jerusalem. Abu Ubaidah could see the importance of both these cities, which had so far resisted all the Muslim attempts at capture. Unable to decide the matter, he wrote to Caliph Umar for instructions. In his reply the caliph ordered the Muslims to capture the later. Abu Ubaidah accordingly marched towards Jerusalem from Jabiya, with Khalid ibn Walid and his Mobile guard leading the advance. The Muslims arrived at Jerusalem around early November, and the Byzantine garrison withdrew into the fortified city.[1]
Siege
After the Byzantine defeat at Yarmouk, Patriarch of Jerusalem Sophronius repaired the defenses of the city.[7] However, the town had already been well fortified after Heraclius recaptured it from the Persians. The Muslims had so far not attempted any siege of the city, but all the routes to the city were under the potential danger of the Arab forces since 634. Although it was not encircled, it was in a state of a siege since the Muslims captured the neighboring forts of Pella and Bosra. Especially after the Battle of Yarmouk the city was severed from the rest of Syria and was presumably being prepared for a siege that seemed inevitable.[8] When the Muslim army reached Jericho, Sophronius collected all the holy relics, including the True Cross and secretly sent them to the coast to be taken to the Constantinople.[7] The Muslim troops besieged the city some time in November 636. The weary Muslim troops[a], instead of starting a costly siege warfare, decided to press the siege until the Byzantines would run short of supplies and a bloodless surrender could be negotiated.[9]
The details of the siege are not recorded in history[b] and it appears to be a closed but bloodless siege.[10] The Byzantine garrison could not expect any help from the humbled regime of Heraclius. After a siege of four months, Sophronius offered to surrender the city and pay the jizya (tribute) on condition that the caliph come to Jerusalem to sign the pact and accept the surrender.[11] It is said that when Sophronius' terms became known to the Muslims, Sharhabil ibn Hassana, one of the Muslim commanders, suggested that instead of waiting for the caliph to come all the way from Madinah, Khalid ibn Walid should be sent forward as the caliph, as he was very similar in appearance to Umar.[12][13] The subterfuge however did not work. Rather Khalid was too famous in Syria, or there may have been Christian Arabs in the city who had visited Madinah and had seen both Umar and Khalid, noting the differences. Consequently, the Patriarch of Jerusalem refused to negotiate. When Khalid reported the failure of this mission, Abu Ubaidah wrote to caliph Umar about the situation, and invited him to come to Jerusalem and accept the surrender of the city.[14]
Surrender
Umar arrived in the Palestine in early April 637 and first went to Jabiya[15], where he was received by Abu Ubaidah, Khalid and Yazid, who had traveled with an escort to receive him. Amr was left as commander of the besieging Muslim army.[16] Upon Umar's arrival in Jerusalem, a pact known as The Umariyya Covenant was drawn up. It surrendered the city and gave guarantees of civil and religious liberty to Christians in exchange for jizya. On behalf of the Muslims it was signed by caliph Umar and witnessed by Khalid, Amr, Abdur Rahman bin Awf and Muawiyah and in late April 637, Jerusalem was officially surrendered to the caliph.[17] Umar allowed Jews to live in Jerusalem, it was first time after almost 500 years of oppressive rule of Romans that Jews were allowed to enter and worship freely in their holy city.[2] It has been recorded in the annals of Muslim chronicles that at the time of the Zuhr prayers Sophronius invited Umar to pray in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Umar, fearing that accepting the invitation might endanger the church's status as a Christian temple and that Muslims might break the treaty and turn the temple into a mosque, declined.[9] After staying for 10 days at Jerusalem, the caliph returned to Medina.
Aftermath
Following the Caliph's instructions, Yazid proceeded to Caesarea and once again laid siege to the port city. Amr and Shurahbil marched to complete the occupation of Palestine and Jordan, a task that was completed by the end of the year. Caesarea however could not be taken till 640, when at last the garrison laid down its arms before Muawiyah I, then a governor of Syria. Abu Ubaidah and Khalid, with an army of 17,000 men, set off from Jerusalem to conquer all of northern Syria, which ended with the conquest of Antioch in late 637.[18] In 639 the Muslims invaded and conquered Egypt.
During his stay in Jerusalem, Umar was led to the Foundation Stone on the Temple Mount, the Rock from where, according to the Muslim traditions, Prophet Mohammad ascended atop of, with Angel Gabriel, to heaven in his night journey to heaven "Isra and Mi'raj" just less than 20 years ago. Umar cleared the refuses and debris from the expected site of the Holy of Holies, a large rock was revealed, then more of it was exposed by more cleaning. Umar built a fence around it and ordered building a mosque near by.[19]
According to the Gaullic bishop Arculf, who lived in Jerusalem from 679 to 688, the Mosque of Umar was a rectangular wooden structure built over ruins which could accommodate 3,000 worshipers. Later on this Rock, the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik commissioned the construction of the Dome of the Rock in the late 7th century. The 10th century historian al-Muqaddasi writes that Abd al-Malik built the shrine in order to compete in grandeur with city's monumental churches.[19] Over the next four hundred years Jerusalem's prominence diminished as Arab powers in the region jockeyed for control. Jerusalem remained under the Muslim rule until it was captured by Crusaders in 1099.
Notes
^ a: The Muslims are said to have lost 4,000 men in the Battle of Yarmouk fought just two months before the siege.
^ b: Muslim historians differ in the year of the siege while Tabari says it was 636, Al Buladhuri placed its date of surrender in 638. A.I.Akram believed 636–637 to be the most most likely date.
References
- ^ a b Akram (2004), p.431.
- ^ a b Gil, Moshe (1997), p.70–71.
- ^ Greatrex-Lieu (2002), p.198.
- ^ Haldon (1990), p.46.
- ^ Nicolle (1994), p.12–14.
- ^ Lewis (2002), p.65.
- ^ a b Runciman, Steven (1987). p.17. Cite error: The named reference "r17" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ Gil, Moshe (1997), p.51.
- ^ a b Gibbon (1862), vol.6, p.321.
- ^ Akram (2004), p.432.
- ^ Benvenisti (1998), p.14.
- ^ Waqidi, vol.I, p.162.
- ^ Isfahani, Vol.15, p.12–56.
- ^ Akram (2004), p.433.
- ^ Gil, Moshe (1997), p.52.
- ^ Akram (2004), p.434.
- ^ Gil, Moshe (1997), p.54.
- ^ Akram (2004), p.438.
- ^ a b Hoppe (2000), p.15.
Sources
- Akram, Agha Ibrahim (2004), The Sword of Allah: Khalid bin al-Waleed - His Life and Campaigns, Oxford University Press: Pakistan, ISBN 0195977149
- Al-Waqidi, Futuh al-Sham (Conquest of Syria).
- Benvenisti, Meron (1998). City of Stone: The Hidden History of Jerusalem Publisher, University of California Press, ISBN 0520207688.
- Edward Gibbon (1862), The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume 6. J.D. Morris Publishers.
- Gil, Moshe (February 1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521599849.
- Greatrex, Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2002). The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part II). Routledge publishers. ISBN 0-415-003423.
- Haldon, John (1990). Byzantium in the Seventh Century: the Transformation of a Culture. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052131917X.
- Hoppe, Leslie J. (2000). The Holy City: Jerusalem in the Theology of the Old Testament. Michael Glazier Books. ISBN 0814650813.
- Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani, al-Fath al-Qussi fi-l-Fath al-Qudsi.
- Lewis, Bernard (2002, sixth edition) The Arabs in History Oxford University Press, ISBN 0192803107.
- Nicolle, David (1994), Yarmuk 636 A.D.: The Muslim Conquest of Syria.Osprey Publishing, ISBN 1855324148
- Runciman, Steven (1987, second edition), A History of the Crusades: The First Crusade. Penguin Books: London, ISBN 9780521347709