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[[Image:TePakiOMatariki.jpg|thumb|Masthead from [[Te Paki o Matariki]], newspaper of the Kīngitanga (Māori King Movement), edition of 8 May 1893. This represents Matariki or the Pleiades as harbingers of good weather and fruitful endeavours.|179x179px]]From the 1870s the Government—keen to push a [[North Island Main Trunk|north-south railway link]] through the centre of the North Island and open up the King Country to more settlers—began making approaches to Tāwhiao to offer peace terms. Grey, by now Premier of New Zealand, visited the King in May 1878 to offer him "lands on the left bank of the [[Waipa River|Waipa]], 500 acres at Ngaruawahia, land in all the townships" as well as economic aid and rights over roads and land dealings. Tāwhiao refused the offer. Three years later, in July 1881, he summoned Resident Magistrate William Gilbert Mair to a meeting at Alexandra (today known as [[Pirongia]]) where he and 70 followers laid down their guns, then laid alongside them 70 roasted pigeons and a [[fantail]], explaining, "This means peace."<ref name="puea" />
[[Image:TePakiOMatariki.jpg|thumb|Masthead from [[Te Paki o Matariki]], newspaper of the Kīngitanga (Māori King Movement), edition of 8 May 1893. This represents Matariki or the Pleiades as harbingers of good weather and fruitful endeavours.|179x179px]]From the 1870s the Government—keen to push a [[North Island Main Trunk|north-south railway link]] through the centre of the North Island and open up the King Country to more settlers—began making approaches to Tāwhiao to offer peace terms. Grey, by now Premier of New Zealand, visited the King in May 1878 to offer him "lands on the left bank of the [[Waipa River|Waipa]], 500 acres at Ngaruawahia, land in all the townships" as well as economic aid and rights over roads and land dealings. Tāwhiao refused the offer. Three years later, in July 1881, he summoned Resident Magistrate William Gilbert Mair to a meeting at Alexandra (today known as [[Pirongia]]) where he and 70 followers laid down their guns, then laid alongside them 70 roasted pigeons and a [[fantail]], explaining, "This means peace."<ref name="puea" />


He travelled to London in 1884 with [[Western Maori]] MP [[Wiremu Te Wheoro]] to lead a deputation with a petition to the Crown about Māori land grievances but was refused an audience with the Queen. Back in New Zealand in 1886 and seeking Māori solutions to Māori problems through Māori institutions, he petitioned [[Minister of Māori Affairs|Native Minister]] [[John Ballance]] for the establishment of a Maori Council "for all the chiefs of this Island". When this proposal, too, was ignored, he set up his own [[Te Kauhanganui|Kauhanganui]], a Kingitanga parliament, at [[Maungakawa]] in 1892. Though all North Island iwi were invited to attend, participation was confined mainly to the Waikato, Maniopoto and Hauraki people who were already part of the King Movement. The assembly's discussions included proceedings in the national Parliament, interpretations of the Treaty of Waitangi, the confiscation issue and conditions for land sales, but its deliberations and recommendations were either ignored or derided by the Parliament and public servants.<ref name="puea" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Tensions ease – Maori King movement 1860–94|url=http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/politics/the-maori-king-movement-1860-94/tensions-ease|work=Normalising relations|publisher=New Zealand History online|accessdate=2 July 2012}}</ref> The establishment of Tāwhiao's Kauhanganui coincided with the formation of a Māori Parliament at Waipatu Marae in [[Heretaunga]]. This parliament, which consisted of 96 members from the North and South Islands under Prime Minister [[Hamiora Mangakahia]], was formed as part of the Kotahitanga (unification) Movement, which Tāwhiao refused to join.<ref>{{cite book | last =Walker | first =Ranginui | authorlink = Ranginui Walker | title = Kaw Whawhai Tonu Matou: Struggle Without End | publisher = Penguin | date = 1990 | location = Auckland | page =165-171 | isbn =0-14-013240-6}}</ref>
He travelled to London in 1884 with [[Western Maori]] MP [[Wiremu Te Wheoro]] to lead a deputation with a petition to the Crown about Māori land grievances but was refused an audience with the Queen. He had used his influence to with draw all the money for the trip from the newly set up Maori bank. When depositers found all the money gone they burnt down the bank.<ref> Te Peeke O Aotearoa.NZJH.</ref><ref> King Potatau. Pei Te Hurinui Jones. p 230-231.</Ref> Back in New Zealand in 1886 and seeking Māori solutions to Māori problems through Māori institutions, he petitioned [[Minister of Māori Affairs|Native Minister]] [[John Ballance]] for the establishment of a Maori Council "for all the chiefs of this Island". When this proposal, too, was ignored, he set up his own [[Te Kauhanganui|Kauhanganui]], a Kingitanga parliament, at [[Maungakawa]] in 1892. Though all North Island iwi were invited to attend, participation was confined mainly to the Waikato, Maniopoto and Hauraki people who were already part of the King Movement. The assembly's discussions included proceedings in the national Parliament, interpretations of the Treaty of Waitangi, the confiscation issue and conditions for land sales, but its deliberations and recommendations were either ignored or derided by the Parliament and public servants.<ref name="puea" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Tensions ease – Maori King movement 1860–94|url=http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/politics/the-maori-king-movement-1860-94/tensions-ease|work=Normalising relations|publisher=New Zealand History online|accessdate=2 July 2012}}</ref> The establishment of Tāwhiao's Kauhanganui coincided with the formation of a Māori Parliament at Waipatu Marae in [[Heretaunga]]. This parliament, which consisted of 96 members from the North and South Islands under Prime Minister [[Hamiora Mangakahia]], was formed as part of the Kotahitanga (unification) Movement, which Tāwhiao refused to join.<ref>{{cite book | last =Walker | first =Ranginui | authorlink = Ranginui Walker | title = Kaw Whawhai Tonu Matou: Struggle Without End | publisher = Penguin | date = 1990 | location = Auckland | page =165-171 | isbn =0-14-013240-6}}</ref>


Tāwhiao also instituted a system of annual poukais—visits by the King to Kingitanga marae, which he devised as a means of drawing people back to their marae on a fixed day each year. The poukais later evolved into regular consultation meetings between Kingitanga leadership and its followers where funds were also raised to cover the movement's expenses and the upkeep of local marae.<ref name="puea" />
Tāwhiao also instituted a system of annual poukais—visits by the King to Kingitanga marae, which he devised as a means of drawing people back to their marae on a fixed day each year. The poukais later evolved into regular consultation meetings between Kingitanga leadership and its followers where funds were also raised to cover the movement's expenses and the upkeep of local marae.<ref name="puea" />

Revision as of 03:36, 13 October 2013

Te Arikinui of The Kīngitanga
Standard of the Kīngitanga
Incumbent
Tuheitia Paki
Details
StyleHis Majesty
Heir apparentNone, elective.
First monarchPōtatau Te Wherowhero
Formation1858

The Māori King Movement or Kīngitanga is a movement that arose among some of the Māori tribes of New Zealand in the central North Island in the 1850s, to establish a role similar in status to that of the monarch of the British colonists, as a way of halting the alienation of Māori land.[1] Today, the Māori monarch is a non-constitutional role with no legal power from the perspective of the New Zealand government. Reigning monarchs retain the position of paramount chief of several important tribes and wield some power over these, especially within Tainui.[2][3]

The current Māori monarch, Tuheitia Paki, was elected in 2006[4] and his official residence is Tūrongo House at Tūrangawaewae marae in the town of Ngaruawahia. Tuheitia is the seventh monarch since the position was created and is the continuation of a dynasty that reaches back to the inaugural king, Pōtatau Te Wherowhero.

The use of the title of "Maori King" has been challenged by a leader of the Ngāpuhi iwi of Northland, who says the monarch is not the king of all Māori.[5]

The movement arose among a group of central North Island iwi in the 1850s as a means of attaining Māori unity to halt the alienation of land at a time of rapid population growth by European colonists.[1] The movement sought to establish a monarch who could claim status similar to that of Queen Victoria and thus allow Māori to deal with Pākehā (Europeans) on equal footing. It took on the appearance of an alternative government with its own flag, newspaper, councillors, magistrates and law enforcement. But it was viewed by the colonial government as a challenge to the supremacy of the British monarchy, leading in turn to the 1863 invasion of Waikato, which was partly motivated by a drive to neutralise the Kingitanga's power and influence. Following their defeat at Orakau in 1864, Kingite forces withdrew into dense forest in an area of the North Island that became known as the King Country.[6][7]

History

Background

The flag hoisted at Ngāruawāhia on the proclamation of Pōtatau Te Wherowhero as Māori King, drawn in 1863
An early Maori King Movement flag used during the reign of Potatau Te Wherowhero.

From the early 1850s, North Island Māori came under increasing pressure to satisfy the demand of European settler farmers for arable land. While Māori cultivated small areas, relying on extensive forests for berry, birds and roots, settlers expanded their production capacity by burning forest and fern and planting grass seed in the ashes. Some influential chiefs including Te Rauparaha opposed land sales in the 1840s (culminating in the 1843 Wairau Affray), and the view became more widespread in the following decade, as Pakeha finally outnumbered Māori and the colonial government's Native Land Purchase Department adopted unscrupulous methods to take ownership, which included offers to chiefs or small groups of owners. Deals with individual Māori or groups that did not represent majority interests also dragged Māori into disputes with one another. As the white frontier encroached further on their land, many became concerned that their land, and race, would soon be overrun.[8][9]

From about 1853 Māori began reviving the ancient tribal runanga or chiefly war councils where land issues were raised and in May 1854 a large meeting—attracting as many as 2000 Māori leaders—was held at Manawapou in south Taranaki where speakers urged concerted opposition to selling land.[10] The meetings provided an important forum for Te Rauparaha's son, Christian convert Tamihana Te Rauparaha, who in 1851 had visited England where he was presented to Queen Victoria. Tamihana Te Rauparaha had returned to New Zealand with the idea of forming a Māori kingdom, with one king ruling over all tribes, and used the runanga to secure the agreement of influential North Island chiefs to his idea.[8] The kotahitanga or unity movement was aimed at bringing to Māori the unity that was an obvious strength among the Europeans.[10][8] It was believed that by having a monarch who could claim status similar to that of Queen Victoria, Māori would be able to deal with Pākehā (Europeans) on equal footing. It was also intended to establish a system of law and order in Māori communities to which the Auckland government had so far shown little interest.[11]

Pōtatau Te Wherowhero

The first Māori King, Pōtatau Te Wherowhero

Several North Island candidates who were asked to put themselves forward declined;[12] in February 1857, a few weeks after a key inter-tribal meeting in Taupo, Wiremu Tamihana, a chief of the Ngāti Hauā iwi in eastern Waikato, circulated a proposal to appoint as king the elderly and high-ranking Waikato chief Te Wherowhero and a major meeting was organised for Rangiriri in April to deal with it.[13] Te Wherowhero, then aged in his mid-80s, was a descendant of Hoturoa, captain of the Tainui canoe; he had connections with other iwi and came from a line of successful fighting chiefs. He had been an outstanding combatant himself in the days of tribal warfare, had become a friend of Governor Grey and regarded himself as a friend of the Pākehā. He was also well resourced: he was able to call on the assistance of 5000 immediate followers and his Waikato territory had a wealth of food in its rivers and lakes and vast areas of potato and wheat cultivations.[14]

After initially declining—he was unwilling to undertake new ventures at his age and was described by a European visitor as blind and decrepit, "on the very brink of his grave"[15]—Te Wherowhero agreed in September 1857 to accept the kingship and in June 1858 he was crowned at Ngaruawahia, adopting the name Pōtatau Te Wherowhero or simply Pōtatau.[16][17]

In his acceptance speech Pōtatau stressed the spirit of unity symbolised by the kingship and called on his people to "hold fast to love, to the law, and to faith in God."[16] He was given a flag, a council of state, a code of laws, a "King's Resident Magistrate", police, a surveyor and a newspaper, Te Hokioi, all of which gave the movement the appearance of an alternative government. The lives of his followers were given new purpose with the lawmaking, trials, and lengthy meetings and debates.[8][18] Historian Michael King noted: "In the eyes of his supporters, the chiefs who had raised him up had made him a repository for their own mana and tapu and for that of their lands. Pōtatau was now a man of intensified prestige and sacredness. This belief was to impel people to go to heroic lengths to uphold the kingship and, subsequently, to fight for it."[14]

Pōtatau proclaimed the boundary separating his authority from that of the Governor, saying: "Let Maungatautari be our boundary. Do not encroach on this side. Likewise I am not to set foot on that side." The King envisaged a conjoint administration in which he ruled in territory still under Māori customary title while the Governor ruled in areas acquired by the Crown.[19]

Governor Thomas Gore Browne had been watching developments with concern. In June 1857 he wrote to London that "I apprehend no sort of danger from the present movement, but it is evident that the establishment of a separate nationality by th Maoris in any form or shape if persevered in would end sooner or later in collision." Though there were still no signs the movement was developing an aggressive spirit, Browne soon began expressing his fear that "it will resolve into a conflict of race and become the greatest political difficulty we have had to contend with".[17]

Map of Māori iwi; Ngati Mahuta iwi—with whom Potatau had ties— highlighted. The Maori King Movement's territory roughly corresponded to the region marked "Tainui" on the map.

Recognition of the new King, however, was not immediate: though there was widespread respect for the movement's efforts in establishing a "land league" to slow land sales, Pōtatau's role was strongly embraced only by Waikato Māori, with iwi of North Auckland and south of Waikato showing him scant recognition.[17] Some opponents dismissed the Kingitanga as a solely Waikato movement.[18] Throughout 1859 emissaries of the King Movement travelled through the North Island, including Taranaki, Wanganui and Hawkes Bay, seeking further adherents, with iwi sometimes divided in their support. Even within the movement there was deep division, as moderates aligned themselves with Wiremu Tamihana and anti-European extremists followed Ngāti Maniapoto chief and warlord Rewi Maniapoto, while tribal rivalries continued to weaken unity.[8] Historian B.J. Dalton observed: "Outside the Waikato, the King Movement appealed most to the younger generation who could see no other way of gaining the mana their fathers had won in battle."[20]

On 10 April 1860, three weeks after the start of the Taranaki wars, deputations from west coast tribes Te Āti Awa and Ngā Ruanui attended a gathering of Waikato Māori at Ngaruawahia and tendered their formal allegiance to the king. Discussions at that meeting, and at a second meeting at Peria six weeks later that attracted a large group of supporters from the lower Waikato, centered on hostilities in Taranaki and the question of whether the King Movement should intervene. A faction of moderates within the movement swung the decision against direct involvement, but news of the meetings led to panic in Auckland over the possibility of a Māori attack on the capital, in turn prompting what Dalton described as "a mood of savage vindictiveness towards all Māori".[21] In late June 1860 large numbers of Waikato Māori travelled to Taranaki to reinforce Te Āti Awa chief Wiremu Kingi's forces and joined in the plunder of abandoned farms, but the intervention was unorganised and on a limited scale, relieving Taranaki settlers of some fear of full-scale Kingite involvement.[21]

Pōtatau died of influenza on June 25, 1860 and was succeeded by his son, Matutaera Tāwhiao.

Matutaera Tāwhiao

Tāwhiao, the second Māori King (1860–1894)

Tāwhiao's succession to the position of King coincided with a period of increasing friction between Māori and the Auckland-based settler government over issues of land ownership and sovereignty. Hostilities surrounding land purchases in Taranaki spread, erupting into a series of conflicts that became known as the New Zealand Wars.

Tamihana, a strategist revered as the "kingmaker", expressed the Kingitangi movement's key concern in a letter to Browne at the close of the First Taranaki War in 1861. He said Waikato tribes had never signed the Treaty of Waitangi and that Māori were a separate nation. "I do not desire to cast the Queen from this island, but from own piece (of land). I am to be the person to overlook my own piece," he wrote. But Browne regarded the Kingite stance as an act of disloyalty; his plans for the invasion of Waikato were fuelled in large part by his desire to uphold "the Queen's supremacy" in the face of the Kingitanga challenge.[22][23] Browne's successor, Sir George Grey told a large Māori gathering at Taupari near the mouth of the Waikato River in December 1861 that the King movement was bad and should be abandoned.[24] On 9 July 1863 Grey issued an ultimatum that all Māori living between Auckland and the Waikato take an oath of allegiance to Queen Victoria or be expelled south of the Waikato River.[25] Troops crossed into Waikato territory three days later to begin their invasion.

Kingite forces were forced to fight a defensive war based on frustrating and slowing down their enemy but were unable to prevail over a full-time professional army with almost unlimited manpower and firepower.[26]

Tāwhiao and his close followers fled into the bush and steep limestone valleys of Maniapoto territory, which was subsequently known as the King Country, declaring that Europeans risked death if they crossed the aukati or boundary of the confiscated land. Governor Grey, meanwhile, began steering through Parliament legislation for the widespread seizure of the land of "rebel" Māori. The confiscation of 486,500 hectares of prime agricultural land as well as burial sites and areas that had been inhabited for centuries was a bitter blow for Waikato Māori. Tāwhiao remained in exile for 20 years, wandering through Maniapoto and Taranaki settlements, adopting an Old Testament view of himself as an anointed leader of a chosen people wandering in the wilderness awaiting a deliverance into their inheritance.[14]

Masthead from Te Paki o Matariki, newspaper of the Kīngitanga (Māori King Movement), edition of 8 May 1893. This represents Matariki or the Pleiades as harbingers of good weather and fruitful endeavours.

From the 1870s the Government—keen to push a north-south railway link through the centre of the North Island and open up the King Country to more settlers—began making approaches to Tāwhiao to offer peace terms. Grey, by now Premier of New Zealand, visited the King in May 1878 to offer him "lands on the left bank of the Waipa, 500 acres at Ngaruawahia, land in all the townships" as well as economic aid and rights over roads and land dealings. Tāwhiao refused the offer. Three years later, in July 1881, he summoned Resident Magistrate William Gilbert Mair to a meeting at Alexandra (today known as Pirongia) where he and 70 followers laid down their guns, then laid alongside them 70 roasted pigeons and a fantail, explaining, "This means peace."[14]

He travelled to London in 1884 with Western Maori MP Wiremu Te Wheoro to lead a deputation with a petition to the Crown about Māori land grievances but was refused an audience with the Queen. He had used his influence to with draw all the money for the trip from the newly set up Maori bank. When depositers found all the money gone they burnt down the bank.[27][28] Back in New Zealand in 1886 and seeking Māori solutions to Māori problems through Māori institutions, he petitioned Native Minister John Ballance for the establishment of a Maori Council "for all the chiefs of this Island". When this proposal, too, was ignored, he set up his own Kauhanganui, a Kingitanga parliament, at Maungakawa in 1892. Though all North Island iwi were invited to attend, participation was confined mainly to the Waikato, Maniopoto and Hauraki people who were already part of the King Movement. The assembly's discussions included proceedings in the national Parliament, interpretations of the Treaty of Waitangi, the confiscation issue and conditions for land sales, but its deliberations and recommendations were either ignored or derided by the Parliament and public servants.[14][29] The establishment of Tāwhiao's Kauhanganui coincided with the formation of a Māori Parliament at Waipatu Marae in Heretaunga. This parliament, which consisted of 96 members from the North and South Islands under Prime Minister Hamiora Mangakahia, was formed as part of the Kotahitanga (unification) Movement, which Tāwhiao refused to join.[30]

Tāwhiao also instituted a system of annual poukais—visits by the King to Kingitanga marae, which he devised as a means of drawing people back to their marae on a fixed day each year. The poukais later evolved into regular consultation meetings between Kingitanga leadership and its followers where funds were also raised to cover the movement's expenses and the upkeep of local marae.[14]

Tāwhiao died suddenly on 26 August 1894 and was succeeded by his oldest son, Mahuta Tāwhiao.

20th century – present

Te Atairangikaahu

Main article: Te Atairangikaahu

Dame Te Atairangikaahu, a child born within the marriage of Maori King Korokī Mahuta, was elected as the first Maori Queen on 23 May 1966 and served until her death on 15 August 2006. Her 40-year reign was the longest of any Maori monarch.

Present day

Following the death of his celebrated mother, Dame Te Atairangikaahu, Tuheitia Paki was sworn in as the Maori King on 21 August 2006.

Today, the Maori monarch is a ceremonial position, one that is de facto subject to the New Zealand government. Although the monarchs of the Kingitanga are not recognised by the New Zealand law or many Maori tribes, they do hold the distinction of being paramount chiefs of a number of important Maori tribes and wield some power on a local level, especially within the Tainui iwi.[2]

Succession

The position of Māori monarch is not hereditary in principle. The monarch is appointed by the leaders of the tribes involved in the Kīngitanga movement on the day of the previous monarch's funeral and before the burial.[31] To date, however, every new Māori monarch has been the previous monarch's heir by cognatic primogeniture, descending in seven generations from Pōtatau Te Wherowhero to the present Māori king. With each successive monarch, the role of Pōtatau's family has been entrenched, although after any reign ends there is the potential for the mantle to be passed to someone from another family or tribe if the chiefs of the various tribes are in agreement. Thus far, though, the monarchy has been hereditary in effect.

A European analogue is the position of Holy Roman Emperor, which was technically elective but which passed along the line of the House of Habsburg for more than three and a half centuries, though with a single exception.

Powers

The Kingitanga has been a parliamentary elected monarchy since 1890. Power is divided between the Kauhanganui, the Kingitanga and Waikato Tainui parliament, and the standing Maori monarch. The position of the Maori king is mainly a highly respected ceremonial role within the Waikato Tainui tribe with limited powers. Nevertheless, the standing monarch can influence tribal policy based on their mana and is entitled to appoint one of the 11 members on the Te Arataura, the executive board of the Kauhanganui.[32]

List of Māori monarchs

See also

References

  1. ^ a b "Mana Whenua". Bateman New Zealand Historical Atlas. 1997. p. plate 36. ISBN 1-86953-335-6.
  2. ^ a b Foster, Bernard. "TE KĪNGITANGA". TE KĪNGITANGA. Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington. Retrieved 2 July 2012.
  3. ^ "NZ History – The Māori King Movement". Ministry of Culture and Heritage. 3 July 2008.
  4. ^ "Tuheitia new Maori king". New Zealand Herald. 21 August 2006.
  5. ^ "PM not bowing to pressue over Maori King". TVNZ/Fairfax. Auckland. 2 June 2011. Retrieved 2 October 2013.
  6. ^ Walker, Ranginui (1990). Kaw Whawhai Tonu Matou: Struggle Without End. Auckland: Penguin. p. 126. ISBN 0-14-013240-6.
  7. ^ Dalton, B.J. (1967). War and Politics in New Zealand 1855–1870. Sydney: Sydney University Press. p. 260.
  8. ^ a b c d e Sinclair, Keith (2000). A History of New Zealand (2000 ed.). Auckland: Penguin. pp. 115–119. ISBN 0-14-029875-4. Cite error: The named reference "sinclair" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  9. ^ "The land issue - Maori king movement". New Zealand History Online. History Group of the New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage. 20 December 2012. Retrieved 25 September 2013.
  10. ^ a b Dalton, B.J. (1967). War and Politics in New Zealand 1855-1870. Sydney: Sydney University Press. pp. 62–63.
  11. ^ Walker, Ranginui (1990). Kaw Whawhai Tonu Matou: Struggle Without End. Auckland: Penguin. p. 112. ISBN 0-14-013240-6.
  12. ^ "In search of a king - Maori king movement". New Zealand History Online. History Group of the New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage. 20 December 2012. Retrieved 25 September 2013.
  13. ^ Michael King's account in Te Puea (1977, pg 24) contains a slightly different chronology: He says the meeting at Pukawa beside Lake Taupo took place in November 1856 and it was there that chiefs agreed on Te Wherowhero. King says chiefs who were party to the Pukawa decision represented Ngāpuhi, Te Arawa, Ngāti Porou, Ngāti Kahungunu, Taranaki, Whanganui and Ngāi Tahu as well as the "first circle" of supporters, Waikato, Maniapoto and Hauraki.
  14. ^ a b c d e f King, Michael (1977). Te Puea: A Biography. Auckland: Hodder and Stoughton. pp. 23–34. ISBN 0-340-22482-7.
  15. ^ Michael King, Te Puea: A Biography, pg 23 cites German geologist Ferdinand von Hochstetter in Neuseeland, Stuttgart 1867, pg 456.
  16. ^ a b "Potatau agrees to be king". New Zealand History Online. History Group of the New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage. 20 December 2012. Retrieved 25 September 2013.
  17. ^ a b c Dalton, B.J. (1967). War and Politics in New Zealand 1855-1870. Sydney: Sydney University Press. pp. 68–72, 83.
  18. ^ a b "A challenge to European authority?". New Zealand History Online. History Group of the New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage. 20 December 2012. Retrieved 25 September 2013.
  19. ^ Walker, Ranginui (1990). Kaw Whawhai Tonu Matou: Struggle Without End. Auckland: Penguin. p. 112-113. ISBN 0-14-013240-6.
  20. ^ Dalton, B.J. (1967). War and Politics in New Zealand 1855-1870. Sydney: Sydney University Press. p. 83.
  21. ^ a b Dalton, B.J. (1967). War and Politics in New Zealand 1855-1870. Sydney: Sydney University Press. pp. 110–112.
  22. ^ Dalton, B.J. (1967). War and Politics in New Zealand 1855-1870. Sydney: Sydney University Press. pp. 128, 131.
  23. ^ Michael King (2003). The Penguin History of New Zealand. Penguin Books. p. 214. ISBN 0-14-301867-1.
  24. ^ Dalton, B.J. (1967). War and Politics in New Zealand 1855-1870. Sydney: Sydney University Press. p. 148.
  25. ^ Belich, James (1986). The New Zealand Wars. Auckland: Penguin. pp. 119–125. ISBN 0-14-027504-5.
  26. ^ "Maori King movement 1860-94: The Kingitanga's response to the New Zealand Wars". New Zealand History Online. New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage. 20 december 2012. Retrieved 2 October 2013. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  27. ^ Te Peeke O Aotearoa.NZJH.
  28. ^ King Potatau. Pei Te Hurinui Jones. p 230-231.
  29. ^ "Tensions ease – Maori King movement 1860–94". Normalising relations. New Zealand History online. Retrieved 2 July 2012.
  30. ^ Walker, Ranginui (1990). Kaw Whawhai Tonu Matou: Struggle Without End. Auckland: Penguin. p. 165-171. ISBN 0-14-013240-6.
  31. ^ "Leaders to debate succession and Kīngitanga's future". NZ Herald. 16 August 2006. Retrieved 16 August 2006.
  32. ^ "Executive body of Te Kauhanganui". Te Arataura. Waikato Tainui. Retrieved 6 July 2012.

External links

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