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Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul, Hungarian: Vitéz Mihály) (1558-9 August 1601) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). During his reign, which coincided with the Long War, these three principalities forming the territory of present-day Romania and Moldova were united for the first time under a single Romanian ruler, though the unification lasted for less than six months. He is regarded as one of Romania's greatest national heroes.

Early life

He is argued by most historians ^[1] to have been the illegitimate son of Wallachian Prince Pătraşcu cel Bun, while others ^[2] believe he merely invented his descent in order to justify his rule. His mother was named Teodora, of the Oraşul de Floci, and was a member of the Cantacuzino family. Michael's political career was quite spectacular, he became the Ban of Mehedinţi in 1588, stolnic at the court of Mihnea Turcitul by the end of 1588, and Ban of Craiova in 1593 - during the rule of Alexandru cel Rău. The latter had him swear before 12 boyars that he was not of princely descent ^[3]. Still, in May 1593 conflict did break out between Alexandru and the Ban and Michael was forced to flee to Transylvania. He was accompanied by his half-brother Radu Florescu, Radu Buzescu and several other supporters. After spending two weeks at the court of Sigismund Bathory he left for Constantinople, where with help from his cousin Andronic Cantacuzino and Patriarch Jeremiah II he negotiated Ottoman support for his accession to the Wallachian throne. He was invested Prince by the Sultan in September 1593 and started his effective rule on October 11.

Wallachia

Not long after this, he began to fight his Ottoman overlord. The next year he joined a Christian alliance of European powers against the Turks, and signed treaties with Sigismund Bathory of Transylvania and Aron Vodă of Moldavia. He started a campaign against the Turks in the autumn of 1594, conquering several citadels near the Danube, including Giurgiu, Brăila, Hârşova, and Silistra.

In 1595 Sigismund Bathory staged an elaborate plot and had Aron of Moldavia removed from power^[4] and replaced him with hatman Ştefan Rǎzvan. Sigismund himself gave the latter both the investment act and the insignia of power, thus acting in overlord of Moldavia. On May 24th (June 3rd) 1595 at Alba Iulia (Gyulafehérvár) Ştefan Rǎzvan signed a binding treaty, formally placing Moldavia under Transilvanian sovereignty.

File:Mihai Viteazul's army.jpg

Michael the Brave and his troops (Gheorghe Tattarescu's 19th century rendition)

Only a month later in the same city of Alba Iulia, Wallachian boyars signed on Michael's behalf a similar treaty. Thus, by July 1595 Sigismund Bathory was de facto Prince of all the three countries: Transilvania, Wallachia and Moldavia^[5]. From the point of view of Wallachian internal politics, the Treaty of Alba Iulia officialized what could be called a boyar regime ^[6] reinforcing the already important political power of the noble elite. According to the treaty a council of 12 great boyars was to take part alongside the voivode in the executive rule of the country. Boyars could no longer be executed without the knowledge and approval of the Transilvanian Prince and if convicted for treason their fortunes could no longer be confiscated^[7]. Apparently Michael was displeased with the final form of the treaty negotiated by his envoys but had to comply^[8]. He would try to avoid the obligations imposed on him for the rest of his reign.

It should be noted however, that Michael relied heavily on the loyalty and support of a group of west-Wallachian lords (of which the Buzescus were probably the most important) and that of his own relatives on his mother's side the Cantacuzinos^[9], and protected their interests throughout his reign. One of the laws he passed was the land-binding of serfs which clearly favored the land-owning aristocracy^[10].

From an ecclesiastical point of view the Treaty of Alba Iulia had another important consequence, it placed the Eastern Orthodox bishops in Transylvania under the authority of the Metropolitan Seat of Târgovişte^[11].

On August 13 1595, at the Battle of Călugăreni (near the Neajlov river), Michael defeated an Ottoman army led by Sinan Pasha. Despite the victory, because he had too few troops to mount a full scale battle he retreated to his winter camp in Stoeneşti. Subsequently, he joined forces with Sigismund Bathory's 40,000-strong army (led by István Bocskay), and freed Târgovişte (October 8), Bucharest (October 12) and Brăila, temporarily removing Wallachia from Ottoman rule. The fight against the Ottomans continued in 1596, when Michael made several incursions south of the Danube at Vidin, Pleven, Nicopolis, and Babadag, where he was assisted by the local Bulgarians during the massive First Tarnovo Uprising.

Transylvania

In April 1598 Sigismund resigned as Prince of Transylvania in favor of the Holy Roman Emperor, Rudolf II (who was also the King of Hungary), reversed his decision in October 1598, and then resigned again in favor of Cardinal Andrew Báthory, his cousin. Andrew Bathory was close to the Polish chancellor and hetman Jan Zamoyski and placed Transylvania under the influence of the King of Poland, Sigismund III Vasa. He was also a trusted ally of the new Moldavian Prince Ieremia Movilă, one of Michael's greatest enemies^[12]. Movilă had deposed Ştefan Rǎzvan with Polish help in August 1595^[13].

Having to face this new threat Michael asked Emperor Rudolf to become the sovereign of Wallachia, the very same year and in 1599 he made a fragile peace with the Turks. On September 25th (October 5th) Andrew Bathory issued an ultimatum demanding Michael to abandon his throne^[14]. Under the circumstances, Michael decided that the best possible defense was to attack^[15]. He left Târgovişte on October 2nd (12th) and by October 9th (19th) he reached Prejmer in Southern Transilvania. Here he met envoys from the city of Braşov. Sparing the city he moved on to Cârţa where he joined forces with the Szekelys.

On October 18, Michael obtained an important victory against Andrew Báthory in the Battle of Şelimbăr, giving him control of Transylvania. Andrew Bathory was killed shortly after the battle, at the age of only 28. Michael would give him a princely burial in the Catholic Cathedral of Alba Iulia^[16]. With impressive pomp, Michael entered the Transylvanian capital at Alba Iulia, and received the keys to the fortress from Bishop Demeter Napragy (depicted as a seminal event in later Romanian historiography). Stephen Szamosközy, keeper of the Archives at the time, recorded the event in great detail. He also wrote that two days before the Diet met on October 10th (20th), Transylvanian nobles elected Michael the voivode as Prince of Transylvania . As the Diet was assembled, Michael demanded that the estates swear loyalty to Emperor Rudof, then to himself and thirdly to his son^[17].

Michael then began negotiating with the Emperor over his official position in Transylvania. The latter wanted the principality under direct Imperial rule with Michael acting as governor. The Wallachian voivode, on the other hand, wanted the title of Prince of Transylvania for himself and equally claimed the Partium region. He was, nevertheless, willing to acknowledge Habsburg overlordship.

Moldavia

The Moldavian Prince Ieremia Movilă was a long time enemy of Michael. It was him who had incited Andrew Bathori to send Michael an ultimatum. His brother Simion Movilă claimed the Wallachian throne for himself and had started using the title of Voivode since 1595. Aware of the threat the Movilas represented, Michael had created the Banat of Buzǎu and Brǎila in July 1598 and the new Ban was charged of keeping an alert eye on Moldavian, Tartar and Cossack moves. In fact, Michael's plan of a Moldavian campaign was long in the making^[18].

On February 28th (March 10th) Michael met with Polish envoys in Brasov. He was willing to recognise the Polish King for his sovereign in exhange for the crown of Moldavia and the recognition of his male heirs' hereditary right over the three principalities, Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. He did not delay his attack much longer, though. On April 14th (24th) 1600 Michael's troops entered Moldavia on multiple routes, the Prince himself leading the main corp to Trotuş and Roman. He reached the capital of Suceava on May 6th (16th). The very next day, the garrison surrendered the citadel and Michael's forces caught up with the fleeing Ieremia Movilă, who was only saved from being captured by the sacrifice of his rear-guard.^[19]. Movilă took refuge in the castle of Hotin together with his family, a handful of faithful boyars and the former Transylvanian Prince, Sigismund Bathory. The Moldavian soldiers in the castle deserted, leaving a small Polish contingent as sole defenders. Under the cover of dark, sometime before June 11th (21st), Movilǎ managed to sneak out of the walls and across the Dniester to hatman Stalislav Zólkiewski's camp.

Neighboring states were alarmed by this upsetting of the balance of power, especially the Hungarian nobility in Transylvania, which rose against Michael in rebellion. With the help of Basta, they defeated Michael at the Battle of Mirăslău, forcing the prince to leave Transylvania. A Polish army led by Jan Zamoyski drove the Wallachians from Moldavia and defeated Michael at Năieni, Ceptura, and Bucov (Battle of the Teleajăn River). The Polish army also entered eastern Wallachia and established Simion Movilă as ruler. Forces loyal to Michael remained only in Oltenia.

Death and legacy

Michael again asked for assistance from Rudolf, which was granted when the emperor heard Basta had lost control of Transylvania to the Hungarian nobility led by Sigismund Bathory. Meanwhile, forces loyal to Michael in Wallachia, after a first unsuccessful attempt, drove out Simion Movilă and prepared to reenter Transylvania. Michael, allied with Basta, defeated the Hungarian nobility at Gurăslău (Goroszló). Nonetheless, Basta then ordered the assassination of Michael, which took place in Câmpia Turzii on 9 August 1601.

Michael the Brave's rule, with its break with Ottoman rule, tense relations with other European powers and with the union of the three states, was considered in following periods as the precursor of a modern Romania - a thesis which was argued with noted intensity by Nicolae Bălcescu. This theory became a point of reference for nationalists, as well as a catalysis of various Romanian forces in order to achieve a single Romanian state.

Michael is also commemorated by the monks of the Athonite Simonopetra Monastery for his great contributions in the form of land and money to rebuilding the monastery which had been destroyed by a fire.

Notes

^ Iorga, Rezachevici and others
^ Panaitescu
^ according to the XVIIIth century chronicle of Radu Popescu
^ According to [5]) Ştefan Jósica (Bathori's chancellor and a Romanian ethnic) masterminded the operation. Ştefan Rǎzvan arrested Aron on alleged treason charges on the night of April 24th (May 5th) and sent him to Alba Iulia (Gyulafehérvár) with his family and treasure. Aron would die poisend by the end of May in the castle of Vint. Bahthori was forced to justify his actions before the European powers, since Aron had actively joined the anti-Ottoman coalition.
^ Sigismund actually used the style on several occasions (see [5])
^ Several sources (including [1]) speak of a boyar regime when referring to Wallachia between the late XVIth and the mid XVIIth cetnuries, C. Anton Manea questions the validity of the term using boyar oligarchy instead (see [6] and its references). Regardless of such nuances, the fact is the actual political influence of great boyars had reached its peak at that time.
^ [6]
^ [7] cites Michael's conversation with the Polish envoy Lubieniecki, the Prince was saying: ... they did not proceed as stated in their instructions but as their own good required and obtained privileges for themselves.
^ The leading members of the Cantacuzino family were Andronic, Tudor and Dumitrache. Several great boyars were opposed to Michael's rule, among them Mitrea great vornic of Hotărani, Dumitru logofăt of Dădeşti, Chisar logofăt of Leoteşti, Dan Danilovici the treasurer, Radul Calomfirescu the postelnic, Miroslav great treasurer of Râfov, Ivan aga, Vintilă Bengescu (see [6] and its references).
^ [1],[8]
^ [9]
^ [3]
^ Hetman Zamoyski had beed in charge of the campaign, taking advantage of the conflict which opposed the Tartar khan Ghazi Ghirai to Sultan Murad II he had entered Moldavia under a pretense of providing protection against Tartars (see[4] for further details).
^ [3]
^ Rezachevici quotes in [3] Michael's own testimony, the latter wrote in December 1599 that I rose with my country, my children, taking my wife and everything I had and with my army to march into Transylvania so that the foe should not crush me here
^ [3]
^ [3]
^ [4]
^ [4]

Bibliography

[1] Petre P. Panaitescu, Mihai Viteazul, Fundaţia Regală, Bucharest, 1936 Template:Ro icon
[2] Nicolae Iorga, Istoria lui Mihai Viteazul, Editura Militară, Bucharest, 1968 Template:Ro icon
Constantin Rezachevici,
- [3] "Mihail Viteazul: Cele patru itinerarii transilvane" Magazin istoric, 1999, nr. 11 Template:Ro icon
- [4] "Mihail Viteazul: Itinerariul moldovean" Magazin istoric, 2000, nr. 5 Template:Ro icon
- [5] "Legenda şi substratul ei istoric. Mihail Viteazul Restituror Daciae?" Magazin istoric, 2000, nr. 10 Template:Ro icon
[6] Cristina Anton Manea "Structura şi restructurarea marii boierimi din Ţara Românească de la începutul secolului al XVI-LEA până la mijlocul secolului al XVII-LEA", PhD. Thesis, 2003 Template:Ro icon
[7] Ion Ionaşcu, "Mihai Viteazul şi autorii tratatului de la Alba Iulia (1595)", Anuarul Institutului de istorie şi arheologie, Cluj, 5, 1962, p. 111–144 Template:Ro icon
[8] Bolovan et al. "A History of Romania", Intl Specialized Book Service Inc; 3Rev Ed edition, January 1997
[9] Nicolae Iorga Ştefan cel Mare, Mihai Viteazul şi Mitropolia Ardealului, Analele Academiei Române, Seria II, Tom XXVII. Template:Ro icon

Regnal titles
Mihai I of Wallachia House of Basarab Drăculeşti branch Died: 1601 9 August
Preceded by Alexandru cel Rău	Prince of Wallachia 1593-1600	Succeeded by Simion Movilă
Preceded by Andrew	Prince of Transylvania 1599 – 1600	Succeeded by Rudolf II
Preceded by Ieremia Movilă	Prince of Moldavia 1600	Succeeded by Ieremia Movilă
Notes and references
1. Regnal Chronologies

[1] Iorga, Rezachevici and others

[2] Panaitescu

[3] rding to the XVIIIth century chronicle of Radu Popescu

[4] According to [5]) Ştefan Jósica (Bathori's chancellor and a Romanian ethnic) masterminded the operation. Ştefan Rǎzvan arrested Aron on alleged treason charges on the night of April 24th (May 5th) and sent him to Alba Iulia (Gyulafehérvár) with his family and treasure. Aron would die poisend by the end of May in the castle of Vint. Bahthori was forced to justify his actions before the European powers, since Aron had actively joined the anti-Ottoman coalition.

[5] Sigismund actually used the style on several occasions (see [5])

[6] Several sources (including [1]) speak of a boyar regime when referring to Wallachia between the late XVIth and the mid XVIIth cetnuries, C. Anton Manea questions the validity of the term using boyar oligarchy instead (see [6] and its references). Regardless of such nuances, the fact is the actual political influence of great boyars had reached its peak at that time.

[7] [6]

[8] [7] cites Michael's conversation with the Polish envoy Lubieniecki, the Prince was saying: ... they did not proceed as stated in their instructions but as their own good required and obtained privileges for themselves.

[9] The leading members of the Cantacuzino family were Andronic, Tudor and Dumitrache. Several great boyars were opposed to Michael's rule, among them Mitrea great vornic of Hotărani, Dumitru logofăt of Dădeşti, Chisar logofăt of Leoteşti, Dan Danilovici the treasurer, Radul Calomfirescu the postelnic, Miroslav great treasurer of Râfov, Ivan aga, Vintilă Bengescu (see [6] and its references).

[10] [1],[8]

[11] [9]

[12] [3]

[13] Hetman Zamoyski had beed in charge of the campaign, taking advantage of the conflict which opposed the Tartar khan Ghazi Ghirai to Sultan Murad II he had entered Moldavia under a pretense of providing protection against Tartars (see[4] for further details).

[14] [3]

[15] Rezachevici quotes in [3] Michael's own testimony, the latter wrote in December 1599 that I rose with my country, my children, taking my wife and everything I had and with my army to march into Transylvania so that the foe should not crush me here

[16] [3]

[17] [3]

[18] [4]

[19] [4]

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

@@ Line 29: / Line 29: @@
 On [[October 18]], Michael obtained an important victory against Andrew Báthory in the [[Battle of Şelimbăr]], giving him control of Transylvania. Andrew Bathory was killed shortly after the battle, at the age of only 28. Michael would give him a princely burial in the [[Catholic]] [[Cathedral]] of Alba Iulia<ref> [3] </ref>. With impressive pomp, Michael entered the Transylvanian capital at Alba Iulia, and received the keys to the fortress from Bishop [[Demeter Napragy]] (depicted as a seminal event in later Romanian [[historiography]]). Stephen Szamosközy, keeper of the Archives at the time, recorded the event in great detail. He also wrote that two days before the Diet met on October 10th (20th), Transylvanian nobles ''elected Michael the voivode as Prince of Transylvania ''. As the Diet was assembled, Michael demanded that the estates swear loyalty to Emperor Rudof, then to himself and thirdly to his son<ref> [3] </ref>.
+[[Image:Stema Mihai Viteazul.jpg|thumb|Seal of Michael the Brave (The seal comprizes the coats of arms of the three Romanian principalities: in the middle, on a shield the Moldavian urus, above Wallachian eagle between sun and moon holding cross in beak, below Transylvanian coat of arms: two meeting, standing lions supporting a sword, treading on seven mountains. The Moldavian shield is held by Michael and his son. There are two inscriptions on the seal. First, circular, in Cyrillic "IO MIHAILI UGROVLAHISCOI VOEVOD ARDILSCOI MOLD ZEMLI", meaning "IO MICHAEL VOIVODE OF WALLACHIA TRANSYLVANIA MOLDAVIA LAND". Second, placed along a circular arc separating the Wallachian coat from the rest of the heraldic composition, "NML BJE MLRDIE", could be translated "THROUGH THE VERY GRACE OF GOD".)]]
-[[Image:Stema Mihai Viteazul.jpg|thumb|Seal of Michael the Brave (showing the arms of Wallachia and Moldavia, as well as the stylized figures of Michael and his son)]]
 Michael then began negotiating with the Emperor over his official position in Transylvania. The latter wanted the principality under direct Imperial rule with Michael acting as governor. The Wallachian voivode, on the other hand, wanted the title of Prince of Transylvania for himself and equally claimed the [[Partium]] region. He was, nevertheless, willing to acknowledge [[Habsburg]] overlordship.