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== Validity ==
== Validity ==
⚫
The scientific foundation of graphology can be documented in reviews of the literature, such as Fluckinger, Tripp & Weinberg(1961)
⚫
<ref>{{cite journal|title=A Review of Experimental Research in Graphology: 1933 - 1960|journal=Perceptual And Motor Skills|date=1961|volume=??|issue=12|pages=67&ndash;90|author=Fluckwinger A, Tripp, Clarence A & Weinberg, george H}}</ref> , Lockowandte (1976) <ref> Lockowandte, Oskar Present status of the investigation of handwriting psychology as a diagnostic method. ''Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology,'' 1976, 6, 4-5. </ref> and Nevo(1986)<ref> Nevo, B ''Scientific Aspects Of Graphology: A Handbook'' Springfield, IL: Thomas: 1986</ref>. But this is called "science" by the graphologists despite of have been ocasionally labeled as a [[pseudoscience]]<ref>http://student.britannica.com/comptons/article-206939/pseudoscience</ref><ref>Robert Todd Carroll, 2005. "[http://skepdic.com/graphol.html The Skeptics Dictionary: Graphology]".</ref><ref> http://padron.entretemas.com/OtrasSecc/Descargas/PhilosophyBehindPseudoscience.htm</ref> <ref>[http://www.sfu.ca/~beyerste/research/articles/02SciencevsPseudoscience.pdf Distinguishing Science from Pseudoscience] - Barry L. Beyerstein (in English)</ref><ref>http://www.quackwatch.com/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/Tests/grapho.html</ref><ref>http://forensic.to/webhome/qdman/</ref><ref>http://www.bsbforensic.com/pdf_docs/Know%20Your%20Expert.pdf Published in “the barrister” magazine Easter term issue #32 7th April -25th May 2007</ref>.


Crumbaugh & Stockholm<ref>{{cite journal|title=Validation of Graphoanalysis by "Global" or "Holistic" Method|journal=Perceptual And Motor Skills|date=April 1977|volume=44|issue=2|pages=403&ndash;410|author=Crumbaugh, James C & Stockholm, Emilie}}</ref> is one of the studies that supports handwriting analysis.
Crumbaugh & Stockholm<ref>{{cite journal|title=Validation of Graphoanalysis by "Global" or "Holistic" Method|journal=Perceptual And Motor Skills|date=April 1977|volume=44|issue=2|pages=403&ndash;410|author=Crumbaugh, James C & Stockholm, Emilie}}</ref> is one of the studies that supports handwriting analysis.
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| accessdate = 2007-05-24 }}</ref>
| accessdate = 2007-05-24 }}</ref>


====Validity of Graphology in court testimony ====
==== Graphology in court testimony ====
⚫
The scientific foundation of graphology can be documented in reviews of the literature, such as Fluckinger, Tripp & Weinberg(1961)
⚫
<ref>{{cite journal|title=A Review of Experimental Research in Graphology: 1933 - 1960|journal=Perceptual And Motor Skills|date=1961|volume=??|issue=12|pages=67&ndash;90|author=Fluckwinger A, Tripp, Clarence A & Weinberg, george H}}</ref> , Lockowandte (1976) <ref> Lockowandte, Oskar Present status of the investigation of handwriting psychology as a diagnostic method. ''Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology,'' 1976, 6, 4-5. </ref> and Nevo(1986)<ref> Nevo, B ''Scientific Aspects Of Graphology: A Handbook'' Springfield, IL: Thomas: 1986</ref>. But this doesn´t meet the standards for a court testimony and has been ocasionally labeled as a [[pseudoscience]]<ref>http://student.britannica.com/comptons/article-206939/pseudoscience</ref><ref>Robert Todd Carroll, 2005. "[http://skepdic.com/graphol.html The Skeptics Dictionary: Graphology]".</ref><ref> http://padron.entretemas.com/OtrasSecc/Descargas/PhilosophyBehindPseudoscience.htm</ref> <ref>[http://www.sfu.ca/~beyerste/research/articles/02SciencevsPseudoscience.pdf Distinguishing Science from Pseudoscience] - Barry L. Beyerstein (in English)</ref><ref>http://www.quackwatch.com/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/Tests/grapho.html</ref><ref>http://forensic.to/webhome/qdman/</ref><ref>http://www.bsbforensic.com/pdf_docs/Know%20Your%20Expert.pdf Published in “the barrister” magazine Easter term issue #32 7th April -25th May 2007</ref>.


''Cameron v Knapp'', 137 Misc. 2d 373, 520 N.Y.S.2d 917 (Sup. Ct. N.Y. Co. 1987) (handwriting expert may testify as to the authenticity of a writing but not as to an individual's physical or mental condition based on a handwriting sample) stands as current U.S. case law for the rejection of graphology as psychological testimony.
''Cameron v Knapp'', 137 Misc. 2d 373, 520 N.Y.S.2d 917 (Sup. Ct. N.Y. Co. 1987) (handwriting expert may testify as to the authenticity of a writing but not as to an individual's physical or mental condition based on a handwriting sample) stands as current U.S. case law for the rejection of graphology as psychological testimony.

Revision as of 20:26, 20 June 2008

Graphology is the study and analysis of handwriting especially in relation to human psychology. In the medical field, it can be used to refer to the study of handwriting as an aid in diagnosis and tracking of diseases of the brain and nervous system. The term is sometimes incorrectly used to refer to forensic document examination.

Graphology has been a controversial field for more than a century. Although supporters point to the anecdotal evidence of thousands of positive testimonials as a reason to use it for personality evaluation, most empirical studies fail to show the validity claimed by its supporters.[1][2]

Basic tenets

Graphology is based upon the following basic assertions:

  • When we write, the ego is active but it is not always active to the same degree. Its activity waxes and wanes; being at its highest level when an effort has to be made by the writer and at its lowest level when the motion of the writing organ has gained momentum and is driven by it.
  • When the action of writing is comparatively difficult, the writer uses those forms of letters which are simpler or more familiar.
  • The muscular movements involved in writing are controlled by the central nervous system. The form of the resultant writing movement is modified further by the flexibly assembled coordinative structures in the hand, arm, and shoulder; which follow the principles of dynamical systems. The specific writing organ (mouth, foot, hand, crook of elbow) is irrelevant if it functions normally and is sufficiently adapted to its function.
  • The neurophysiological mechanisms which contribute to the written movement are related to conditions within the central nervous system and vary in accordance with them. The written strokes, therefore, reflect both transitory and long term changes in the central nervous system such as Parkinson's disease, or alcohol usage.
  • The movements and corresponding levels of muscular tension in writing are mostly outside of conscious control and subject to the ideomotor effect. Emotion, mental state, and biomechanical factors such as muscle stiffness and elasticity are reflected in a person's handwriting.
  • One must examine the handwriting or drawing movements by considering them as movements organized by the central nervous system and produced under biomechanical and dynamical constraints. Given these considerations, graphologists proceed to evaluate the pattern, form, movement, rhythm, quality, and consistency of the graphic stroke in terms of psychological interpretations. Such interpretations vary according to the graphological theory applied by the analyst.
  • Most schools of thought in graphology concur that a single graphological element can be a component of many different clusters, with each cluster having a different psychological interpretation. The significance of the cluster can be assessed accurately by tracing each component of the cluster back to their origins and adapting the meaning of the latter to the conditions of the milieu in which the form appears.

Some basic examples

A sampling from various popular Graphology books [3] [4] provide these interpretations:

Handwriting Characteristic Interpretation
Slant of the letters
  • A forward slant indicates high emotional expressiveness
  • Vertical handwriting indicates moderate, restrained emotional expression
  • A left slant indicates emotional withdrawal.
Angle of the lines on unlined paper
  • An upward slant indicates optimism and higher energy.
  • A downward slant or lines with trail off the page indicate low energy or physical exhaustion.
General shape of the strokes
  • Circular handwriting indicates an agreeable, easygoing nature.
  • Angular handwriting with sharp points indicates aggressiveness, directness, and high energy
  • Square handwriting indicates a real world, practical based approach
  • Squiggles and irregular strokes indicate an artistic and non standard approach
Individual letters
  • The letter "t" has the largest number of interpretations. For example where the horizontal "bar" of the t is placed on the vertical "stem" indicates where one places their goals, while the height of the t stem indicates the potential to accomplish those goals.
  • A low t bar indicates goals set lower than what can be accomplished.
  • A t bar high on the stem indicates goals set high.
  • A t bar that is above the stem indicates setting goals higher than can be accomplished.
Pressure applied on the paper while writing
  • The emotional intensity behind a person's behavior. The heavier the pressure, the more intense the emotions of that person.

Approaches to graphology

Integrative graphology
This approach holds that specific stroke structures relate to personality traits. Most systems within this approach use a cluster of stroke formations, to score a specific personality trait. Systems that fall under this umbrella are: fixed signs, trait stroke, French System and Graphoanalysis. It has been described as starting from the inside, and working to the outside.
Holistic graphology
This is commonly, but incorrectly referred to as Gestalt Graphology. Gestalt graphology was a system of handwriting analysis developed circa 1915 in Germany and was related theoretically to Gestalt psychology. In this approach (Holistic Graphology) a profile is constructed on the basis of form, movement and space. It has been described as starting from the outside, and working to the inside. In this approach, individual traits, such as legibility, are not assigned specific meanings, but can take on different meanings depending on the overall context.
Symbolic analysis
In this approach, one looks for symbols seen in the handwriting. This can be either Major symbolism, or Minor Symbolism.
  • Major symbolism is the meaning ascribed to the stroke, as it related to the page.
  • Minor symbolism ascribes a meaning to the stroke, depending upon the picture that the stroke draws. For example, John Wayne's signature shows a blackened out portion, that represents his lung cancer.
This approach provides the theory that underlies both Holistic Graphology, and Integrative Graphology. Max Pulver[5]

[6] [7] [8] is the best known exponent of this system.

Systems of handwriting analysis

Each approach to handwriting analysis has spawned several different systems.

  • Integrative Graphology
  • Holistic Graphology
    • The psychogram[12][13][14] is the only system to have been taught as part of an academic degree, at an accredited institution in the United States .
    • The Personal Worth Chart was developed by Handwriting Consultants of San Diego[15] during the early eighties.
    • The psychograph [16] was developed by Leslie King during the seventies.
    • Wittlich Character Diagram.[17][18]
    • Muller - Enskat Protokol[19][20]
    • Szondi
    • Girolamo Moretti [21][22]

Training

The only academic institutions in the world that currently offer an accredited degree in handwriting analysis are:

Training in the United States

Between 1940 and 1995, New School for Social Research, in New York City, offered a diploma in Graphology. At its peak, the diploma course took 8 semesters, and also included Forensic Document Analysis. This diploma did not have academic accreditation.

From 1970 to 2000, one could obtain a Graphology track Associate Arts Degree from Felician College, in Lodi, NJ. This was the only academic institution in the United States to have offered graphology for an accredited academic degree.

Training in the United States is currently available through correspondence courses. The quality of instructions varies considerably. Look for instructors that have a successful track record in teaching handwriting analysis.

Writing systems

The majority of material in the field is oriented towards the Latin Writing system. Courses offered in the subject reflect that bias.

Before taking any course, or certification, ensure that it is usable for the local writing system.

Certification

There is no certification that is generally recognized, either within or without the field. Certifications are invariably linked to the organization one belongs to, and are no longer recognized when one resigns from the organization.

Vocabulary

Every system of handwriting analysis has its own vocabulary. Even though two or more systems may share the same words, the meanings of those words may be different. The technical meaning of a word used by a handwriting analyst, and the common meaning is not congruent. Resentment, for example, in common usage, means to feel or exhibit annoyance. In Graphoanalysis, the term indicates a fear of imposition.[23][24]

History

Prospero Aldorisio's [25] 1611 manuscript is probably the first book to describe how to analyze handwriting. The major contender is Camilo Baldi's manuscript [26] which was unofficially published in 1622. The 1625 edition was probably the first authorized edition of Baldi's book.

Around 1830 Abbé Michon became interested in handwriting analysis. He published his findings [27] [28] shortly after founding Société Graphologique in 1871. The most prominent of his disciples was J. Crépieux-Jamin who rapidly published a series of books [29] [30] that were soon published in other languages [31] [32]. Starting from Michon's integrative approach, Crépieux-Jamin ended up with a holistic approach to graphology.

Alfred Binet was convinced to do research into graphology from 1893 to 1907. He ended up calling it "The science of the future", despite graphologists' rejecting the results of his research.

After World War I, interest in graphology continued to spread in Europe as well as the United States. In Germany during the 1920s, Ludwig Klages founded and published his finding in Zeitschrift für Menschenkunde (Journal for the Study of Mankind). His major contribution to the field can be found in Handschrift und Charakter [33][34].

Thea Stein Lewinson and J. Zubin modified Klage's ideas, based upon their experience working for the U.S. Government, publishing their method in 1942[35].

In 1929 Milton Bunker founded The American Grapho Analysis Society teaching Graphoanalysis. This organization and its system split the American graphology world in two. Students had to choose between Graphoanalysis or Holistic Graphology. Whilst hard data is lacking, anecdotal evidence indicates that 10% of the members of International Graphoanalysis Society(IGAS) were expelled between 1970 and 1980 [36]. By the time Peter Ferrera died in 1991, the decimation of IGAS members had resulted in a decline of the influence of Graphoanalysis, and IGAS on American graphology.

Klara G. Roman was the most prominent of the German refugee scholars. Her books are still considered to be foundations for contemporary American Holistic graphology. She taught at the New School for Social Research in New York, and was succeeded there by Daniel S. Anthony and Florence Anthony.

Handwriting Workshops Unlimited was organized by Charlie Cole as a series of lectures for advanced students of Graphoanalysis. These lectures featured holistic graphologists such as Thea Lewinson and Klara Roman. By 1960 all of the participants had been expelled by IGAS. These individuals went on to form the American Handwriting Analysis Foundation. Later mass expulsions of IGAS members led to the formation of other societies, such as the American Association of Handwriting Analysts that were orientated towards Holistic graphology.

In 1972 talks between the American Handwriting Analysis Foundation and the American Association of Handwriting Analysis started, with the aim to form a single organization. Those talks resulted in the creation of the Council of Graphological Societies in 1976.

Since the rise of the Internet in the early 1990s, the graphology organizations have suffered major declines in membership. However, due to email lists, communication between graphologists representing different approaches has increased.

Validity

The scientific foundation of graphology can be documented in reviews of the literature, such as Fluckinger, Tripp & Weinberg(1961) [37] , Lockowandte (1976) [38] and Nevo(1986)[39]. But this is called "science" by the graphologists despite of have been ocasionally labeled as a pseudoscience[40][41][42] [43][44][45][46].

Crumbaugh & Stockholm[47] is one of the studies that supports handwriting analysis.

A larger number of studies such as Ben-Shakar, Bar-Hillel, Blum, Ben-Abba, & Flug[48] indicate that graphology has little or no validity.

Specific objections

  • The Barnum effect and the Dr Fox effect [49]. These phenomena make it difficult to validate methods of personality testing. These describe the observation that individuals will give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people. See, for example, Tallent(1958)[50]. Non-individualized graphological reports give credence to this criticism.
  • Effect Size: Dean's(1992)[51][52] primary argument against the use of graphology is that the effect size is too small. Beyerstein & Beyerstein (1992) surveyed studies finding no validity to interpretations of handwriting analysis, concluding that handwriting analysis was useless at best. However according to a paper by Marcel which criticizes their findings, they neglected to note the challenges involved in evaluating any complex motor behavior, and, in particular, they ignored glaring problems in research design, methodology, operational definitions, and assumptions of the studies cited in support of their argument[citation needed].
  • Vagueness: One of the key points of attack for critics is the ease with which a graphologist can alter the "rules." Formniveau, for example, interprets a sign positively if the individual is high status, and negatively if the individual has low status [citation needed].

Legal considerations

Privacy

Graphologists often claim that handwriting analysis in the workplace is legal[53], and cite one or more of the following cases:

  • Gilbert v California :388 US 263-267 (1967)
  • US v Dionisio :410 US 1 (1973) 1973, Lawyers Edition, Second Series 35, 67; 93 SC 774
  • US v Mara aka Marasovich :410 US 19 (1973)
  • US v Rosinsky :547 F 2nd 249 ( CA 4th 1977 )
  • United States v Wade :388 US 218, 221-223 (1967)

All of these cases are about Fifth Amendment rights in a criminal investigation. These cases do not address issues relating to psychological analysis of an individual. Neither do they address third party issues.

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)

Many graphologists claim that handwriting analysis is non-discriminatory, since it cannot determine Gender, Age, Ethnicity, or other EEOC Protected Classes.[54] However, thus far, there have been no studies demonstrating that the use of handwriting analysis in employment does not have a disparate impact upon EEOC protected classes.

There have been a number of studies on gender[55][56][57][58] and handwriting. Uniformly the research indicates that gender can be determined at a significant level. The published studies on ethnicity[59][60][61], race[62][63][64], age[65][66][67], nationality[68], gender orientation, weight, and their relationship to handwriting have had mixed results, with a tendency to indicate that they can be determined from handwriting.

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990

One of the rules of thumb in human resources is that if an individual who has an ADA-defined disability cannot take a test, then nobody can. As a result, tests that cannot be adapted for use by those individuals will not be used by a company.

Handwriting clearly falls into the group of tests that cannot be adapted to be administered to individuals who fall within one or more ADA-defined disabilities. Blind people, for example, do not develop the required fluency in handwriting, for the writing to be correctly analyzed.

Questions that Handwriting Analysts ask before doing an analysis can be illegal under this act.[69]

Graphology in court testimony

Cameron v Knapp, 137 Misc. 2d 373, 520 N.Y.S.2d 917 (Sup. Ct. N.Y. Co. 1987) (handwriting expert may testify as to the authenticity of a writing but not as to an individual's physical or mental condition based on a handwriting sample) stands as current U.S. case law for the rejection of graphology as psychological testimony.

Carroll v State [276 Ark 160; 634 SW 2d 99, 101-102 (1982)] will be remembered for its implications on the propriety of allowing graphologists to testify. The opposing Handwriting Analysts displayed a distinct lack of professional courtesy to each other. In doing so, they undermined the scientific validity of both Integrative Graphology and Holistic Graphology.[70]

Daubert

Daubert defined several criteria that admissible expert testimony has to meet.

  • Be falsifiable, refutable, and testable;
  • Be valid and reliable;
  • Subject to published peer review;
  • Held to standards within the field;
  • Be generally accepted in the Scientific Community;

Depending upon the specific system of handwriting analysis that is used, it fails between two and five criteria.

Applications of graphology

Employment profiling

A company takes a writing sample provided by an applicant, and proceeds to do a personality profile, matching the congruency of the applicant with the ideal psychological profile of employees in the position.[71]

A graphological report is meant to be used in conjunction with other tools, such as comprehensive background checks, practical demonstration or record of work skills. Graphology supporters state that it can complement but not replace traditional hiring tools.

Research in employment suitability has ranged from complete failure [72] to guarded success.[73] The most substantial reason for not using handwriting analysis in the employment process is the absence of evidence of a direct link between handwriting analysis and various measures of job performance[74]

The use of graphology in the hiring process has been criticized on ethical grounds[75] and on legal grounds.[76]

Business compatibility

This is an additional service offered by some handwriting analysts. The focus of these reports can be one, or more of the following:

Company-wide
This is a report the describes how compatible the individual is, with each employee in the company.
The average company employee
For this report, the mean, mode, and median scores of every scored data point , for the entire company are used, to create three hypothetical employees. The individual is then compared to these three employees, with the focus being how good a fit the individual is.
Division wide
This is a report that describes how compatible the individual is, with each employee in the division.
The average division employee
For this report, the mean, mode, and median scores of every scored data point , for the entire division are used, to create three hypothetical employees. The individual is then compared to these three employees, with focus being how well the individual will fit into the existing company psychodynamic profile.
Unit wide
This is a report the describes how compatible the individual is, with each employee in the unit.
The average unit employee
For this report, the mean, mode, and median scores of every scored data point , for the entire unit are used, to create three hypothetical employees. Those are then compared to the applicant, with a focus on how good a fit the individual is.
The unit manager / Co-worker
This explores the differences in personal style between a manager/co-worker and potential employee. The end result is on how each can maximize productivity and minimize personal friction.
Composite reports
This explores the difference in personal style between every employee in a group. The idea is for each member of the group to learn not only their own strengths and weakness, but also those of their co-workers, and how they can more harmoniously work together. The resulting reports not only deal with the individual on a one-to-one level within the group, but also each individual as a part of a group of three, four, five, etc people within the group.

The content of these reports can range from a simple perspectrograph, to a four wheel Wittlich Diagram and accompanying twenty five thousand word analysis.

Psychological analysis

These reports can range from a ten item check off list to a 25 page report on the makeup of an individual from the perspective of Freudian Psychoanalysis, Transactional Analysis[77], or another personality theory.

A major value of a graphological analysis lies in the increased understanding of people and the ability consequently to enjoy improved relationships both personally and professionally.[78]

Marital compatibility

In its simplest form only sexual expression and sexual response are examined. At its most complex, every aspect of an individual is examined for how it affects the other individual(s). The basic theory is that after knowing and understanding how each other is different, any commitment that is made will be more enduring. Typically done for couples, it is not unknown for a polyamorous group to obtain a report prior to the commitment ceremony of a new individual.

In cultures where arranged marriages are common, graphology can be used as an additional checkpoint on the compatibility of the couple prior to the elders giving their consent for the marriage to take place.

Medical diagnosis

Medical graphology [79] is probably the most controversial aspect of handwriting analysis. Strictly speaking, such research is not graphology as described throughout this article but an examination of factors pertaining to motor control. Research studies have been conducted in which a detailed examination of handwriting factors, particularly timing, fluidity, pressure, and consistency of size, form, speed, and pressure are considered in the process of evaluating patients and their response to pharmacological therapeutic agents. [80]. These study of these data points is a byproduct of researchers investigating motor control processes and the interaction of nervous, anatomical, and biomechanical systems of the body.

Alfred Kanfer published several papers[81][82] whose implication was that cancer could be detected using detailed examination of handwriting under the microscope, prior to standard medical tests available at the time. Kanfer reported successful results but subsequent efforts to replicate the studies were unsuccessful.

The Vanguard Code of Ethical Practice, amongst others, prohibits medical diagnosis unless one is also licensed to do diagnosis in the state in which they practice.

Jury screening

A graphologist is given handwriting samples of a prospective jury and determines who should be struck, based upon their alleged personality profile. After the trial has begun, the graphologist advises counsel on how to slant their case, for the most favorable response from the jury.[83]

Graphotherapy

This is the practice of changing a person's handwriting with the goal of changing features of his or her personality. It was pioneered in France during the nineteen-thirties, spreading to the United states in the late fifties. [84][85]

The therapy consists of a series of exercises which are similar to those taught in basic calligraphy courses, sometimes in conjunction with music or positive self-talk. There have been anecdotal reports of these exercises curing everything from drug addiction[84] to anorexia nervosa,[86] and back to borderline personality disorder.[84]

Forensic document examination

This discipline is better known as questioned document examination within the judicial system. This is used to determine whether or not a document was written by the person who is thought to have written it. As such, this is not an aspect of graphology.

Goodtitle Drevett v Braham 100 Eng Rep 1139 (1792) is reportedly the first case at which the testimony of a questioned document examiner was accepted.

Divination

Some individuals believe that one can tell the future from handwriting analysis. Others believe that a handwriting analyst can provide spiritual guidance on situations that they face. These beliefs are claimed to be false for reasons ranging from the complete lack of either scientific or anecdotal evidence, to the application of Aristotelian logic to any of the numerous (and mutually incompatible) theories of handwriting analysis. Most graphologists reject supernatural insights from their assessment of handwriting.

The code of ethics for the International Graphoanalysis Society, British Association of Graphology, and Association Déontologique Européenne de Graphologie prohibits the practice of anything related to the occult.

References

  1. ^ Driver, Russel H. (April 1996). "Should We Write Off Graphology?". International Journal of Selection and Assessment. 4 (2): 78–86. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2389.1996.tb00062.x. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ Furnham, Adrian (1987). "Graphology and Personality: Another Failure to Validate Graphological Analysis". Personality And Individual Differences. 8: 433–435. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(87)90045-6. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  3. ^ Gardner, Ruth (2002), Instant Handwriting Analysis: A Key to Personal Success (1st ed.), Llewellyn Publications, ISBN 0875422519
  4. ^ Amend, Karen (1980), Handwriting Analysis (1st ed.), Newcastle Publishing Company, ISBN 087877050X {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  5. ^ Pulver, Max Albert Eugen (1931), Symbolik der Handschrift (1st Edition ed.), Zurich & Leipzig: Orell Füssli {{citation}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  6. ^ Pulver, Max Albert Eugen (1972), Symbolik der Handschrift. (New ed.), Munich: Kindler, ISBN 3463180871
  7. ^ Pulver, Max Albert Eugen (1944), Person, Charakter, Schicksal (1st ed.), Zurich: Orell Füssli
  8. ^ Pulver, Max Albert Eugen (1949), Der Intelligenzausdruck in der Handschrift (1st ed.), Zurich: Orell Füssli
  9. ^ Xandró, Maurico (1949), Psicologia y Grafologia, Havana: Ed de Conf y Ensayos
  10. ^ Xandró, Maurico (1954), Abecedario Grafológico, Onate: Aránzazu
  11. ^ Xandró, Maurico (1955), Grafología Tratado de Iniciación, Barcelona: Stadium
  12. ^ Roman, Klara G. (1952), Handwriting: A Key to Personality (1st ed.), New York: Pantheon Books
  13. ^ Cole, Charlie (1961 - 1968), Handwriting Analysis Workshop Unlimited: Professional Graphology Course, Campbell, CA: E C F Cole / HAWU {{citation}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  14. ^ Anthony, Daniel S. (1964, 1983), The Graphological Psychogram: Psychological meanings of its Sectors; Symbolic Interpretation of its Graphic Indicators (Revised ed.), Fort Lauderdale, FL; New York NY {{citation}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)
  15. ^ Sassi, Paula; Whiting, Eldene (1983), Personal Worth Intermediate Course in Handwriting Analysis (1st ed.), San Diego, CA: Handwriting Consultants of San Diego
  16. ^ King, Leslie W. (1978), Graphology Handbook for Tyros or Pros .. .. (1st ed.), Bountiful, UT: Handwriting Consultants of Utah
  17. ^ Wittlich, Bernhard (1956), Graphologische Charakterdiagramme (1st ed.), Munich: Johann Ambrosius Barth
  18. ^ Wittlich, Bernhard (1951), Angewandte Graphologi (2nd ed.), Berlin: Walter de Griyter & Co
  19. ^ Müller, Wilhelm H.; Enskat, Alice (1973), Graphologische Diagnostik (20th ed.), Bern, Stuttgart, Wien: Verlag Hans Huber, ISBN 3-456-30514-1
  20. ^ Müller, Wilhelm H. (1943), Mensch und Handschrift. Lehrbuch der Graphologischen Deutungstechnik zum Selbstunterricht (1st ed.), Bern: Munz
  21. ^ Moretti, Girolamo Maria (1942), Trattato Scientifico di Perizie Grafiche su base Grafologica, Verona: L'Alberto
  22. ^ Moretti, Girolamo Maria (1963), ISanti dalla scrittura: esami grafologici., Padova: Messaggero di S Antonio
  23. ^ IGAS Department of Instruction (1964), The Encyclopedic Dictionary for Graphoanalysts (1st ed.), Chicago, IL: International Graphoanalysis Society
  24. ^ IGAS Department of Instruction (1984), The Encyclopedic Dictionary for Graphoanalysts (3rd ed.), Chicago, IL: International Graphoanalysis Society
  25. ^ Aldorisio, Prospero (1611), Idengraphicus nuncius
  26. ^ Baldi, Camilo (1622), Trattado come de una lettera Missiva si conoscano la nature e qualita dello scriviente, Bologna
  27. ^ Michon, Jean-Hippolyte (1872), Le mystéres de l'écriture, Paris{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  28. ^ Michon, Jean-Hippolyte (1875), Systéme de graphologie, Paris{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  29. ^ Crépieux-Jamin, J, Traité pratique de grapholgie, étude du caractére de l'homme d'apres son écrture., Paris
  30. ^ Crépieux-Jamin, J, L'écriture et le caractére, Paris: 1888
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See also

Systems of handwriting analysis

Graphologists

Organizations of handwriting analysts

Related fields

External links

Formal organizations


Software

Other resources


Template:Link FA

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