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{{Short description|Ghurid conquest of Lahore}}
{{Short description|Ghurid conquest of Lahore}}
{{For|later siege by [[Ahmed Shah Abdali]]|Siege of Lahore (1761)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2022}}
{{Use Indian English|date=September 2022}}
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| conflict = Siege of Lahore
| conflict = Siege of Lahore
|partof = [[Indian campaigns of Muhammad of Ghor]]
|partof = [[Indian campaigns of Muhammad of Ghor]]
| place = [[Lahore]]
| place = [[Lahore]] (present-day [[Punjab, Pakistan]])
| image =
| image =
| image_size =
| image_size =
| date = 1186
| date = 1186
| coordinates = {{coord|31|32|59|N|74|20|37|E|region:PK|display=inline,title}}
| map_type = South Asia#Pakistan
| map_relief = yes
| map_size = 300
| map_marksize =
| map_caption =
| map_label = Lahore
| territory = [[Muhammad of Ghor]] captured [[Lahore]] and much of the present-day [[Punjab]] from the [[Ghaznavids]] (see [[Siege of Lahore (1186)#Aftermath|Aftermath]] section)
| territory = [[Muhammad of Ghor]] captured [[Lahore]] and much of the present-day [[Punjab]] from the [[Ghaznavids]] (see [[Siege of Lahore (1186)#Aftermath|Aftermath]] section)
| combatants_header =
| combatants_header =
| combatant1 = [[Ghaznavids]]
| combatant1 = {{flagicon|Ghaznavid Empire}}[[Ghaznavids]]
| combatant2 = [[Ghurids]]
| combatant2 = [[Ghurids]]
| commander1 = [[Khusrau Malik]]{{Surrendered}}{{POW}}<br>Malik Shah{{POW}}
| commander1 = {{flagicon|Ghaznavid Empire}} [[Khusrau Malik]]{{Surrendered}}{{POW}}<br>{{flagicon|Ghaznavid Empire}}Malik Shah{{POW}}
| commander2 = [[Muhammad of Ghor]]<br>[[Husain ibn Kharmil|Husain Kharmil]]
| commander2 = [[Muhammad of Ghor]]<br>[[Husain ibn Kharmil|Husain Kharmil]]
| strength1 = Unknown
| strength1 = Unknown
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}}
}}


The '''Siege of Lahore (1186)''' was a part of a [[Indian campaigns of Muhammad of Ghor|military expedition]] of the [[Ghurid Empire]] during which the Ghurid ruler [[Muhammad of Ghor]] annexed the principality of the Ghaznavids in [[Lahore]] after overthrowing the last [[Ghaznavids|Ghaznavid]] ruler [[Khusrau Malik]].
The '''Siege of Lahore in 1186''' brought the end of [[Ghaznavid]] rule with [[Muhammad of Ghor]] annexing their last-surviving principality from [[Khusrau Malik]].


Across the 1180s, Muhammad had made at least three incursions into the [[Ghaznavid]] domain centered around Punjab. The first attempt resulted in a truce and the second — despite the plunder of Lahore and gaining of Sialkot — turned out to be unsuccessful before his third attempt secured victory employing deceit. Both the reigning Ghaznavid Sultan and the prince were imprisoned and executed.
Muhammad of Ghor made two brief incursions into the Ghaznavid domains earlier in the course of which he plundered [[Lahore]] and extracted some ransom from Khusrau Malik, along with capturing some of his territories before the third successive invasion in which Khusrau Malik surrendered after a short siege and was assured of safety to present himself to [[Muhammad of Ghor]]. However, both Khusrau Malik and his son were imprisoned and sent to [[Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad]] in [[Firuzkuh]] where they both were executed in 1191, extinguishing the Ghaznavid lineage.


==Background==
==Background==
The Ghurids — warlords or chieftains based out of Ghur but of uncertain ancestry — originally served as nominal vassals to both the Seljuks and Ghaznavids since c. early eleventh century; early Ghurid history remains unclear but [[Sayf al-Din Suri]] had conquered Ghazni, the Ghaznavid capital, in 1148 only to lose it a year later.{{sfn|Khan|2008|p=35-36}} [[Ala al-Din Husayn|Suri's brother]] sacked and retook [[Ghazni]] in [[Battle of Ghazni (1151)|1151]], forcing [[Bahram-Shah of Ghazna|Baharam Shah]] to flee east and while Ghazni was won back — probably due to a rebellious populace —, the contemporaneous advent of [[Oghuz Turks]] ensured a permanent cessation of their western frontiers including the capital.{{sfn|Habib|1981|p=109,135}} By 1160s, the Ghaznavids held no sway over Central Asian lands and their new territory became centered around [[Punjab]], probably spanning till the valley of [[Kabul]], with their new capital at [[Lahore]].
The [[Ghaznavids]] soon after the death of [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] who vastly expanded his empire began to lose their western domains in [[Persia]] and [[Khurasan]] after their defeat in the [[Battle of Dandanaqan]] against the [[Seljuk Empire]].{{sfn|Wink|1991|page=134}} Notwithstanding, the Ghaznavids and Seljuks continue to control large parts of Khurasan during the early 12th century.{{sfn|Bosworth|1977|page=118}} However, in the later part of the twelfth century, when influence of both the Ghaznavids and Seljuks began to wane, another [[Tajiks|Tajik dynasty]]{{sfn|Wink|1991|page=135}} [[Ghurids]] (former [[Tributary state|tributaries]] of the Ghaznavids and Seljuks){{sfn|Wink|1991|page=136}} were emerging in their influence.{{sfn|David Thomas|2018|page=27}}{{sfn|Andre Wink|1991|page=137}}


Contemporaneous with the rapid plummet of Ghaznavid power, the Ghurids reached zenith under the dyarchy of [[Ghiyath al-Din Mahmud]] and [[Muhammad of Ghor]]; Muhammad had Ghazni annexed from the Turks and soon, most of the eastern [[Afghanistan]] fell under Ghurid control.{{sfn|Habib|1981|p=109}}{{sfn|Bosworth|1977|p=124}} Thereafter, Muhammad focused on mainland India and in 1178, marched down through the [[Gomal Pass]] — via [[Multan]] and [[Uch]] — to enter into Gujarat via the Thar only to end up routed by an alliance of Rajput chiefs under [[Mularaja II]].{{sfn|Hooja|2006|p=261}} The defeat did not dampen Muhammad's aspirations and probably, the search for an alternate non-tortuous passage into the mainland would spur him into multiple conflicts with the Ghaznavids.{{sfn|Chandra|2007|p=67}}{{sfn|Habib|1981|p=111}}
The rivalry between the Ghaznavids and the Ghurids reached the crux, when [[Bahram-Shah of Ghazna|Baharam Shah]] captured [[Sayf al-Din Suri]] after avenging his earlier defeat against him in the [[Battle of Ghazni (1148)]] by regaining Ghazni. Sayf al-Din was later torturously executed along with other prominent member of the Ghurids.{{sfn|Khan|2008|page=35-36}} His brother [[Ala al-Din Husayn]] as a revenge, launched a catastrophic raid in [[Ghazni]] in 1151, Baharam Shah was [[Battle of Ghazni (1151)|defeated]] and fled to [[Lahore]].{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=108}} Alauddin followed up his victory by sacking the city of Ghazni, in the course of which he ordered a general massacre of all the civilians, burnt the city down, destroyed all the monuments built by the ancestors of Baharam Shah. The carnage continued for seven days, when Alauddin returned to [[Firuzkuh]].{{sfn|Nizami|1970|page=154}} Despite the success, Alauddin probably could not annex Ghazni in long term due to hostility of the populace.{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=135}} In any case, the Ghaznavids soon under either [[Khusrau Shah]] or [[Khusrau Malik]]{{efn|There is a slight contradiction among the contemporaneous chroniclers regarding the Ghuzz's conquest of Ghazni. [[Ibn al-Athir]] stated that it took place during the reign of [[Khusrau Malik]], although [[Minhaj-i Siraj Juzjani|Minhaj]] placed these events during the reign of his father [[Khusrau Shah]]. [[C. E. Bosworth]] considered the account of Ibn-al Athir as more credible.{{sfn|Bosworth|1977|page=124}} While, [[Mohammad Habib]] considered the account of Minhaj as more accurate and placed the Ghuzz invasion of Ghazni during Khusrau Shah reign when the Ghuzz's raided [[Merv]] and [[Khurasan]] after defeating [[Ahmed Sanjar]].{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=109,135}}}} lost [[Ghazni]] and some of their other possessions to the [[Ghuzz Turks]]. Hence, they were forced to move their capital to [[Lahore]].{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=109}}


== Sources ==
Meanwhile, the Ghurids were on a historic rise under the reign of [[Ghiyath al-Din Mahmud]] and [[Muhammad of Ghor]] in the later twelfth century. Prince Muhammad (then Shahabuddin) raided several times before finally defeating the [[Ghuzz Turks]] after a prolong struggle and annexed Ghazni along with most of the eastern Afghanistan to the Ghurid domains in 1173.{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=109}}
As the Ghaznavid polity shifted eastward from the Islamic heartland, it became insignificant for Muslim historians. Barring [[Ibn al-Athir|Ibn al-Athir's]] [[Al-Kamil fi-l-Tarikh|''al-Kāmil fit-Tārīkh'']], we have no contemporary description of the fall of Ghaznavids; however, al-Athir's description of the eastern frontiers were derived from local historians and ridden with self-acknowledged inconsistencies in dates. The next extant source — recorded about a century after the event — remains [[Minhaj-i Siraj Juzjani|Minhaj-i Siraj Juzjani's]] ''[[Tabaqat-i Nasiri]]'', which is largely understood to be the official history of the succeeding [[Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)|Mamluk dynasty]]. The events are also described in the 16th century ''Tarikh-i Firishta'' by [[Firishta]], probably deriving from non-extant sources.


The only description of the siege and relevant circumstances from a non-Muslim perspective comes from Rajdarshani, a history of Jammu Rajahs compiled at the orders of [[Gulab Singh]] c. 1847 by Gopal Das,{{efn|Ganesh Das was a Hindu Khatri in the service of Singh and traced his ancestry to Kaka Mal who had migrated to Sialkot to serve in the administration of Bikram Dev of Jammu as well as [[Sikandar Lodi]] of Delhi. Mal's heirs — many of whom adopted Islam and commanded important positions in various royal Courts across India — were intricately embedded within the Persian cosmopolis.{{sfn|Grewal|2015|p=13-14}}}} some 700 years after the event. The accuracy of the work remains suspect with Das primarily depending on ''vamsavalis'' and bardic lore as his sources.{{Efn|Das' work was probably the first history of the region. Completely lacking in archaeological, epigraphic and numismatic sources, little can be confidently asserted about the ancient and medieval history of Jammu polities; however, though sketchily mentioned in Muslim sources, they have been portrayed as longstanding allies of the Delhi Sultanate as well as the Mughals.}}
Muhammad was crowned at Ghazni in 1173. Soon after, he marched from the [[Gomal Pass]] down to middle of the [[Indus|Indus Plain]], [[Indian campaigns of Muhammad of Ghor#Conquest of Multan and Uch|capturing Multan and Uch]] before being [[Battle of Kasahrada|completely routed in Sirohi]] against an alliance of the [[Rajput]] rulers led by [[Solanki (clan)|Solanki]] ruler [[Mularaja II]].{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=111}}{{sfn|Chandra|2007|page=68-69}} While the Ghaznavid domain was considerably truncated, though they were still controlling parts of [[Punjab]] and [[Pakistan]] down to the valley of [[Kabul]] which were of strategic importance in the pathway to [[Northern India]]. Therefore, Muhammad, whose direct route from [[Rajasthan]] was blocked after the [[Battle of Kasahrada|defeat in Mount Abu]], began his expeditions against the Ghaznavids in 1180.{{sfn|Bosworth|1977|page=129}}{{sfn|Chandra|2007|page=68}}

==Siege==
According to the 12th-13th century chronicler [[Ibn al-Athir]], the [[Ghurids]] began to invade the [[Ghaznavid]] territories in [[Punjab]] after their conquest of Ghazni in 1173 but were dissuaded by [[Khusrau Malik]].{{sfn|Bosworth|1977|page=129}} While, this account of Ibn al-Athir is not corroborated by any other contemporary annals, although Muhammad certainly raided [[Lahore]] twice before finally capturing it in 1186.{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=111-112}}


==Ghurid Attacks==
===First raid===
===First raid===
al-Athir records that Muhammad had launched multiple attempts to take over Lahore since he gained Ghazna but [[Khusrau Malik|Khusrau Malik's]] forces did not allow him to cross the Indus.{{sfn|Bosworth|1977|p=129-130}} In 1178, Muhammad annexed [[Peshawar]] from probably the Ghaznawids and two years later, besieged [[Lahore]]. Malik — already under attacks from Indian Kings — negotiated for peace and gifted his son Malik Shah along with a [[elephant]] to Muhammad while pledging allegiance to the [[Ghurids]].{{sfn|Habib|1981|p=111-112}}
After annexing [[Peshawar]] from the [[Ghaznavids]], Muhammad marched towards Lahore and besieged the Ghaznavid capital in 1180. The Ghaznavid ruler at the time was [[Khusrau Malik]] whose ancestral capital was already lost to the [[Ghuzz Turks]]. Further, the 16th-17th century chronicler [[Ferishta]] stated that, "His throne was tottering from attacks of [[Rai (title)|Rai]]s of [[Delhi]]".{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=111}} Ferishta reference to the Rai of Delhi is probably to the [[Chahamanas of Shakambari|Chahamana]] king [[Prithviraj II]] who replused a Ghaznavid invasion during his reign.<ref>{{cite book |author=R. B. Singh |title=History of the Chāhamānas |publisher=N. Kishore|year=1964|page=155|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TKs9AAAAIAAJ |oclc=1103872 }}</ref> Khusrau Malik, thus dispatched an envoy for peacemaking and sent his son Malik Shah along with a [[elephant]] as a token of submission and allegiance to the Ghurids.{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=111-112}}{{sfn|Nizami|1970|page=157}}


===Second raid===
===Second raid===
In 580/581 H. (c. 1184-1186 C.E.){{Efn|[[Firishta]] and [[Nizamuddin Ahmad]] goes for 580 H. whereas Jujzani assigns 581 H.}} Muhammad sacked Lahore but failed to conquer it; nonetheless, he had Sialkot annexed before returning back to Ghazni.{{sfn|Nizami|1970|p=158}} Sometime soon, [[Husain ibn Kharmil|Husain Kharmil]] who was put in charge of the new fortified encampment would repulse a joint maneuver by Khusrau Malik and [[Khokhar|Khokhar tribesmen]] to recapture Sialkot.{{sfn|Nizami|1970|p=158}} Muslim sources do not mention what caused the breach of peace between Muhammad and Malik; Das claims Chakradeva — then-ruler of Jammu — to have invited Muhammad since the Khokhars had refused allegiance to the Rajahs under Ghaznavid encouragement.{{sfn|Nizami|1970|p=158}}{{sfn|Bosworth|1977|p=129-130}}
Meanwhile, Muhammad captured the whole area adjacent of [[Sindh]] up to the sea coast by 1182.{{sfn|Nizami|1970|page=157}} He did not attack Lahore for three years, before marching again in 1185.{{sfn|Nizami|1970|page=157-158}} During this raid, Muhammad sacked Lahore and the neighbouring rural areas, followed by the annexation of [[Sialkot]]. Muhammad established his military stronghold in Sialkot and fortified the city before returning to Ghazni.{{sfn|Nizami|1970|page=158}}


⚫
=== Conquest ===
The encroachment of the [[Ghurid]]s in [[Sialkot]] and the pillage of his capital, lead Khusrau Malik to retaliate, who aided by the [[Khokhars]] laid siege to the Ghurid stronghold in Sialkot.{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=112}} However, the well equipped garrison under [[Husain ibn Kharmil|Husain Kharmil]] forced him to turn back after an abortive attempt to recapture Sialkot.{{sfn|Nizami|1970|page=158}}
Sources converge upon that [[Lahore]] was captured by Muhammad in 583 H. (1186-1187 C.E.) in a fresh siege thus bringing an end to their rule of two centuries; the specifics — though slightly inconsistent— involve deceit as a common motif.{{sfn|Bosworth|1977|p=130-131}}


Jujzani records that Khusrau Malik, having understood the futility of resistance to a waxing Ghurid power, wished to negotiate peace with Muhammad and was promised a meeting outside the city. However, he was captured on leaving Lahore and kept imprisoned at Ghazni, before being taken away to [[Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad|Ghiyath al-Din]] in Firozkoh who had him re-imprisoned to a fortress in [[Gharchistan]].{{sfn|Bosworth|1977|p=130-131}} al-Athir noted Khusrau Malik to have had negotiated peace with Muhammad and even ruled as a Ghurid vassal for a couple of months; then, [[Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad|Ghiyath al-Din]] solicited his and his son's appearance at his court at Firozkoh only to deny them an audience and have them imprisoned.{{sfn|Bosworth|1977|p=130-131}}{{Efn|Apparently, the father-son duo sensed something amiss and was requested by their subjects to not leave Ghaznavid strongholds. In despair, they recited an elegy by the mukhaḍram poet Abū Dhuʾayb al-Hudhalī metaphorizing their lack of power to disobey the Ghurid overlords.}} Firishta noted Khusrau Malik to have been lulled into a false sense of security on Muhammad choosing to return back Malik Shah;{{Efn|Alongside Malik Shah went Muhammad's trusted confidantes who lavished the prince with wine and slowed the caravan.}} little did he know about the Ghurid army's rapid advance towards Lahore and ended up deposed in a bloodless coup.{{sfn|Habib|1981|p=112}}
⚫
===Conquest===
All three contemporaneous account of the subjugation of [[Lahore]] by [[Minhaj-i Siraj Juzjani]], [[Ibn al-Athir]] and [[Muhammad Aufi]] including the later writing of [[Ferishta|Mohammad Qasim Firishta]] collaboratively stated that Lahore was captured by Muhammad in final attempt by a manoeuvre.{{sfn|Bosworth|1977|page=130-131}}{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=112}}{{sfn|Wink|1991|page=144}}


Both [[Khusrau Malik]] and his son would be executed c. 1192 or thereabouts; Bosworth speculates it might have been to avoid them being used as bargaining chips by [[Ala al-Din Tekish]].{{sfn|Nizami|1970|p=158}}{{sfn|Bosworth|1977|p=131}} Das claims that Devas were conferred with the title of ''Mian'' and installed as a vassal for the Sialkot province, as a token of gratitude.{{Sfn|Charak|1985|p=61-62}}
According to the manoeuvre, Muhammad released Khusrau Malik's hostage son Malik Shah to visit his father and sent him along with some of the Ghurid officers. Muhammad, further according to Ferishta instructed his officers to "make him drink as much liquor as possible in the way to Lahore". Meanwhile, Muhammad through a different direction then Malik Shah, advanced from [[Ghazni]] with an army of 20,000 troopers and besieged Khusrau Malik who according to [[Ferishta]] rose from his "careless sleep", when Muhammad captured the [[Ravi River|riverside]]. Khusrao Malik was forced to surrender Lahore after a short siege{{sfn|Khan|2008|page=90}} and present himself to the [[Ghurids]]. However, Muhammad persuading him under the protection of a treaty deceitfully imprisoned him and his son in the fort of [[Gharjistan]] under [[Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad]].{{sfn|Nizami|1970|page=158}}{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=112}}{{sfn|Bosworth|1977|page=130}}


==Legacy==
A slightly different account of Ibn al-Athir claimed that, Khusrau Malik after surrendering Lahore was allowed to live in [[Peace|Peace "(amãn)"]] for two months before [[Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad]] through an envoy asked for his presence in his court. While, Khusrau Malik was reluctant to leave as the populace of Lahore advised him against it, nonetheless, fearing a possible Ghurid invasion, he along with his son went to the court of Ghiyath al-Din. However, they were never brought to Ghiyath al-Din but rather imprisoned in a fortress.{{sfn|Bosworth|1977|page=130-131}}
With the possession of Punjab, Muhammad was able to leverage another easier route into North India and would go on to win the [[Second Battle of Tarain]]. By the turn of the century, he and his "slave sons" had overran most of the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain|Gangetic Plain]] expanding as far as [[Bengal]].{{sfn|Habib|1981|p=116-117}}

==Aftermath==
[[Khusrau Malik]] and his son spent several years in confinement before being executed in 1192 or thereabouts. {{sfn|Nizami|1970|page=158}}{{sfn|Bosworth|1977|page=131}} According to the ''[[Tabaqat-i-Nasiri]]'' "No member from the house of [[Ghazni]] was allowed to survive".{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=112}} Thus, the Ghaznavid dynasty got eradicated, ending their preceding rule of two centuries and the long-standing rivalry with the [[Ghurid]]s.{{sfn|Bosworth|1977|page=131}}

After the fall of the Ghaznavids, Muhammad now held his sway over most of the [[Indus]] and [[Punjab|Punjab plains]] by 1190.{{sfn|Chandra|2007|page=68}}{{sfn|Wink|1991|page=144}} Muhammad with the possession of Punjab, made another inroad into [[North India]] but was defeated by a [[Rajput|Rajput Confederacy]] led by [[Prithviraj Chauhan]] in the [[First Battle of Tarain]], although he defeated them a year later in the [[Second Battle of Tarain]] and subsequently executed Prithviraj.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Hermann Kulke |author1-link=Hermann Kulke |author2=Dietmar Rothermund |author2-link=Dietmar Rothermund|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TPVq3ykHyH4C|title=A History of India|date=2004|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-32919-4|language=en|page=167|quote="The first battle of Tarain was won by the Rajput confederacy led by Prithviraj Chauhan of Ajmer. But when Muhammad of Ghur returned the following year with 10,000 archers on horseback he vanquished Prithviraj and his army}}</ref>{{sfn|Khan|2008|page=115}} Muhammad and his slaves by turn of the century overran most of the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain|Gangetic Plain]] and later expanded the [[Ghurid]] empire up to [[Bengal]].{{sfn|Habib|1981|page=116-117}}


==Notes==
==Notes==
{{notelist}}
{{notelist}}

==References==
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
{{refbegin}}

* {{Cite book|last=Bosworth|first=C. E.|author-link=C. E. Bosworth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QXuOQgAACAAJ |title=The Later Ghaznavids ; Splendour and Decay: The Dynasty in Afghanistan and Northern India 1040-1186 |date=1977 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-85224-315-2 |language=en}}
* {{cite book|last=Chandra|first=Satish|author-link=Satish Chandra (historian)|title=History of Medieval India:800-1700|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qHnHHwAACAAJ|year=2007|publisher=Orient Longman|isbn=978-81-250-3226-7|language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bosworth |first=C. E.|author-link=C. E. Bosworth|url=https://archive.org/details/bosworth-1977-later-ghaznavids |title=The Later Ghaznavids ; Splendour and Decay: The Dynasty in Afghanistan and Northern India 1040-1186 |date=1977 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-85224-315-2 |language=en}}
* {{cite book|last=Chandra |first=Satish |author-link=Satish Chandra (historian) |title=History of Medieval India: 800-1700 |url=https://archive.org/details/satishchandrahistoryofmedievalindia |year=2007 |publisher=Orient Longman |isbn=978-81-250-3226-7 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Charak |first=Sukhdev Singh |url=http://www.panjabdigilib.org/webuser/searches/downloadPdf.jsp?file=BK-001248.pdf&docid=2870 |title=A Short History of Jammu Raj: From Earliest Times to 1846 A.D. |date=1985 |publisher=Ajaya Prakashan |language=en}}
* {{Cite book |last=Grewal |first=J.S. |last2=Banga |first2=Indu |doi=10.4324/9781315660394 |title=Early Nineteenth-Century Panjab |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge | isbn=9781315660394 |language=en}}
* {{Cite book|last=Habib|first=Mohammad|author-link=Mohammad Habib|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iQ1uAAAAMAAJ |title=Politics and Society During the Early Medieval Period: Collected Works of Professor Mohammad Habib |date=1981 |publisher=People's Publishing House |language=en}}
* {{Cite book|last=Habib|first=Mohammad|author-link=Mohammad Habib|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iQ1uAAAAMAAJ |title=Politics and Society During the Early Medieval Period: Collected Works of Professor Mohammad Habib |date=1981 |publisher=People's Publishing House |language=en}}
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* {{Cite book |last=Nizami |first=K.A.|author-link=K. A. Nizami|chapter=Indian Campaigns of Sultan Muizuddin|editor1=Mohammad Habib |editor2=Khaliq Ahmad Nizami |title=A Comprehensive History of India: The Delhi Sultanate (A.D. 1206-1526) |volume=5 |edition=Second |year=1970|publisher=The Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.147431/page/n181/mode/2up |oclc=31870180}}
* {{Cite book|last=Hooja|first=Rima|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qqd1RAAACAAJ|title=A HISTORY OF RAJASTHAN|date=2006|publisher=Rupa & Company|isbn=978-81-291-1501-0}}
* {{Cite book|last=Khan|first=Iqtidar Alam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=URluAAAAMAAJ |title=Historical Dictionary of Medieval India |date=2008|publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-5503-8 |language=en}}
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* {{Cite book |last=Nizami|first=K. A.|author-link=K. A. Nizami |chapter=Foundation of the Delhi Sultanat|editor1=Mohammad Habib |editor2=Khaliq Ahmad Nizami |title=A Comprehensive History of India: The Delhi Sultanat (A.D. 1206-1526) |volume=5 |edition=Second |year=1970|publisher=The Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_9cmAQAAMAAJ |oclc=31870180}}
* {{Cite book|last=Wink|first=Andre|author-link=Andre Wink|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=75FlxDhZWpwC |title=Al-Hind the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: The Slave Kings and the Islamic Conquest : 11Th-13th Centuries |date=1991 |publisher=BRILL| isbn=9004102361 |language=en}}
{{refend}}
{{refend}}


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[[Category:Battles involving the Ghurids]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Ghurids]]
[[Category:History of South Asia]]
[[Category:History of South Asia]]
[[Category:Military history of Lahore]]
[[Category:History of Lahore]]
[[Category:History of Islam in India]]
[[Category:History of Islam in India]]
[[Category:Islamic rule in the Indian subcontinent]]
[[Category:Islamic rule in the Indian subcontinent]]
[[Category:Ghaznavid Empire]]
[[Category:Ghaznavid Empire]]
[[Category:1180 in Asia]]
[[Category:1180 in Asia]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Tajiks]]
[[Category:Battles involving Turkic peoples]]

Revision as of 06:05, 8 August 2023

Siege of Lahore
Part of Indian campaigns of Muhammad of Ghor
Date1186
Location
Lahore (present-day Punjab, Pakistan)
Result Ghurid victory
Territorial
changes		 Muhammad of Ghor captured Lahore and much of the present-day Punjab from the Ghaznavids (see Aftermath section)
Belligerents
Ghaznavid EmpireGhaznavids Ghurids
Commanders and leaders
Ghaznavid Empire Khusrau Malik Surrendered (POW)
Ghaznavid EmpireMalik Shah (POW)		 Muhammad of Ghor
Husain Kharmil
Strength
Unknown 20,000

The Siege of Lahore in 1186 brought the end of Ghaznavid rule with Muhammad of Ghor annexing their last-surviving principality from Khusrau Malik.

Across the 1180s, Muhammad had made at least three incursions into the Ghaznavid domain centered around Punjab. The first attempt resulted in a truce and the second — despite the plunder of Lahore and gaining of Sialkot — turned out to be unsuccessful before his third attempt secured victory employing deceit. Both the reigning Ghaznavid Sultan and the prince were imprisoned and executed.

Background

The Ghurids — warlords or chieftains based out of Ghur but of uncertain ancestry — originally served as nominal vassals to both the Seljuks and Ghaznavids since c. early eleventh century; early Ghurid history remains unclear but Sayf al-Din Suri had conquered Ghazni, the Ghaznavid capital, in 1148 only to lose it a year later.[1] Suri's brother sacked and retook Ghazni in 1151, forcing Baharam Shah to flee east and while Ghazni was won back — probably due to a rebellious populace —, the contemporaneous advent of Oghuz Turks ensured a permanent cessation of their western frontiers including the capital.[2] By 1160s, the Ghaznavids held no sway over Central Asian lands and their new territory became centered around Punjab, probably spanning till the valley of Kabul, with their new capital at Lahore.

Contemporaneous with the rapid plummet of Ghaznavid power, the Ghurids reached zenith under the dyarchy of Ghiyath al-Din Mahmud and Muhammad of Ghor; Muhammad had Ghazni annexed from the Turks and soon, most of the eastern Afghanistan fell under Ghurid control.[3][4] Thereafter, Muhammad focused on mainland India and in 1178, marched down through the Gomal Pass — via Multan and Uch — to enter into Gujarat via the Thar only to end up routed by an alliance of Rajput chiefs under Mularaja II.[5] The defeat did not dampen Muhammad's aspirations and probably, the search for an alternate non-tortuous passage into the mainland would spur him into multiple conflicts with the Ghaznavids.[6][7]

Sources

As the Ghaznavid polity shifted eastward from the Islamic heartland, it became insignificant for Muslim historians. Barring Ibn al-Athir's al-Kāmil fit-Tārīkh, we have no contemporary description of the fall of Ghaznavids; however, al-Athir's description of the eastern frontiers were derived from local historians and ridden with self-acknowledged inconsistencies in dates. The next extant source — recorded about a century after the event — remains Minhaj-i Siraj Juzjani's Tabaqat-i Nasiri, which is largely understood to be the official history of the succeeding Mamluk dynasty. The events are also described in the 16th century Tarikh-i Firishta by Firishta, probably deriving from non-extant sources.

The only description of the siege and relevant circumstances from a non-Muslim perspective comes from Rajdarshani, a history of Jammu Rajahs compiled at the orders of Gulab Singh c. 1847 by Gopal Das,[a] some 700 years after the event. The accuracy of the work remains suspect with Das primarily depending on vamsavalis and bardic lore as his sources.[b]

Ghurid Attacks

First raid

al-Athir records that Muhammad had launched multiple attempts to take over Lahore since he gained Ghazna but Khusrau Malik's forces did not allow him to cross the Indus.[9] In 1178, Muhammad annexed Peshawar from probably the Ghaznawids and two years later, besieged Lahore. Malik — already under attacks from Indian Kings — negotiated for peace and gifted his son Malik Shah along with a elephant to Muhammad while pledging allegiance to the Ghurids.[10]

Second raid

In 580/581 H. (c. 1184-1186 C.E.)[c] Muhammad sacked Lahore but failed to conquer it; nonetheless, he had Sialkot annexed before returning back to Ghazni.[11] Sometime soon, Husain Kharmil who was put in charge of the new fortified encampment would repulse a joint maneuver by Khusrau Malik and Khokhar tribesmen to recapture Sialkot.[11] Muslim sources do not mention what caused the breach of peace between Muhammad and Malik; Das claims Chakradeva — then-ruler of Jammu — to have invited Muhammad since the Khokhars had refused allegiance to the Rajahs under Ghaznavid encouragement.[11][9]

Conquest

Sources converge upon that Lahore was captured by Muhammad in 583 H. (1186-1187 C.E.) in a fresh siege thus bringing an end to their rule of two centuries; the specifics — though slightly inconsistent— involve deceit as a common motif.[12]

Jujzani records that Khusrau Malik, having understood the futility of resistance to a waxing Ghurid power, wished to negotiate peace with Muhammad and was promised a meeting outside the city. However, he was captured on leaving Lahore and kept imprisoned at Ghazni, before being taken away to Ghiyath al-Din in Firozkoh who had him re-imprisoned to a fortress in Gharchistan.[12] al-Athir noted Khusrau Malik to have had negotiated peace with Muhammad and even ruled as a Ghurid vassal for a couple of months; then, Ghiyath al-Din solicited his and his son's appearance at his court at Firozkoh only to deny them an audience and have them imprisoned.[12][d] Firishta noted Khusrau Malik to have been lulled into a false sense of security on Muhammad choosing to return back Malik Shah;[e] little did he know about the Ghurid army's rapid advance towards Lahore and ended up deposed in a bloodless coup.[13]

Both Khusrau Malik and his son would be executed c. 1192 or thereabouts; Bosworth speculates it might have been to avoid them being used as bargaining chips by Ala al-Din Tekish.[11][14] Das claims that Devas were conferred with the title of Mian and installed as a vassal for the Sialkot province, as a token of gratitude.[15]

Legacy

With the possession of Punjab, Muhammad was able to leverage another easier route into North India and would go on to win the Second Battle of Tarain. By the turn of the century, he and his "slave sons" had overran most of the Gangetic Plain expanding as far as Bengal.[16]

Notes

  1. ^ Ganesh Das was a Hindu Khatri in the service of Singh and traced his ancestry to Kaka Mal who had migrated to Sialkot to serve in the administration of Bikram Dev of Jammu as well as Sikandar Lodi of Delhi. Mal's heirs — many of whom adopted Islam and commanded important positions in various royal Courts across India — were intricately embedded within the Persian cosmopolis.[8]
  2. ^ Das' work was probably the first history of the region. Completely lacking in archaeological, epigraphic and numismatic sources, little can be confidently asserted about the ancient and medieval history of Jammu polities; however, though sketchily mentioned in Muslim sources, they have been portrayed as longstanding allies of the Delhi Sultanate as well as the Mughals.
  3. ^ Firishta and Nizamuddin Ahmad goes for 580 H. whereas Jujzani assigns 581 H.
  4. ^ Apparently, the father-son duo sensed something amiss and was requested by their subjects to not leave Ghaznavid strongholds. In despair, they recited an elegy by the mukhaḍram poet Abū Dhuʾayb al-Hudhalī metaphorizing their lack of power to disobey the Ghurid overlords.
  5. ^ Alongside Malik Shah went Muhammad's trusted confidantes who lavished the prince with wine and slowed the caravan.

References

  1. ^ Khan 2008, p. 35-36.
  2. ^ Habib 1981, p. 109,135.
  3. ^ Habib 1981, p. 109.
  4. ^ Bosworth 1977, p. 124.
  5. ^ Hooja 2006, p. 261.
  6. ^ Chandra 2007, p. 67.
  7. ^ Habib 1981, p. 111.
  8. ^ Grewal 2015, p. 13-14.
  9. ^ a b Bosworth 1977, p. 129-130.
  10. ^ Habib 1981, p. 111-112.
  11. ^ a b c d Nizami 1970, p. 158.
  12. ^ a b c Bosworth 1977, p. 130-131.
  13. ^ Habib 1981, p. 112.
  14. ^ Bosworth 1977, p. 131.
  15. ^ Charak 1985, p. 61-62.
  16. ^ Habib 1981, p. 116-117.

Bibliography

  • Bosworth, C. E. (1977). The Later Ghaznavids ; Splendour and Decay: The Dynasty in Afghanistan and Northern India 1040-1186. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-85224-315-2.
  • Chandra, Satish (2007). History of Medieval India: 800-1700. Orient Longman. ISBN 978-81-250-3226-7.
  • Charak, Sukhdev Singh (1985). A Short History of Jammu Raj: From Earliest Times to 1846 A.D. Ajaya Prakashan.
  • Grewal, J.S.; Banga, Indu (2015). Early Nineteenth-Century Panjab. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315660394. ISBN 9781315660394.
  • Habib, Mohammad (1981). Politics and Society During the Early Medieval Period: Collected Works of Professor Mohammad Habib. People's Publishing House.
  • Nizami, K.A. (1970). "Indian Campaigns of Sultan Muizuddin". In Mohammad Habib; Khaliq Ahmad Nizami (eds.). A Comprehensive History of India: The Delhi Sultanate (A.D. 1206-1526). Vol. 5 (Second ed.). The Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House. OCLC 31870180.
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