Banksia coccinea: Difference between revisions
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The scarlet banksia grows as an erect [[shrub]] or small [[tree]], generally around 2–4 m (7–15 ft) tall, with little lateral spread.<ref name=atlas>{{cite book | last1 = Taylor | first1 = Anne | last2 = Hopper | first2 = Stephen | authorlink2 = Stephen Hopper | year=1988 | title = [[The Banksia Atlas]] |volume = (Australian Flora and Fauna Series Number 8) | pages= 78–79| location = Canberra, Australian Capital Territory | publisher = Australian Government Publishing Service | isbn = 0-644-07124-9}}</ref> However, it can reach {{convert|8|m|ft|0}} in height, particularly in the vicinity of Albany. The trunk is generally single at the base before branching, and covered with smooth grey bark that is 2–5 mm (0.1–0.2 in) thick and lacking in [[lenticel]]s.<ref name="George 1981">{{cite journal | last = George | first=Alex S. | authorlink=Alex George | year = 1981 | title = [[The genus Banksia L.f. (Proteaceae)|The Genus ''Banksia'' L.f. (Proteaceae)]] | journal = [[Nuytsia (journal)|Nuytsia]] | volume = 3 | issue = 3 | pages = 239–473 [389–91]| issn = 0085-4417}}</ref> Peaking in the summer months,<ref name=atlas/> the pinkish-brown new growth is densely hairy. Sitting atop 3–5 mm (0.1–0.2 in) long [[petiole (botany)|petiole]]s, the oblong, cordate or obcordate leaves are {{convert|3|–|9|cm|in|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|2|–|7|cm|in|1|abbr=on}} wide. Truncate at the apex, they have dentate margins with small (1–3 mm long) teeth 3–18 mm (0.1–0.6 in) apart, separated by shallow u- or v-shaped sinuses. The upper surface is covered in fine fur when young and becomes smooth with age, while the undersurface is covered with white fur, particularly along the midrib.<ref name="George 1981"/> |
The scarlet banksia grows as an erect [[shrub]] or small [[tree]], generally around 2–4 m (7–15 ft) tall, with little lateral spread.<ref name=atlas>{{cite book | last1 = Taylor | first1 = Anne | last2 = Hopper | first2 = Stephen | authorlink2 = Stephen Hopper | year=1988 | title = [[The Banksia Atlas]] |volume = (Australian Flora and Fauna Series Number 8) | pages= 78–79| location = Canberra, Australian Capital Territory | publisher = Australian Government Publishing Service | isbn = 0-644-07124-9}}</ref> However, it can reach {{convert|8|m|ft|0}} in height, particularly in the vicinity of Albany. The trunk is generally single at the base before branching, and covered with smooth grey bark that is 2–5 mm (0.1–0.2 in) thick and lacking in [[lenticel]]s.<ref name="George 1981">{{cite journal | last = George | first=Alex S. | authorlink=Alex George | year = 1981 | title = [[The genus Banksia L.f. (Proteaceae)|The Genus ''Banksia'' L.f. (Proteaceae)]] | journal = [[Nuytsia (journal)|Nuytsia]] | volume = 3 | issue = 3 | pages = 239–473 [389–91]| issn = 0085-4417}}</ref> Peaking in the summer months,<ref name=atlas/> the pinkish-brown new growth is densely hairy. Sitting atop 3–5 mm (0.1–0.2 in) long [[petiole (botany)|petiole]]s, the oblong, cordate or obcordate leaves are {{convert|3|–|9|cm|in|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|2|–|7|cm|in|1|abbr=on}} wide. Truncate at the apex, they have dentate margins with small (1–3 mm long) teeth 3–18 mm (0.1–0.6 in) apart, separated by shallow u- or v-shaped sinuses. The upper surface is covered in fine fur when young and becomes smooth with age, while the undersurface is covered with white fur, particularly along the midrib.<ref name="George 1981"/> |
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The process of flowering takes 9–12 months; the stems begin developing microscopically in spring, with no visible evidence of flower spike development for around five months before the buds actually appear.<ref name="fuss90">{{cite journal|last1=Fuss|first1=A.M.|last2=Sedgley|first2=M.|date=1990| title=Floral Initiation and Development in Relation to the Time of Flowering in Banksia coccinea R.Br and B. menziesii R.Br (Proteaceae)|journal=Australian Journal of Botany|volume=38|issue=5|pages=487-500|doi=10.1071/BT9900487}}</ref> Flower spikes are in bloom from May to December or January, peaking between July and October.<ref name=atlas/> The distinctive inflorescences are terminal, arising from the ends of one-year old branchlets.<ref name="George 1981"/> Squat and roughly cylindrical, they are {{convert|3|–|6|cm|in|abbr=on}} high and 8–10 cm (3.1–4 in) wide.<ref name=Collins>{{cite book | last1 = Collins | first1 = Kevin | last2 = Collins | first2 = Kathy | last3 = George | first3 = Alex S. | pages = 177–78 |title = Banksias | publisher = Bloomings Books | location = Melbourne, Victoria | year = 2008 | isbn = 1-876473-68-1}}</ref> A field study on the southern [[sandplain]]s revealed an average count of around 286 individual flowers on each spike.<ref name="witkowski91">{{cite journal|last1 = Witkowski | first1 = E.T.F. | last2 = Lamont | first2 = Byron B. | authorlink2 = Byron Lamont | last3 = Connell | first3 = S.J.|year=1991|title=Seed Bank Dynamics of Three Co-occurring Banksias in South Coastal Western Australia: The Role of Plant Age, Cockatoos, Senescence and Interfire Establishment|journal=Australian Journal of Botany|volume=39|issue=4|pages=385–97|doi=10.1071/BT9910385}}</ref> The white flower is covered in grey or pale brown fur, and there is little variation in colour. The [[Gynoecium#pistils|style]] is generally scarlet, but can be dark red, orange or pink.<ref name="fuss90"/> The [[perianth]] is {{convert|3|–|3.2|cm|in|abbr=on|sigfig=2}} long, while the style is {{convert|4|–|4.8|cm|in|abbr=on|sigfig=2}} long and strongly [[wikt:recurved|recurved]] or looped until they are released at [[anthesis]].<ref name="George 1981"/> Anthesis is acropetal, that is, the flowers open from the base up the spike to the apex.<ref name="fuss90"/> |
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The flowers of all banksias arise in a spiral pattern around the flower spike axis; however in ''Banksia coccinea'' they develop into distinctive vertical columns, which are strongly accentuated by large gaps in between.<ref name="George 1981"/> Paired in columns, the red styles contrast with the grey-white perianth making a striking flower spike.<ref name="Holliday 2008">{{cite book | author = Holliday, Ivan; Watton, Geoffrey | origyear = 1975 |year=2008 | title = Banksias: A Field and Garden Guide | publisher = Australian Plants Society (SA)| location = Adelaide, South Australia | isbn = 978-0-9803013-1-1 | page = 42}}</ref> |
The flowers of all banksias arise in a spiral pattern around the flower spike axis; however in ''Banksia coccinea'' they develop into distinctive vertical columns, which are strongly accentuated by large gaps in between.<ref name="George 1981"/> Paired in columns, the red styles contrast with the grey-white perianth making a striking flower spike.<ref name="Holliday 2008">{{cite book | author = Holliday, Ivan; Watton, Geoffrey | origyear = 1975 |year=2008 | title = Banksias: A Field and Garden Guide | publisher = Australian Plants Society (SA)| location = Adelaide, South Australia | isbn = 978-0-9803013-1-1 | page = 42}}</ref> |
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Revision as of 08:04, 21 April 2014
Scarlet banksia | |
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Flower spike of B. coccinea Little Grove, Albany | |
Scientific classification | |
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Species: | B. coccinea
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Binomial name | |
Banksia coccinea | |
Synonyms | |
Sirmuellera coccinea (R.Br.) Kuntze |
Banksia coccinea, commonly known as the scarlet banksia, waratah banksia or Albany banksia, is an erect shrub or small tree in the family Proteaceae. Endemic to south west Western Australia, it occurs from Denmark to the Stokes National Park, and north to the Stirling Range, growing on white or grey sand in shrubland, heath or open woodland. Reaching up to 8 m (26 ft) in height, it is a single-stemmed plant that has oblong leaves, which are 3–9 cm (1.2–3.5 in) long and 2–7 cm (0.8–2.8 in) wide. The prominent red and white flower spikes known as inflorescences appear mainly in the spring. As they age they develop small follicles that store seeds until opened by fire. Though widely occurring, it is highly sensitive to dieback and large populations of plants have succumbed to the disease.
Collected and described by Robert Brown in the early 19th century, Banksia coccinea appears to be most closely related to Banksia speciosa and B. baxteri. Banksia coccinea plants are killed by bushfire, and regenerate from seed. The flowers attract nectar- and insect-feeding birds, particularly honeyeaters, and a variety of insects. Widely considered one of the most attractive Banksia species, B. coccinea is a popular garden plant and one of the most important Banksia species for the cut flower industry; it is grown commercially in several countries including South Africa, Canada, the United States, New Zealand and Israel. In cultivation, B. coccinea grows well in a sunny location on well-drained soil, but it cannot survive in areas with humid or wet summers.
Description
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The scarlet banksia grows as an erect shrub or small tree, generally around 2–4 m (7–15 ft) tall, with little lateral spread.[2] However, it can reach 8 metres (26 ft) in height, particularly in the vicinity of Albany. The trunk is generally single at the base before branching, and covered with smooth grey bark that is 2–5 mm (0.1–0.2 in) thick and lacking in lenticels.[3] Peaking in the summer months,[2] the pinkish-brown new growth is densely hairy. Sitting atop 3–5 mm (0.1–0.2 in) long petioles, the oblong, cordate or obcordate leaves are 3–9 cm (1.2–3.5 in) long and 2–7 cm (0.8–2.8 in) wide. Truncate at the apex, they have dentate margins with small (1–3 mm long) teeth 3–18 mm (0.1–0.6 in) apart, separated by shallow u- or v-shaped sinuses. The upper surface is covered in fine fur when young and becomes smooth with age, while the undersurface is covered with white fur, particularly along the midrib.[3]
The process of flowering takes 9–12 months; the stems begin developing microscopically in spring, with no visible evidence of flower spike development for around five months before the buds actually appear.[4] Flower spikes are in bloom from May to December or January, peaking between July and October.[2] The distinctive inflorescences are terminal, arising from the ends of one-year old branchlets.[3] Squat and roughly cylindrical, they are 3–6 cm (1.2–2.4 in) high and 8–10 cm (3.1–4 in) wide.[5] A field study on the southern sandplains revealed an average count of around 286 individual flowers on each spike.[6] The white flower is covered in grey or pale brown fur, and there is little variation in colour. The style is generally scarlet, but can be dark red, orange or pink.[4] The perianth is 3–3.2 cm (1.2–1.3 in) long, while the style is 4–4.8 cm (1.6–1.9 in) long and strongly recurved or looped until they are released at anthesis.[3] Anthesis is acropetal, that is, the flowers open from the base up the spike to the apex.[4] The flowers of all banksias arise in a spiral pattern around the flower spike axis; however in Banksia coccinea they develop into distinctive vertical columns, which are strongly accentuated by large gaps in between.[3] Paired in columns, the red styles contrast with the grey-white perianth making a striking flower spike.[7]
The infructescence is small, with up to 20 small follicles concentrated at the lower end of the spike.[5] Each follicle is 6–8 mm (0.2–0.3 in) long, 1–2 mm (0.04–0.08 in) high, and 2–3 mm (c. 0.1 in) wide and usually opens with fire. The 1.1–1.4 cm (0.43–0.55 in) long seed is composed of the cuneate (wedge-shaped) seed body proper, measuring 0.5–0.7 cm (0.2–0.3 in) long and 0.4–0.7 cm (0.2–0.3 in) wide, and a papery wing. One side, termed the outer surface, is grey-black and wrinkled and the other—the inner surface—protrudes and is black and glistening. The seeds are separated by a dark brown seed separator that is roughly the same shape as the seeds with a depression where the seed body sits adjacent to it in the follicle. It measures 1.1–1.4 cm (0.4–0.6 in) long and 0.7–0.8 cm (0.3–0.3 in) wide. The dull green cotyledons of seedlings are 0.8–0.9 cm (0.3–0.4 in) long and 0.5–0.6 cm (0.2–0.2 in) wide, described by Alex George as "cuneate to obovate". Each cotyledon has a 1 mm (0.04 in) auricle at its base. The thick, smooth hypocotyl is 1 cm (0.4 in) high and 1.5 mm thick. The seedling leaves are crowded above the cotyledons and linear to spathulate in shape, with recurved and deeply serrated margins with v-shaped sinuses, almost dividing the leaves into triangular lobes. The first pair are 0.8–1.2 cm (0.3–0.5 in) long, with the next 2–4 leaves up to 1.7 cm (0.7 in) long. Successive leaves are more obovate in shape and up to 4 cm (2 in) long and 1.4 cm (0.6 in) wide. The seedling stems are covered in white hair.[3]
Taxonomy
Discovery and naming
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Banksia_coccinea_%28Illustrationes_Florae_Novae_Hollandiae_plate_3%29.jpg/220px-Banksia_coccinea_%28Illustrationes_Florae_Novae_Hollandiae_plate_3%29.jpg)
The first known specimens of Banksia coccinea were collected in December 1801, during the visit to King George Sound of HMS Investigator under the command of Matthew Flinders. On board were botanist Robert Brown, botanical artist Ferdinand Bauer, and gardener Peter Good. All three men gathered plant specimens, but those collected by Bauer and Good were incorporated into Brown's herbarium without attribution, so it is not possible to identify the actual collector of this species.[8][9] The surviving specimen of B. coccinea, held by the Natural History Museum in London, is annotated in Brown's hand "King George IIIds Sound Princess Royal Harbour especially near the observatory".[10] The observatory was apparently located in what is now the central business district of Albany.[11] No further information on the collection is available, as the species is mentioned in neither Brown's nor Good's diary.[12][13]
Good also made a separate seed collection, which included B. coccinea,[14] and the species was drawn by Bauer. Like nearly all of Bauer's field drawings of Proteaceae, the original field sketch of B. coccinea was destroyed in a Hofburg fire in 1945.[15] However a watercolour painting by Bauer, based on his field sketches, still survives at the Natural History Museum in London,[16] and a hand-coloured copper engraving from that painting was published as Plate 3 of Bauer's 1813 Illustrationes Florae Novae Hollandiae.[17][18]
Brown published the species in his 1810 On the Proteaceae of Jussieu, its species name derived from the Latin coccineus, meaning "scarlet", and referring to the pistils.[5] He recorded 31 species of Banksia in his 1810 work Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen, and, in his taxonomic arrangement, placed the taxon in the subgenus Banksia verae, the "True Banksias", because the inflorescence is a typical Banksia flower spike.[19] By the time Carl Meissner published his 1856 arrangement of the genus, there were 58 described Banksia species. Meissner divided Brown's Banksia verae, which had been renamed Eubanksia by Stephan Endlicher in 1847,[3] into four series based on leaf properties. He placed B. coccinea in the series Quercinae.[20]
German botanist Adalbert Schnizlein described it as B. purpurea in 1843.[21]
George Bentham published a thorough revision of Banksia in his landmark publication Flora Australiensis in 1870. In Bentham's arrangement, the number of recognised Banksia species was reduced from 60 to 46. Bentham defined four sections based on leaf, style and pollen-presenter characters. Banksia coccinea was placed in section Orthostylis.[22]
In 1891, German botanist Otto Kuntze challenged the generic name Banksia L.f., on the grounds that the name Banksia had previously been published in 1775 as Banksia J.R.Forst & G.Forst, referring to the genus now known as Pimelea. Kuntze proposed Sirmuellera as an alternative, republishing B. coccinea as Sirmuellera coccinea.[23] The challenge failed, and Banksia L.f. was formally conserved.[3]
Alex George published a new taxonomic arrangement of Banksia in his classic 1981 monograph The genus Banksia L.f. (Proteaceae). Endlicher's Eubanksia became B. subg. Banksia, and was divided into three sections. George placed Banksia coccinea in its own series—Banksia series. Coccineae—within the section B. sect. Banksia on account of a unique combination of characters: the unusual vertical arrangement of flowers on the spike is a trait only seen in the series Quercinae and five species within the series Spicigerae, neither of which shares in whole the branched open habit, broad leaves and very small follicles.[3]
Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges published a new arrangement for the genus in 1996; their morphological cladistic analysis yielded a cladogram significantly different from George's arrangement. They were uncertain of B. coccinea's placement as it had highly autapomorphic characteristics which made analysis of its relationships difficult. Hence, in their arrangement it was located within series Banksia but not allocated to a subseries (incertae sedis).[24] It was reclassified in its own section Coccinea in 1996 by Tina Maguire and colleagues; pollen compatibility tests indicated its pollen was most compatible with Banksia ericifolia, B. micrantha and B. sphaerocarpa, all of section Oncostylis. However, they did not place it in that section as all members of Oncostylis have hooked styles at anthesis.[25] This was upheld by George in his monograph for the Flora of Australia series.[26] B. coccinea's placement within Banksia according to Flora of Australia is as follows:
In 2002, a molecular study by Austin Mast again showed Banksia coccinea to be the next closest relative of a group comprising Banksia speciosa and B. baxteri and only distantly related to other members of the series Banksia.[27] This was reinforced in a 2013 molecular study by Marcel Cardillo and colleagues using chloroplast DNA and combining it with earlier results.[28]
Mast, Eric Jones and Shawn Havery published the results of their cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data for Banksia in 2005. They inferred a phylogeny greatly different from the accepted taxonomic arrangement, including finding Banksia to be paraphyletic with respect to Dryandra.[29] A new taxonomic arrangement was not published at the time, but early in 2007 Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement by transferring Dryandra to Banksia, and publishing B. subg. Spathulatae for the species having spoon-shaped cotyledons; in this way they also redefined the autonym B. subg. Banksia. They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete. In the meantime, if Mast and Thiele's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement, then B. coccinea is placed in B. subg. Banksia.[30]
No subspecies are recognised, although DNA analysis showed that a population at Redmond was genetically distinctive, while those at Gull Rock, Two Peoples Bay and Cheyne Beach were unusually diverse.[31]
Common names include scarlet banksia, waratah banksia and Albany banksia.[1]
Distribution and habitat
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Banksiacoccineargemap.png/220px-Banksiacoccineargemap.png)
B. coccinea occurs close to the south coast of Western Australia, from the Hay River northeast of Denmark Albany in the west, east to Stokes National Park southeast of Munglinup and inland to the Stirling Range and the northern border of Fitzgerald River National Park. Around 47% of plants are protected in conservation areas, while 13% are located on road verges.[2] It prefers deep white or grey sand, among tall shrubland, heath, mallee-heath, associated with such species as Banksia baxteri, B. speciosa, B. attenuata and Lambertia inermis, or low open woodland in the Stirling Range and near Albany, where it is found with Eucalyptus marginata, Banksia attenuata and B. ilicifolia.[3] Most of its range has a gently undulating topography, but it also occurs on a steep rocky slope at Ellen Peak in the Stirling Ranges.[2] The annual rainfall is 400–800 mm (16–31 in).[32]
Ecology
A field study conducted around Albany found the honey possum (Tarsipes rostratus) sometimes visit Banksia coccinea, as do the New Holland Honeyeater (Phylidonyris novaehollandiae), White-cheeked Honeyeater (P. nigra),[33] and Western Spinebill (Acanthorhynchus superciliosus).[2] Banksia coccinea flowers are visited by colletid bees Hylaeus alcyoneus and H. sanguinipictus.[34] The Short-billed Black Cockatoo breaks off old cones with follicles to eat the seed, often doing so before the seed is ripe.[6]
Banksia coccinea is killed by fire and regenerates afterwards from seed released from burnt follicles.[3] It has is some degree of serotiny, that is, it has an aerial seed bank in its canopy in the form of the follicles of the old flower spikes. However, numbers of seed are less than other co-occurring species of banksia on the southern plains and peak several years after a fire. Unusually for banksias, B. coccinea can release seed with resulting seedlings growing in the absence of a bushfire trigger. Plants flower and fruit three years after germination and are shorter-lived than other banksias, appearing in poor health or dying before 20 years of age. They hence appear to be suited to fire intervals of less than 20 years.[6]
Manipulating growing conditions on plants in cultivation showed that longer daylight (16 hours vs 8 hours) led to development of more flower spikes, indicating that flower initiation was related to day length.[35]
Extremely sensitive to dieback caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi,[36] Banksia coccinea is an indicator species for the presence of the disease.[37] There is no known means of eradicating dieback. Much of the Stirling Range National Park is infested, though Fitzgerald River National Park has been largely spared.[38] Applying phosphite to infested areas has been shown to reduce the mortality rates to around 50%.[39] It has shown some symptoms of toxicity to application of phosphite, with some patchy necrosis of leaves, but the uptake of the compound is somewhat lower compared with other shrubs. Unusually, the symptoms did not appear to be proportional to exposure levels.[40]
Dying stands of B. coccinea were observed in 1989, and the fungus Cryptodiaporthe melanocraspedia isolated as the cause in 1995. The disease, a form of aerial canker, manifested initially as dead dry brown leaves and the tips of new growth. Plants would die from the top downwards, with larger branches affected over time. Under the outer bark, orange and brown patches of necrosis spread out from leaf nodes until they encircle the stem, which then dies. Flower spikes may be affected during flowering season. In humid spells during warm weather, white or pink spore tendrils are produced on dead wood. One affected stand monitored over three years from October 1989 to June 1992 showed a 97% mortality of plants (compared with a baseline 40 %). Investigators Bryan Shearer and colleagues isolated another virulent pathogen that they identified as a species of Zythiostroma, however it appeared to invoke an immune response in the plant. Coupled with the fact that it had not been observed in the wild led them to believe it was not a major pathogen of the species.[41] This species has since been reclassified and named as Luteocirrhus shearii.[42]
Banksia coccinea is a host for the gall midge Dasineura banksiae, a species of fly that attacks and lays eggs on the leaves between late October and early December. The round white hairy galls are 5–7 mm in diameter and generally contain one larva, or up to five on severely infested plants. The larvae moult and feed until January to March, when they reduce activity until early October. Although these are not harmful to the plant, they disfigure the cut foliage and hence reduce its value.[43]
Cultivation
Widely considered one of the most attractive Banksia species, B. coccinea is a popular garden plant and one of the most important Banksia species for the cut flower industry; it is grown commercially in South Africa, Canada, the United States, New Zealand, Israel, and trialled in France, Spain and South America.[5] Its striking terminal inflorescences and furry new growth are its main horticultural attributes. However, it is highly sensitive to dieback and succumbs readily when exposed. It is difficult to keep alive in areas of heavy soils or summer rainfall or humidity, such as the Australian east coast. Furthermore, flowering may be sparse or not occur when cultivated in warmer climates such as Perth.[5] Pruning promotes branching, which leads to more flower spikes being produced.[44]
Propagation is by seed, though these can be difficult to extract from the follicles.[44] Seeds do not require any treatment before sowing, and take 12 to 48 days to germinate.[45] Cultivars require propagation by cutting for progeny to grow true. Cuttings are slow to strike but possible.[5] Attempts to graft B. coccinea have met with little success.[44]
In a breeding program conducted by Margaret Sedgley of the Department of Horticulture, Viticulture and Oenology, Waite Agricultural Research Institute of the University of Adelaide in Adelaide, South Australia, two forms of Banksia coccinea were bred, registered and commercially propagated, mainly for the cut flower industry. Banksia 'Waite Flame' is an early flowering somewhat orange-hued form, and B. 'Waite Crimson' is a red-flowering form that peaks mid-season.[7]
References
- ^ a b "Banksia coccinea R.Br". Australian Plant Name Index (APNI), IBIS database. Centre for Plant Biodiversity Research, Australian Government.
- ^ a b c d e f Taylor, Anne; Hopper, Stephen (1988). The Banksia Atlas. Vol. (Australian Flora and Fauna Series Number 8). Canberra, Australian Capital Territory: Australian Government Publishing Service. pp. 78–79. ISBN 0-644-07124-9.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k George, Alex S. (1981). "The Genus Banksia L.f. (Proteaceae)". Nuytsia. 3 (3): 239–473 [389–91]. ISSN 0085-4417.
- ^ a b c Fuss, A.M.; Sedgley, M. (1990). "Floral Initiation and Development in Relation to the Time of Flowering in Banksia coccinea R.Br and B. menziesii R.Br (Proteaceae)". Australian Journal of Botany. 38 (5): 487–500. doi:10.1071/BT9900487.
- ^ a b c d e f Collins, Kevin; Collins, Kathy; George, Alex S. (2008). Banksias. Melbourne, Victoria: Bloomings Books. pp. 177–78. ISBN 1-876473-68-1.
- ^ a b c Witkowski, E.T.F.; Lamont, Byron B.; Connell, S.J. (1991). "Seed Bank Dynamics of Three Co-occurring Banksias in South Coastal Western Australia: The Role of Plant Age, Cockatoos, Senescence and Interfire Establishment". Australian Journal of Botany. 39 (4): 385–97. doi:10.1071/BT9910385.
- ^ a b Holliday, Ivan; Watton, Geoffrey (2008) [1975]. Banksias: A Field and Garden Guide. Adelaide, South Australia: Australian Plants Society (SA). p. 42. ISBN 978-0-9803013-1-1.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Hopper, Stephen (2003). "South-western Australia, Cinderella of the world's temperate floristic regions 1". Curtis's Botanical Magazine. 21 (2): 132–79. doi:10.1111/1467-8748.00380.
- ^ Barker, R.M.; Barker, W.R. (1990). "Botanical Contributions Overlooked: the Role and Recognition of Collectors, Horticulturists, Explorers and Others in the Early Documentation of the Australian Flora". In Short, P.S. (ed.). History of Systematic Botany in Australia. Australian Systematic Botany Society. pp. 37–86. ISBN 0-7316-8463-X.
- ^ "Banksia coccinea R.Br". Robert Brown’s Australian Botanical Specimens, 1801–1805 at the BM. FloraBase, Western Australian Herbarium. Retrieved 3 January 2010.
- ^ Stehn, Kay; George, Alex (2005). "Chapter 7: Artist in a New Land: William Westall in New Holland". In Wege, Juliet; George, Alex S.; Gathe, Jan; Lemson, Kris; Napier, Kath D. (eds.). Matthew Flinders and his Scientific Gentlemen. Western Australian Museum. pp. 77–95. ISBN 1-920843-20-5.
- ^ Vallance, T. G.; Moore, D. T.; Groves, E. W. (2001). Nature's Investigator: The Diary of Robert Brown in Australia, 1801–1805. Canberra, Australian Capital Territory: Australian Biological Resources Study. ISBN 0-642-56817-0.
- ^ Edwards, Phyllis I., ed. (1981). "The Journal of Peter Good: Gardener of Matthew Flinders Voyage to Terra Australis 1801–03". Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History), Historical series. 9 (Complete): 1–213. ISSN 0068-2306.
- ^ Aiton, William (1810). "Banksia". Hortus Kewensis (2nd ed.). London, United Kingdom: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown. p. 216. Retrieved 2010-03-01.
- ^ Pignatti-Wikus, Erika; Reidl-Dorn, Christa; Mabberley, David (2000). "Ferdinand Bauer's Field Drawings of Endemic Western Australian Plants made at King George Sound and Lucky Bay, December 1801 – January 1802. I: Families Brassicaceae, Goodenaceae p.p., Lentibulariaceae, Campanulaceae p.p., Orchidaceae, Pittosporaceae p.p., Rutaceae p.p., Stylidaceae, Xyridaceae". Rendiconti lincei: Scienze fisiche e naturali. s.9, v.11 (2): 69–109.
- ^ "Banksia coccinea, Scarlet Banksia [image details]". Natural History Museum. Retrieved 1 March 2010.
- ^ Bauer, Ferdinand (1813). Illustrationes Florae Novae Hollandiae.
- ^ Hewson, Helen (1999). Australia: 300 years of Botanical Illustration. Collingwood, Victoria: CSIRO Publishing. ISBN 0-643-06366-8.
- ^ Brown, Robert (1810). Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen (in Latin). London, United Kingdom: Richard Taylor and Company. p. 394.
- ^ Meissner, Carl (1856). "Proteaceae". In de Candolle, A. P (ed.). [[Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis]], Pars Decima Quarta (in Latin). Vol. 14. Paris, France: Sumptibus Victoris Masson. p. 464.
{{cite book}}
: URL–wikilink conflict (help) - ^ "Banksia purpurea Schnizl". Australian Plant Name Index (APNI), IBIS database. Centre for Plant Biodiversity Research, Australian Government.
- ^ Bentham, George (1870). . Flora Australiensis: Volume 5: Myoporineae to Proteaceae. London, United Kingdom: L. Reeve & Co. pp. 541–62.
- ^ Kuntze, Otto (1891). Revisio generum plantarum:vascularium omnium atque cellularium multarum secundum leges nomenclaturae internationales cum enumeratione plantarum exoticarum in itinere mundi collectarum. Leipzig, Germany: A. Felix. p. 582.
- ^ Thiele, Kevin; Ladiges, Pauline Y. (1996). "A Cladistic Analysis of Banksia (Proteaceae)". Australian Systematic Botany. 9 (5): 661–733. doi:10.1071/SB9960661.
- ^ Maguire, Tina L.; Sedgley, Margaret; Conran, J.G (1996). "Banksia Sect. Coccinea (Proteaceae), a New Section". Australian Systematic Botany. 9 (6): 887–91. doi:10.1071/SB9960887.
- ^ George, Alex S. (1999). "Banksia". In Wilson, Annette (ed.). Flora of Australia. Vol. Volume 17B: Proteaceae 3: Hakea to Dryandra. Collingwood, Victoria: CSIRO Publishing / Australian Biological Resources Study. pp. 175–251 [175–76, 227]. ISBN 0-643-06454-0.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
:|volume=
has extra text (help) - ^ Mast, Austin R.; Givnish, Thomas J. (2002). "Historical Biogeography and the Origin of Stomatal Distributions in Banksia and Dryandra (Proteaceae) Based on their cpDNA Phylogeny". American Journal of Botany. 89 (8): 1311–23. doi:10.3732/ajb.89.8.1311. ISSN 0002-9122. PMID 21665734.
- ^ Cardillo, Marcel (2013). "Evolution of a Hotspot Genus: Geographic Variation in Speciation and Extinction Rates in Banksia (Proteaceae)". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 13 (155). doi:10.1186/1471-2148-13-155.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ Mast, Austin R.; Jones, Eric H.; Havery, Shawn P. (2005). "An Assessment of Old and New DNA Sequence Evidence for the Paraphyly of Banksia with Respect to Dryandra (Proteaceae)". Australian Systematic Botany. 18 (1): 75–88. doi:10.1071/SB04015.
- ^ Mast, Austin R.; Thiele, Kevin (2007). "The Transfer of Dryandra R.Br. to Banksia L.f. (Proteaceae)". Australian Systematic Botany. 20: 63–71. doi:10.1071/SB06016.
- ^ Rieger, M.; Sedgley, M.A (1998). "Preliminary Investigation of Genetic Variation within and between Cultivated and Natural Populations of Banksia coccinea and Banksia menziesii". Australian Journal of Botany. 46 (4): 547–58. doi:10.1071/BT96102.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ George, Alex S. (1996). The Banksia Book (3rd ed.). Kenthurst, New South Wales: Kangaroo Press (in association with the Society for Growing Australian Plants). p. 176. ISBN 0-86417-818-2.
- ^ Weins, Delbert; Renfree, Marilyn; Wooller, Ronald D. (1979). "Pollen loads of Honey possums (Tarsipes spencerae) and non-flying mammal pollination in South-western Australia". Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. 66 (4): 830–38. doi:10.2307/2398921. Retrieved 24 November 2010.
- ^ "Specimen Report". Museum Victoria website: Bioinformatics. Melbourne, Australia: Museum Victoria. 2010. Retrieved 25 November 2010.
- ^ Rieger, M.; Sedgley, M.A (1996). "Effect of daylength and temperature on flowering of the cut flower species Banksia coccinea and Banksia hookeriana". Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture. 36 (6): 747–53. doi:10.1071/EA9960747.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ McCredie, Thomas A.; Dixon, Kingsley W.; Sivasithamparam, K. (1985). "Variability in the resistance of Banksia L.f. species to Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands". Australian Journal of Botany. 33 (6): 629–37. doi:10.1071/BT9850629.
- ^ "Common Indicator Species for the Presence of Disease caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi" (PDF). Government of Western Australia. Retrieved 10 April 2014.
- ^ Barrett, Sarah (2005). "Conservation of Flora and Plant Communities Threatened by 'Phytophthora dieback' in Southern Western Australia". Australasian Plant Conservation: Journal of the Australian Network for Plant Conservation. 13 (4): 16–17. ISSN 1039-6500.
- ^ Shearer, Bryan L.; Fairman, Richard G. (2007). "Application of phosphite in a high-volume foliar spray delays and reduces the rate of mortality of four Banksia species infected with Phytophthora cinnamomi". Australasian Plant Pathology. 36 (4): 358–68. doi:10.1071/AP07033.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Barrett, Sarah R.; Shearer, Bryan L; Hardy G.E.S (2004). "Phytotoxicity in relation to in planta concentration of the fungicide phosphite in nine Western Australian native species". Australasian Plant Pathology. 33 (4): 521–28. doi:10.1071/AP04055.
- ^ Shearer, Bryan L. (1995). "Cryptodiaporthe melanocraspeda Canker as a Threat to Banksia coccinea on the South Coast of Western Australia" (PDF). Plant Disease. 79: 637–41. doi:10.1094/PD-79-0637.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Crane, Colin; Burgess, Treena I. (2013). "Luteocirrhus shearii gen. sp. nov. (Diaporthales, Cryphonectriaceae) pathogenic to Proteaceae in the South Western Australian Floristic Region". IMA Fungus. 4 (1): 111–22. doi:10.5598/imafungus.2013.04.01.11.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Kolesik, Peter ; Woods, Bill ; Crowhurst, Max ; Wirthensohn, Michelle G (2007). "Dasineura banksiae: a new species of gall midge (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) feeding on Banksia coccinea (Proteaceae) in Australia". Australian Journal of Entomology. 46 (1): 40–44. doi:10.1111/j.1440-6055.2007.00584.x.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c Wrigley, John; Fagg, Murray (1991). Banksias, Waratahs and Grevilleas. Sydney: Angus & Robertson. pp. 92–93. ISBN 0-207-17277-3.
- ^ Sweedman, Luke; Merritt, David (2006). Australian seeds: a guide to their collection, identification and biology. CSIRO Publishing. p. 203. ISBN 0-643-09298-6.
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External links
- "Banksia coccinea R.Br". Flora of Australia Online. Department of the Environment and Heritage, Australian Government.
- "Banksia sect. Coccinea (A.S.George) T.L.Maguire, Sedgley & Conran". Flora of Australia Online. Department of the Environment and Heritage, Australian Government.
- "Banksia coccinea R.Br". FloraBase. Western Australian Government Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions.
- "Banksia sect. Coccinea (A.S.George) T.L.Maguire, Sedgley & Conran". Australian Plant Name Index (APNI), IBIS database. Centre for Plant Biodiversity Research, Australian Government.