Corvus: Difference between revisions

Crow, etc.
	American crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos)
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Aves
Order:	Passeriformes
Family:	Corvidae
Genus:	Corvus; Linnaeus, 1758
Species
	many, see Main article: List of Corvus species
Diversity
	c. 40 species

Browse history interactively

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Corvus is a a widely distributed genus of birds in the family Corvidae. Ranging in size from the relatively small pigeon-size jackdaws (Eurasian and Daurian) to the common raven of the Holarctic region and thick-billed raven of the highlands of Ethiopia, the 40 or so members of this genus occur on all temperate continents except South America, and several islands. In Europe, the word "crow" is used to refer to the carrion crow or the hooded crow, while in North America it is used for the American crow or the northwestern crow.

The crow genus makes up a third of the species in the Corvidae family. The members appear to have evolved in Asia from the corvid stock, which had evolved in Australia. The collective name for a group of crows is a flock or a murder.^[1]

Recent research has found some crow species capable of not only tool use but also tool construction.^[2] Crows are now considered to be among the world's most intelligent animals^[3] with an encephalization quotient approaching that of some apes.^{[citation needed]}

Description

Corvus species are all black or black with little white or grey plumage. They are stout with strong bills and legs. There is limited sexual dimorphism.

Evolutionary history and systematics

The members of the Corvus genus are believed to have evolved in central Asia and radiated out into North America, Africa, Europe, and Australia.

The latest evidence^[4] regarding the evolution indicates descent within the Australasian family Corvidae. However, the branch that would produce the modern groups such as jays, magpies and large predominantly black Corvus had left Australasia and were concentrated in Asia by the time the Corvus evolved. Corvus has since re-entered Australia (relatively recently) and produced five species with one recognized sub-species.^{[citation needed]}

The genus was originally described by Linnaeus in his 18th-century work Systema Naturae.^[5] The name is derived from the Latin corvus meaning "raven".^[6]

The type species is the common raven (Corvus corax); others named in the same work include the carrion crow (C. corone), the hooded crow (C. cornix), the rook (C. frugilegus), and the jackdaw (C. monedula). The genus was originally broader, as the magpie was designated C. pica before being moved later into a genus of its own. There are now considered to be at least 42 extant species in this genus, and at least 14 extinct species have been described.

There is not a good systematic approach to the genus at present. In general, it is assumed that the species from a geographical area are more closely related to each other than to other lineages, but this is not necessarily correct. For example, while members of the Carrion/Collared/house crow complex are certainly closely related, the situation is not at all clear regarding the Australian/Melanesian species. Furthermore, as many species are similar in appearance, determining actual range and characteristics can be very difficult, such as in Australia where the five (possibly six) species are almost identical in appearance.^{[citation needed]}

The fossil record of crows is rather dense in Europe, but the relationships among most prehistoric species are not clear.

Species

Behavior

Play

There are countless recorded incidents of crows at play. Many behaviourists see play as an essential quality in intelligent animals.^[7]

Calls

Corvus brachyrhynchos call

Call of Corvus brachyrhynchos (American crow)

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Crows and the other members of the genus make a wide variety of calls or vocalizations. Crows have also been observed to respond to calls of other species; presumably, this behavior is learned because it varies regionally. Crows' vocalizations are complex and poorly understood. Some of the many vocalizations that crows make are a "Koww", usually echoed back and forth between birds; a series of "Kowws" in discrete units; a long caw followed by a series of short caws (usually made when a bird takes off from a perch); an echo-like "eh-aw" sound; and more. These vocalizations vary by species, and within each species they vary regionally. In many species, the pattern and number of the numerous vocalizations have been observed to change in response to events in the surroundings (e.g. arrival or departure of crows).

Intelligence

As a group, crows show remarkable examples of intelligence. Natural history books from the 18th century recount an often-repeated, but unproven anecdote of "counting crows" — specifically a crow whose ability to count to five (or four in some versions) is established through a logic trap set by a farmer.^[8]^[9] Crows and ravens often score very highly on intelligence tests. Certain species top the avian IQ scale.^[10] Wild hooded crows in Israel have learned to use bread crumbs for bait-fishing.^[11] Crows will engage in a kind of mid-air jousting, or air-"chicken" to establish pecking order. Crows have been found to engage in feats such as sports,^[12] tool use, the ability to hide and store food across seasons, episodic-like memory, and the ability to use individual experience in predicting the behavior of environmental conspecifics.^[13]

One species, the New Caledonian crow, has also been intensively studied recently because of its ability to manufacture and use tools in the day-to-day search for food. On 5 October 2007, researchers from the University of Oxford, England, presented data acquired by mounting tiny video cameras on the tails of New Caledonian crows. They pluck, smooth and bend twigs and grass stems to procure a variety of foodstuffs.^[14]^[15] Crows in Queensland, Australia have learned how to eat the toxic cane toad by flipping the cane toad on its back and violently stabbing the throat where the skin is thinner, allowing the crow to access the non-toxic innards; their long beaks ensure that all of the innards can be removed.^[16]^[17]

The jackdaw and the European magpie have been found to have a nidopallium approximately the same relative size as the functionally equivalent neocortex in chimpanzees and humans, and significantly larger than is found in the gibbon.^[18]

Crows have demonstrated the ability to distinguish individual humans by recognizing facial features.^[19]

Evidence also suggests that they are one of the few non-human animals capable of displacement (communicating about things that are happening in a different spatial or temporal location to the here and now).^[20]^[21]

Diet

Crows are omnivorous, and their diet is very diverse. They will eat almost anything, including other birds, fruits, nuts, mollusks, earthworms, seeds, frogs, eggs, nestlings, mice and carrion. The origin of placing scarecrows in grain fields resulted from the crow’s incessant damaging and scavenging, although crows assist farmers by eating insects otherwise attracted to their crops.^[22]

Life span and disease

Crows reach sexual maturity around the age of 3 years for females and 5 years for males. Some crows may live to the age of 20, and the oldest known American crow in the wild was almost 30 years old.^[23] The oldest captive crow documented died at age 59.^[24]

The American crow is highly susceptible to the recently introduced North American strain of West Nile virus.^[25] American crows typically die within one week of acquiring the disease and very few survive exposure.

Conservation status

Two species of crow have been listed as endangered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: the Hawaiian crow and the Mariana crow.^[26] The American crow, despite having its population reduced by 45% since 1999 by the West Nile virus, is considered a Species of Least Concern.

Problems with crows and methods of control

Intelligence and social structures makes most crow species, or Corvids, an adaptable and opportunistic species. Crows frequently cause damage to crops and property,^[27] strew trash, and transfer disease. In densely populated areas around the world, Corvid species are generally regarded as nuisance animals.^[28] Crows are protected in the U.S. under the federal Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, but because of their perceived destructive nature, control of the species is allowed in certain areas. Because of the Corvids' intelligence, their control is an expensive and perplexing proposition. Methods for control include hunting, chemical immobilization, harassment scare tactics, and trapping, as well as others. Before any measure is used to confine, trap, kill, poison, immobilize, or alter the habits of any wild bird species a person must check local, state, and federal regulations pertaining to such actions.

Hunting

In the United States, despite crows being protected under the Federal Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, hunting is allowed under state and federal regulation. Crow hunting is considered a sport in rural areas of the U.S. because the birds are not considered a tasty traditional game species. Some cultures do treat various Corvid species as a food source.^[29] Liability and possible danger to persons and property limit the use of hunting or shooting as control methods in urban areas. Crows' wariness and cunning make it difficult to harvest crows in sufficient numbers.

Poisoning

Poisoning has been used in the past as a method of controlling crow populations, usually in urban areas or areas of large crow populations. Liability, cost associated with the chemicals, permits and manpower, threat to non-target species such as raptors, and availability of chemicals makes poisoning less than a desirable method for control.

Scare tactics

Scare tactics have been the most widely used aversion tactic for crows in areas frequented by humans and domestic animal species. This is a safe method that does not require constant maintenance or manpower to operate or monitor. However, Corvids quickly become habituated to most tactics such as blast cannons, predator decoys, and traditional scarecrows. Greater success has been achieved by adding sound and motion to predator decoys to mimic a distressed crow being caught by a predator such as an owl or hawk.^[30] Work is currently being done which uses multiple aversion techniques in one area. The theory is that multiple techniques used together will confuse the crows, thereby lessening the probability of habituation to stimuli.

Trapping

Trapping is a rarely used technique in the U.S. but is being used with success in parts of Europe and Australia. The ladder-style trap (e.g., Australian Crow Trap or Modified Australian Crow Trap) seems to be the most effective in crow-trapping techniques. Ladder traps are constructed in such a way that unintentional catch of non-target species is avoided. If a non-target species is caught, it can be easily released without harm to the bird. The traps are cost-efficient because they are inexpensive and simple to construct, and require little manpower to monitor. The bait used in the traps can also be specific to Corvids. Carrion, grains, unshelled raw peanuts, and shiny objects in the trap are effective baits. When removing crows from a ladder trap, one living crow is left as an extremely effective decoy for other crows. Trapping is considered the most humane method for crow removal because the crows can be relocated without harm or stress. However, most wild birds in general have a knack for returning to their home ranges.^[31]

Other methods

Other methods have been used with little or limited success. Lasers have been used successfully to remove large flocks of birds from roost structures in urban areas, but success in keeping crows off roosts has been short lived.^[32] Homeowners can reduce the presence of crows by keeping trash stored in containers, feeding pets indoors, and hanging tin pie-pans or reflective gazing globes around garden areas.

As a food supplement

Crows were hunted for survival by Curonians, a Baltic tribe,^[33] when common food was exhausted and the landscape changed so that farming was not as productive during the 18th and 19th centuries. Fishermen supplemented their diet by gathering coastal bird eggs and preserving crow meat by salting and smoking it. It became a traditional food for poor folk and is documented in a poem, The Seasons by K. Donelaitis. After the non-hunting policy was lifted by the Prussian government in 1721–24 and alternative food supplies increased, the practice was forgotten. The tradition reemerged after World War I; in marketplaces, it was common to find butchered crows which were sought after and bought by townsfolk. The hunted crows were not the local, but the migrating ones; each year during the spring and autumn crows migrated via the Curonian Spit between Finland and the rest of Europe. In 1943, the government even issued a hunting quota for such activities. Crows were usually caught by attracting them with smoked fish or grains soaked in spirits and then collecting them with nets. It was a job for the elderly or young who were unable to go to sea to fish, and it was common to catch 150 to 200 birds during a hunting day.

In human culture

The common raven and carrion crow have been blamed for killing weak lambs and are often seen eating freshly dead corpses probably killed by other means. The Australian raven has been documented chasing, attacking and seriously injuring lambs.^[34] Rooks have been blamed for eating grain in the UK and brown-necked raven for raiding date crops in desert countries.^[35]

In Auburn in the U.S. state of New York, 25,000 to 50,000 American crows (C. brachyrhynchos) have taken to roosting in the small city's large trees during winter since around 1993.^[36] In 2003, a controversial, organized crow hunt proved ineffective at reducing their numbers and the problem (concerns for public health and the sheer noise of so many crows) continues.^[37]

At a Technology Entertainment Design conference in March 2008, Joshua Klein presented the potential use of a vending machine for crows. He suggested the crows could be trained to pick up waste and the vending machine would be designed to give a reward in exchange for the trash.^[38]

Crows have been shown to have the ability to visually recognize individual humans, and to transmit information about "bad" humans by squawking.^[39]

Myth and spirituality

In Irish mythology, crows are associated with Morrigan, the goddess of war and death.^[40]

The god Bran the Blessed – whose name means "crow" or "raven"- is associated with corvids and death; tradition holds that Bran's severed head is buried under the Tower of London, facing France – a possible genesis for the practice of keeping ravens in the Tower, said to protect the fortunes of Britain. In Cornish folklore, crows – magpies particularly- – are associated with death and the "otherworld", and proscribes respectful greeting. The origin of "counting crows" as augury is British; however, the British version rather is to "count magpies" – their black and white pied colouring alluding to the realms of the living and dead.

In Norse mythology, Huginn and Muninn are a pair of common ravens that range the entire world, Midgard, bringing the god Odin information.

In Sweden, ravens are held to be the ghosts of murdered men.^[41] In Denmark, the night raven is considered an exorcised spirit. There is a hole in its left wing where the stake used to exorcise it was driven into the earth. Those looking through the hole will become a night raven themselves.^[42]

In Australian Aboriginal mythology, Crow is a trickster, culture hero, and ancestral being. Legends relating to Crow have been observed in various Aboriginal language groups and cultures across Australia; these commonly include stories relating to Crow's role in the theft of fire, the origin of death, and the killing of Eagle's son.

The Chaldean myth the Epic of Gilgamesh, Utnapishtim releases a dove and raven to find land; however, the dove merely circles and returns. Only then does Utnapishtim send forth the raven, which does not return, and Utnapishtim concludes the raven has found land.^[43]

According to Ovid's Metamorphoses, in Greek mythology, the god Apollo became enraged when the crow exposed his lover Coronis' tryst with a mortal, his ire transmuting the crow's feathers from white to black.^[44]

In the Story of Bhusunda, a chapter of the Yoga Vasistha, a very old sage in the form of a crow, Bhusunda, recalls a succession of epochs in the earth's history, as described in Hindu cosmology. He survived several destructions, living on a wish-fulfilling tree on Mount Meru.^[45] Crows are also considered ancestors in Hinduism and during Śrāddha, the practice of offering food or pinda to crows is still in vogue.^[46]

Crows are mentioned often in Buddhism, especially Tibetan disciplines. The Dharmapala (protector of the Dharma) Mahakala is represented by a crow in one of his physical/earthly forms.^{[citation needed]}

In Japanese mythology, a three-legged crow called Yatagarasu (八咫烏, "eight-hand-crow")^[47] is depicted.^[48]

In Korean mythology, there is a three-legged crow known as Samjokgo (hangul: 삼족오; hanja: 三足烏).^{[citation needed]}

In Chinese mythology, the world originally had ten suns either spiritually embodied as ten crows and/or carried by ten crows: when all ten decided to rise at once the effect was devastating to crops, so the gods sent their greatest archer Houyi, who shot down nine crows and spared only one. This mythology comes from a text in Shanhaijing, among other sources.^[49]

In Hinduism, crows are thought of as carriers of information. They give omens to people regarding their situations. For example, when a crow crows in front of a person's house, he is expected to have special visitors that day. Also, in Hindu literature, crows have great memories which they use to give information.^{[citation needed]}

In Islam, crow is one of the five animals for which there is no blame on the one who kills them.^[50]

Ancient Greek authors tell how a jackdaw, being a social creature, may be caught with a dish of oil that it falls into while looking at its own reflection.^[51] The Roman poet Ovid saw them as a harbinger of rain (Amores 2,6, 34).^[52] In Greek legend, princess Arne was bribed with gold by King Minos of Crete, and was punished for her avarice by being transformed into an equally avaricious jackdaw, who still seeks shiny things.^[53]

In Aesop's Fables, the jackdaw embodies stupidity in one tale, by starving while waiting for figs on a fig tree to ripen, and vanity in another – the jackdaw sought to become king of the birds with borrowed feathers, but was shamed when they fell off.^[52] Pliny notes how the Thessalians, Illyrians and Lemnians cherished jackdaws for destroying grasshoppers' eggs. The Veneti are fabled to have bribed the jackdaws to spare their crops.^[51] Another ancient Greek and Roman adage runs, "The swans will sing when the jackdaws are silent," meaning that educated or wise people will speak after the foolish become quiet.^[54] In reality, corvids are among the most intelligent birds in the world, and this traditional association with ignorance is quite inaccurate. However, there is one other Aesop Fable where the crow is depicted as very cunning. He comes up to a pitcher and knows that his beak is too short to reach the water and if he tips it over, all the water will fall out. The crow then proceeds to pick up pebbles and places them in the pitcher so the water may rise and he can reach it to relieve his thirst.^[55]

References

^ "Murder of Crows, etc". Word-detective.com. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
^ Winkler, Robert (8 August 2002). "Crow Makes Wire Hook to Get Food". National Geographic. Retrieved 6 February 2011.
^ "A Murder of Crows". Nature. PBS video. 24 October 2010. Retrieved 6 February 2011. New research indicates that crows are among the brightest animals in the world.
^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1073/pnas.0401892101, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1073/pnas.0401892101 instead.
^ Template:La icon Linnaeus, C (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata. Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii). p. 824.
^ Simpson, D.P. (1979). Cassell's Latin Dictionary (5 ed.). London: Cassell Ltd. p. 883. ISBN 0-304-52257-0.
^ Bekoff, Mark & Byers, John (1998). Animal Play: Evolutionary, Comparative and Ecological Perspectives.
^ Dehaene, Stanislas (2011). The Number Sense: How the Mind Creates Mathematics, Revised and Updated Edition. Oxford University Press. pp. 289–. ISBN 978-0-19-975387-1.
^ Park, Keeok. Numbers Are Us. Keeok Park. pp. 19–. ISBN 978-0-9843446-3-5.
^ Rincon, Paul (22 February 2005). "Science/Nature | Crows and jays top bird IQ scale". BBC News. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
^ Bait-Fishing in Crows Template:En icon^{[unreliable source?]}
^ Post to Wall. "Crow tubing upon a slide (video)". Wimp.com. Retrieved 19 December 2013.
^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060202, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0060202 instead.
^ Schmid, Randolph E. (5 October 2007) Template:Wayback, Associated Press via Discovery Channel
^ See also the video "Crow bars", from the BBC's The Life of Birds
^ Katrina Bolton (15 September 2007). "Toads fall victim to crows in NT – ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation)". Abc.net.au. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
^ "Cane Toad (Bufo marinus)". Ozanimals.com. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
^ Rogers, Lesley J.; Kaplan, Gisela T. (2004). Comparative vertebrate cognition: are primates superior to non-primates?. New York, New York: Springer. p. 9. ISBN 0-306-47727-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Nijhuis, Michelle (25 August 2008). "Friend or Foe? Crows Never Forget a Face, It Seems". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 February 2011.
^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1007/BF00300349, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1007/BF00300349 instead.
^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1007/BF00172134, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1007/BF00172134 instead.
^ Crow Facts. crowbusters.com
^ McGowan, K.J. "Frequently Asked Questions About Crows", Cornell Lab of Ornithology
^ Crow Believed to Be Oldest in World Dies. Associated Press via Washington Post (7 July 2006)
^ "Why West Nile virus kills so many crows", Penn State Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics
^ "Pacific Region Endangered Species, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service". Fws.gov. 23 June 2011. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
^ Lim, H. C., N. S. Sodhi, B. W. Brook, and M. C. K. Soh (2003). "Factors determining the distribution of three invasive bird species in Singapore". Journal of Tropical Ecology. 19: 685–695. doi:10.1017/s0266467403006084.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.2307/3802688, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.2307/3802688 instead.
^ "National Geographic News. 2010. Crow meat comes back—boost sexual potency? Accessed. 17 Oct 2013". News.nationalgeographic.com. 28 October 2010. Retrieved 19 December 2013.
^ Conover, M. R. (1985). "Protecting vegetables from crows using an animated crow-killing owl model". The Journal of Wildlife Management. 49: 643–645. doi:10.2307/3801687.
^ Johnson, R. J. "American crows" (PDF). Internet Center for Wildlife Management. Retrieved 19 December 2013.
^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1080/09670870210151689 , please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1080/09670870210151689 instead.
^ "Crow hunting". http://www.nerija.lt. Retrieved 17 March 2013. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)
^ Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1071/EA9670329 , please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1071/EA9670329 instead.
^ Goodwin D. (1983). Crows of the World. Queensland University Press, St Lucia, Qld. ISBN 0-7022-1015-3.
^ "Auburn NY Crow Roost and lighting changes". Cnylinks.com. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
^ "The Citizen, Auburn NY". Auburnpub.com. 14 June 2002. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
^ Klein, Joshua (2008). "The amazing intelligence of crows". TED conference. Retrieved 9 July 2008.
^ The Crow Paradox by Robert Krulwich. Morning Edition, National Public Radio. 27 July 2009.
^ Leeming, David Adams (2005). "Crows and ravens". The Oxford companion to world mythology. Oxford University Press. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-19-515669-0.
^ "Common Ravens - Species Information". Avianweb.com. Retrieved 19 December 2013.
^ The Atlantic Monthly, Volume 34 (Google eBook)
^ Kovacs, Maureen Gallery (1989). The epic of Gilgamesh. Stanford University Press. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-8047-1711-3.
^ Dixon-Kennedy, Mike (1998). "Coronis/Corvus". Encyclopedia of Greco-Roman mythology. ABC-CLIO. p. 93. ISBN 978-1-57607-129-8.
^ Cole, Juan R.I. Baha'u'llah on Hinduism and Zoroastrianism: The Tablet to Mirza Abu'l-Fadl Concerning the Questions of Manakji Limji Hataria.
^ Vasudevan, Vidia (26 July 2001). "It's a crow's day". The Hindu. Chennai, India.
^ Picken, Stuart D.B. (1994). Essentials of Shinto: an analytical guide to principal teachings. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-313-26431-3.
^ Como, Michael (2009). Weaving and binding: immigrant gods and female immortals in ancient Japan. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 100–103. ISBN 978-0-8248-2957-5.
^ Yang, Lihui (2008). Handbook of Chinese Mythology. Oxford University Press. pp. 95–96 and 231. ISBN 9780195332636.
^ What Ruling on killing mice and rats. Islamqa.info. Retrieved on 19 April 2014.
^ ^a ^b D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson, A Glossary of Greek Birds. Oxford, 1895. p. 89.
^ ^a ^b de Vries, Ad (1976). Dictionary of Symbols and Imagery. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company. p. 275. ISBN 0-7204-8021-3. Cite error: The named reference "deVries76" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
^ Graves, R (1955). "Scylla and Nisus". Greek Myths. London: Penguin. p. 308. ISBN 0-14-001026-2.
^ Collected Works of Erasmus: Adages: Ivi1 to Ix100. Translated by Roger A. Mynors. University of Toronto Press, 1989. p. 314.
^ The Crow and the Pitcher, Aesop's Fables

External links

Frequently Asked Questions About Crows
Crow: by Bird Houses 101
crows.net: The Language & Culture of Crows
Video of Crow Making and Using Tools
Info on Tool use by Crows
Crow Videos on the Internet Bird Collection
TED Talk: The Amazing Intelligence of Crows by Joshua Klein
Corvid Corner – A Site about the Crow Family
Video: A Crow uses Electrical Wire as Nest-building Material on YouTube
A Murder of Crows, 2010 PBS documentary
6 Terrifying Ways Crows Are Way Smarter Than You Think at Cracked.com

[1] "Murder of Crows, etc". Word-detective.com. Retrieved 12 November 2011.

[Winkler-2] Winkler, Robert (8 August 2002). "Crow Makes Wire Hook to Get Food". National Geographic. Retrieved 6 February 2011.

[pbs-3] "A Murder of Crows". Nature. PBS video. 24 October 2010. Retrieved 6 February 2011. New research indicates that crows are among the brightest animals in the world.

[4] Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1073/pnas.0401892101, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1073/pnas.0401892101 instead.

[5] Template:La icon Linnaeus, C (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata. Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii). p. 824.

[6] Simpson, D.P. (1979). Cassell's Latin Dictionary (5 ed.). London: Cassell Ltd. p. 883. ISBN 0-304-52257-0.

[7] Bekoff, Mark & Byers, John (1998). Animal Play: Evolutionary, Comparative and Ecological Perspectives.

[8] Dehaene, Stanislas (2011). The Number Sense: How the Mind Creates Mathematics, Revised and Updated Edition. Oxford University Press. pp. 289–. ISBN 978-0-19-975387-1.

[9] Park, Keeok. Numbers Are Us. Keeok Park. pp. 19–. ISBN 978-0-9843446-3-5.

[10] Rincon, Paul (22 February 2005). "Science/Nature | Crows and jays top bird IQ scale". BBC News. Retrieved 12 November 2011.

[11] Bait-Fishing in Crows Template:En icon^{[unreliable source?]}

[12] Post to Wall. "Crow tubing upon a slide (video)". Wimp.com. Retrieved 19 December 2013.

[13] Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060202, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0060202 instead.

[14] Schmid, Randolph E. (5 October 2007) Template:Wayback, Associated Press via Discovery Channel

[15] See also the video "Crow bars", from the BBC's The Life of Birds

[16] Katrina Bolton (15 September 2007). "Toads fall victim to crows in NT – ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation)". Abc.net.au. Retrieved 12 November 2011.

[17] "Cane Toad (Bufo marinus)". Ozanimals.com. Retrieved 12 November 2011.

[18] Rogers, Lesley J.; Kaplan, Gisela T. (2004). Comparative vertebrate cognition: are primates superior to non-primates?. New York, New York: Springer. p. 9. ISBN 0-306-47727-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Nijhuis-19] Nijhuis, Michelle (25 August 2008). "Friend or Foe? Crows Never Forget a Face, It Seems". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 February 2011.

[20] Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1007/BF00300349, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1007/BF00300349 instead.

[21] Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1007/BF00172134, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1007/BF00172134 instead.

[22] Crow Facts. crowbusters.com

[23] McGowan, K.J. "Frequently Asked Questions About Crows", Cornell Lab of Ornithology

[24] Crow Believed to Be Oldest in World Dies. Associated Press via Washington Post (7 July 2006)

[25] "Why West Nile virus kills so many crows", Penn State Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics

[26] "Pacific Region Endangered Species, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service". Fws.gov. 23 June 2011. Retrieved 12 November 2011.

[27] Lim, H. C., N. S. Sodhi, B. W. Brook, and M. C. K. Soh (2003). "Factors determining the distribution of three invasive bird species in Singapore". Journal of Tropical Ecology. 19: 685–695. doi:10.1017/s0266467403006084.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[28] Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.2307/3802688, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.2307/3802688 instead.

[29] "National Geographic News. 2010. Crow meat comes back—boost sexual potency? Accessed. 17 Oct 2013". News.nationalgeographic.com. 28 October 2010. Retrieved 19 December 2013.

[30] Conover, M. R. (1985). "Protecting vegetables from crows using an animated crow-killing owl model". The Journal of Wildlife Management. 49: 643–645. doi:10.2307/3801687.

[31] Johnson, R. J. "American crows" (PDF). Internet Center for Wildlife Management. Retrieved 19 December 2013.

[32] Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1080/09670870210151689 , please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1080/09670870210151689 instead.

[33] "Crow hunting". http://www.nerija.lt. Retrieved 17 March 2013. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)

[34] Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1071/EA9670329 , please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1071/EA9670329 instead.

[CotW83-35] Goodwin D. (1983). Crows of the World. Queensland University Press, St Lucia, Qld. ISBN 0-7022-1015-3.

[36] "Auburn NY Crow Roost and lighting changes". Cnylinks.com. Retrieved 12 November 2011.

[37] "The Citizen, Auburn NY". Auburnpub.com. 14 June 2002. Retrieved 12 November 2011.

[38] Klein, Joshua (2008). "The amazing intelligence of crows". TED conference. Retrieved 9 July 2008.

[39] The Crow Paradox by Robert Krulwich. Morning Edition, National Public Radio. 27 July 2009.

[40] Leeming, David Adams (2005). "Crows and ravens". The Oxford companion to world mythology. Oxford University Press. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-19-515669-0.

[41] "Common Ravens - Species Information". Avianweb.com. Retrieved 19 December 2013.

[42] The Atlantic Monthly, Volume 34 (Google eBook)

[43] Kovacs, Maureen Gallery (1989). The epic of Gilgamesh. Stanford University Press. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-8047-1711-3.

[44] Dixon-Kennedy, Mike (1998). "Coronis/Corvus". Encyclopedia of Greco-Roman mythology. ABC-CLIO. p. 93. ISBN 978-1-57607-129-8.

[cole-hindu-zoro-45] Cole, Juan R.I. Baha'u'llah on Hinduism and Zoroastrianism: The Tablet to Mirza Abu'l-Fadl Concerning the Questions of Manakji Limji Hataria.

[46] Vasudevan, Vidia (26 July 2001). "It's a crow's day". The Hindu. Chennai, India.

[47] Picken, Stuart D.B. (1994). Essentials of Shinto: an analytical guide to principal teachings. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-313-26431-3.

[48] Como, Michael (2009). Weaving and binding: immigrant gods and female immortals in ancient Japan. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 100–103. ISBN 978-0-8248-2957-5.

[49] Yang, Lihui (2008). Handbook of Chinese Mythology. Oxford University Press. pp. 95–96 and 231. ISBN 9780195332636.

[50] What Ruling on killing mice and rats. Islamqa.info. Retrieved on 19 April 2014.

[wentworth-51] D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson, A Glossary of Greek Birds. Oxford, 1895. p. 89.

[deVries76-52] Vries, Ad (1976). Dictionary of Symbols and Imagery. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company. p. 275. ISBN 0-7204-8021-3. Cite error: The named reference "deVries76" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).

[Graves1589-53] Graves, R (1955). "Scylla and Nisus". Greek Myths. London: Penguin. p. 308. ISBN 0-14-001026-2.

[54] Collected Works of Erasmus: Adages: Ivi1 to Ix100. Translated by Roger A. Mynors. University of Toronto Press, 1989. p. 314.

[55] The Crow and the Pitcher, Aesop's Fables

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+{{Other uses}}
-#redirect [[Crow]]
+{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2014}}
+{{Taxobox
+| name = Crow, etc.
+| image =Corvus-brachyrhynchos-001.jpg
+| image_caption = [[American crow]] (''Corvus brachyrhynchos'')
+| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
+| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
+| classis = [[Bird|Aves]]
+| ordo = [[Passerine|Passeriformes]]
+| familia = [[Corvidae]]
+| genus = '''''Corvus'''''
+| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
+| subdivision_ranks = Species
+| subdivision = many, see {{Main|List of Corvus species}}
+| diversity_link = List of Corvus species
+| diversity = c. 40 species
+}}
+'''Corvus''' is a a widely distributed [[genus]] of [[bird]]s in the family [[Corvidae]]. Ranging in size from the relatively small [[Columbidae|pigeon]]-size [[western jackdaw|jackdaw]]s ([[Eurasian jackdaw|Eurasian]] and [[Daurian jackdaw|Daurian]]) to the [[common raven]] of the [[Holarctic]] region and [[thick-billed raven]] of the highlands of [[Ethiopia]], the 40 or so members of this genus occur on all temperate [[continent]]s except [[South America]], and several islands. In Europe, the word "crow" is used to refer to the [[carrion crow]] or the [[hooded crow]], while in North America it is used for the [[American crow]] or the [[northwestern crow]].
+The crow genus makes up a third of the species in the [[Corvidae]] family. The members appear to have [[evolved]] in Asia from the corvid stock, which had evolved in Australia. The [[collective noun|collective name]] for a group of crows is a ''flock'' or a ''murder''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.word-detective.com/2009/02/murder-of-crows-etc |title=Murder of Crows, etc. |publisher=Word-detective.com |accessdate=12 November 2011}}</ref>
+Recent research has found some crow species capable of not only [[Tool use by animals|tool use]] but also tool construction.<ref name="Winkler">{{cite news|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/08/0808_020808_crow.html|title=Crow Makes Wire Hook to Get Food|last=Winkler|first=Robert|date=8 August 2002|work=National Geographic|accessdate=6 February 2011}}</ref> Crows are now considered to be among the world's most [[Animal cognition|intelligent]] animals<ref name="pbs">{{cite web|url=http://video.pbs.org/video/1621910826/#|title=A Murder of Crows|date=24 October 2010|work=Nature|publisher=PBS video|accessdate=6 February 2011|quote=''New research indicates that crows are among the brightest animals in the world.''}}</ref> with an [[encephalization quotient]] approaching that of some apes.{{Citation needed|date=November 2013}}
+==Description==
+[[File:Flying Crow.jpg|thumb|right|[[Hooded crow]] (''Corvus cornix'') in flight]]
+[[File:Raven scavenging on a dead shark.jpg|thumb|right|[[Jungle crow]] (''Corvus macrorhynchos'') scavenging on a dead shark at a beach in [[Kumamoto, Japan]]]]
+''Corvus'' species are all black or black with little white or grey plumage. They are stout with strong bills and legs. There is limited [[sexual dimorphism]].
+==Evolutionary history and systematics==
+{{further2|[[Corvidae]]}}
+The members of the Corvus genus are believed to have [[evolution|evolve]]d in central [[Asia]] and radiated out into [[North America]], [[Africa]], [[Europe]], and [[Australia]].
+The latest evidence<ref>{{cite doi|10.1073/pnas.0401892101}}</ref> regarding the evolution indicates descent within the Australasian family Corvidae. However, the branch that would produce the modern groups such as [[jays]], [[magpies]] and large predominantly black ''Corvus'' had left [[Australasia]] and were concentrated in [[Asia]] by the time the Corvus evolved. ''Corvus'' has since re-entered Australia (relatively recently) and produced five species with one recognized sub-species.{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}}
+The genus was originally described by [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] in his 18th-century work ''[[Systema Naturae]]''.<ref>{{la icon}} {{cite book | last=Linnaeus | first=C | authorlink=Carolus Linnaeus | title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata. | publisher=Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii) | year=1758 | url=http://dz1.gdz-cms.de/index.php?id=img&no_cache=1&IDDOC=265100| page=824}}</ref> The name is derived from the [[Latin (language)|Latin]] ''corvus'' meaning "raven".<ref>{{cite book | last = Simpson | first = D.P. | title = Cassell's Latin Dictionary | publisher = Cassell Ltd. | year= 1979| edition = 5 | location = London | isbn = 0-304-52257-0 | page = 883}}</ref>
+The [[type species]] is the [[common raven]] ''(Corvus corax)''; others named in the same work include the [[carrion crow]] ''(C. corone)'', the [[hooded crow]] ''(C. cornix)'', the [[Rook (bird)|rook]] ''(C. frugilegus)'', and the [[jackdaw]] ''(C. monedula)''. The genus was originally broader, as the [[magpie]] was designated ''C. pica'' before being moved later into a genus of its own. There are now considered to be at least 42 [[Extant taxon|extant]] species in this genus, and at least 14 [[extinct]] species have been described.
+There is not a good systematic approach to the genus at present. In general, it is assumed that the species from a geographical area are more closely related to each other than to other lineages, but this is not necessarily correct. For example, while members of the Carrion/Collared/[[house crow]] complex are certainly closely related, the situation is not at all clear regarding the Australian/Melanesian species. Furthermore, as many species are similar in appearance, determining actual range and characteristics can be very difficult, such as in Australia where the five (possibly six) species are almost identical in appearance.{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}}
+[[File:Jackdaw - up close and personal (552502080).jpg|thumb|left|Closeup of the upper body of a [[jackdaw]] (''Corvus monedula'')]]
+The [[fossil record]] of crows is rather dense in Europe, but the relationships among most prehistoric species are not clear.
+===Species===
+{{Main|List of Corvus species}}
+==Behavior==
+===Play===
+There are countless recorded incidents of crows at play. Many behaviourists see play as an essential quality in intelligent animals.<ref>Bekoff, Mark & Byers, John (1998). ''Animal Play: Evolutionary, Comparative and Ecological Perspectives.''</ref>
+===Calls===
+{{Listen|filename=Corvus brachyrhynchos call.ogg|title=Corvus brachyrhynchos call|description=Call of Corvus brachyrhynchos ([[American crow]])|format=[[Ogg/FLAC]]}}
+Crows and the other members of the genus make a wide variety of calls or vocalizations. Crows have also been observed to respond to calls of other species; presumably, this behavior is learned because it varies regionally. Crows' vocalizations are complex and poorly understood. Some of the many vocalizations that crows make are a "Koww", usually echoed back and forth between birds; a series of "Kowws" in discrete units; a long caw followed by a series of short caws (usually made when a bird takes off from a perch); an echo-like "eh-aw" sound; and more. These vocalizations vary by species, and within each species they vary regionally. In many species, the pattern and number of the numerous vocalizations have been observed to change in response to events in the surroundings (e.g. arrival or departure of crows).
+===Intelligence===
+As a group, crows show remarkable examples of intelligence. Natural history books from the 18th century recount an often-repeated, but unproven anecdote of "counting crows" — specifically a crow whose ability to count to five (or four in some versions) is established through a logic trap set by a farmer.<ref>{{cite book|author=Dehaene, Stanislas |title=The Number Sense: How the Mind Creates Mathematics, Revised and Updated Edition|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=SPaapa4PMVEC&pg=PA289|date= 2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-975387-1|pages=289–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Park, Keeok |title=Numbers Are Us|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=74e6ZB9YcscC&pg=PA19|publisher=Keeok Park|isbn=978-0-9843446-3-5|pages=19–}}</ref> Crows and ravens often score very highly on intelligence tests. Certain [[species]] top the [[avian IQ]] scale.<ref>{{cite news|last=Rincon |first=Paul |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4286965.stm |title=Science/Nature &#124; Crows and jays top bird IQ scale |publisher=BBC News |date=22 February 2005 |accessdate=12 November 2011}}</ref> Wild hooded crows in Israel have learned to use bread crumbs for bait-fishing.<ref>[http://www.orenhasson.com/EN/bait-fishing.htm Bait-Fishing in Crows] {{en icon}}{{Verify credibility|date=June 2011}}</ref> Crows will engage in a kind of mid-air [[jousting]], or air-"[[game of chicken|chicken]]" to establish pecking order. Crows have been found to engage in feats such as sports,<ref>{{cite web|author=Post to Wall |url=http://www.wimp.com/crowtubing/ |title=Crow tubing upon a slide (video) |publisher=Wimp.com |accessdate=19 December 2013}}</ref> tool use, the ability to hide and store food across seasons, [[episodic-like memory]], and the ability to use individual experience in predicting the behavior of environmental conspecifics.<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1371/journal.pbio.0060202}}</ref>
+One species, the [[New Caledonian crow]], has also been intensively studied recently because of its ability to manufacture and use [[tool]]s in the day-to-day search for food. On 5 October 2007, researchers from the [[University of Oxford]], [[England]], presented data acquired by mounting tiny video cameras on the tails of New Caledonian crows. They pluck, smooth and bend twigs and grass stems to procure a variety of foodstuffs.<ref>Schmid, Randolph E. (5 October 2007) {{Wayback |date=20120331073051 |url=http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2007/10/05/crows_ani.html?category=animals&guid=20071005130000&dcitc=w19-502-ak-0000 |title="Crows Bend Twigs Into Tools"}}, Associated Press via Discovery Channel</ref><ref>See also the video [http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/adaptations/Tool_use_by_animals#p00bt2kq "Crow bars"], from the BBC's ''The Life of Birds''</ref> Crows in [[Queensland]], [[Australia]] have learned how to eat the toxic [[cane toad]] by flipping the cane toad on its back and violently stabbing the throat where the skin is thinner, allowing the crow to access the non-toxic innards; their long beaks ensure that all of the innards can be removed.<ref>{{cite web|author=Katrina Bolton |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2007/09/15/2033759.htm |title=Toads fall victim to crows in NT – ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation) |publisher=Abc.net.au |date=15 September 2007 |accessdate=12 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ozanimals.com/Frog/Cane-Toad/Bufo/marinus.html |title=Cane Toad (Bufo marinus) |publisher=Ozanimals.com |accessdate=12 November 2011}}</ref>
+The [[jackdaw]] and the [[European magpie]] have been found to have a [[nidopallium]] approximately the same relative size as the functionally equivalent neocortex in chimpanzees and humans, and significantly larger than is found in the [[gibbon]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Comparative vertebrate cognition: are primates superior to non-primates?|url=http://books.google.com/?id=e021s7atsicC&pg=PA9|author= Rogers, Lesley J.; Kaplan, Gisela T. |page= 9|publisher= Springer|location=New York, New York|year=2004|isbn=0-306-47727-0}}</ref>
+Crows have demonstrated the ability to distinguish individual humans by recognizing facial features.<ref name="Nijhuis">{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/26/science/26crow.html|title=Friend or Foe? Crows Never Forget a Face, It Seems|last=Nijhuis|first=Michelle|date=25 August 2008|work=The New York Times|accessdate=6 February 2011}}</ref>
+Evidence also suggests that they are one of the few non-human animals capable of [[displacement (linguistics)|displacement]] (communicating about things that are happening in a different spatial or temporal location to the here and now).<ref>{{cite doi|10.1007/BF00300349}}</ref><ref>{{cite doi|10.1007/BF00172134}}</ref>
+==Diet==
+Crows are omnivorous, and their diet is very diverse. They will eat almost anything, including other birds, fruits, nuts, mollusks, earthworms, seeds, frogs, eggs, nestlings, mice and carrion. The origin of placing scarecrows in grain fields resulted from the crow’s incessant damaging and scavenging, although crows assist farmers by eating insects otherwise attracted to their crops.<ref>[http://www.crowbusters.com/facts.htm Crow Facts]. crowbusters.com</ref>
+==Life span and disease==
+[[File:crow-nestlings.jpg|thumb|left|Nestlings, almost ready to fledge]]
+Crows reach sexual maturity around the age of 3 years for females and 5 years for males. Some crows may live to the age of 20, and the oldest known American crow in the wild was almost 30 years old.<ref>McGowan, K.J. [http://www.birds.cornell.edu/crows/crowfaq.htm#longevity "Frequently Asked Questions About Crows"], Cornell Lab of Ornithology</ref> The oldest captive crow documented died at age 59.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/07/07/AR2006070700860.html Crow Believed to Be Oldest in World Dies]. Associated Press via Washington Post (7 July 2006)</ref>
+The American crow is highly susceptible to the recently introduced North American strain of [[West Nile virus]].<ref>[http://www.cidd.psu.edu/research/synopses/why-west-nile-virus-kills-so-many-crows "Why West Nile virus kills so many crows"], Penn State Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics</ref> American crows typically die within one week of acquiring the disease and very few survive exposure.
+==Conservation status==
+[[File:Corvus hawaiiensis in grass.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Hawaiian crow]] or ''ʻalala'' (''Corvus hawaiiensis'') is nearly [[extinct]]; only a few dozen birds survive in captivity. It is listed as "extinct in the wild" by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service.]]
+Two species of crow have been listed as endangered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: the [[Hawaiian crow]] and the [[Mariana crow]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fws.gov/pacific/ecoservices/endangered/recovery/5yearactive.html |title=Pacific Region Endangered Species, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service |publisher=Fws.gov |date=23 June 2011 |accessdate=12 November 2011}}</ref>
+The [[American crow]], despite having its population reduced by 45% since 1999 by the [[West Nile virus]], is considered a [[Least Concern|Species of Least Concern]].
+==Problems with crows and methods of control==
+Intelligence and social structures makes most crow species, or Corvids, an adaptable and opportunistic species. Crows frequently cause damage to crops and property,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Lim, H. C., N. S. Sodhi, B. W. Brook, and M. C. K. Soh|year= 2003|title=Factors determining the distribution of three invasive bird species in Singapore|journal= Journal of Tropical Ecology |volume=19|pages= 685–695|doi=10.1017/s0266467403006084}}</ref> strew trash, and transfer disease. In densely populated areas around the world, Corvid species are generally regarded as nuisance animals.<ref>{{cite doi|10.2307/3802688}}</ref> Crows are protected in the U.S. under the federal Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, but because of their perceived destructive nature, control of the species is allowed in certain areas. Because of the Corvids' intelligence, their control is an expensive and perplexing proposition. Methods for control include hunting, chemical immobilization, harassment scare tactics, and trapping, as well as others. Before any measure is used to confine, trap, kill, poison, immobilize, or alter the habits of any wild bird species a person must check local, state, and federal regulations pertaining to such actions.
+===Hunting===
+{{Globalize|date=July 2014|discuss=Talk:Crow#Hunting| 1= section <!-- (defaults to article) -->| 2=the United States}}
+In the United States, despite crows being protected under the Federal Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, hunting is allowed under state and federal regulation. Crow hunting is considered a sport in rural areas of the U.S. because the birds are not considered a tasty traditional game species. Some cultures do treat various Corvid species as a food source.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/06/090609-eating-crow-video-ap.html |title=National Geographic News. 2010. Crow meat comes back—boost sexual potency? Accessed. 17 Oct 2013 |publisher=News.nationalgeographic.com |date=28 October 2010 |accessdate=19 December 2013}}</ref> Liability and possible danger to persons and property limit the use of hunting or shooting as control methods in urban areas. Crows' wariness and cunning make it difficult to harvest crows in sufficient numbers.
+===Poisoning===
+Poisoning has been used in the past as a method of controlling crow populations, usually in urban areas or areas of large crow populations. Liability, cost associated with the chemicals, permits and manpower, threat to non-target species such as raptors, and availability of chemicals makes poisoning less than a desirable method for control.
+===Scare tactics===
+Scare tactics have been the most widely used aversion tactic for crows in areas frequented by humans and domestic animal species. This is a safe method that does not require constant maintenance or manpower to operate or monitor. However, Corvids quickly become habituated to most tactics such as blast cannons, predator decoys, and traditional scarecrows. Greater success has been achieved by adding sound and motion to predator decoys to mimic a distressed crow being caught by a predator such as an owl or hawk.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Conover, M. R.|year= 1985|title= Protecting vegetables from crows using an animated crow-killing owl model|journal= The Journal of Wildlife Management|volume= 49|pages= 643–645|doi=10.2307/3801687}}</ref> Work is currently being done which uses multiple aversion techniques in one area. The theory is that multiple techniques used together will confuse the crows, thereby lessening the probability of habituation to stimuli.
+===Trapping===
+Trapping is a rarely used technique in the U.S. but is being used with success in parts of Europe and Australia. The ladder-style trap (e.g., Australian Crow Trap or Modified Australian Crow Trap) seems to be the most effective in crow-trapping techniques. Ladder traps are constructed in such a way that unintentional catch of non-target species is avoided. If a non-target species is caught, it can be easily released without harm to the bird. The traps are cost-efficient because they are inexpensive and simple to construct, and require little manpower to monitor. The bait used in the traps can also be specific to Corvids. Carrion, grains, unshelled raw peanuts, and shiny objects in the trap are effective baits. When removing crows from a ladder trap, one living crow is left as an extremely effective decoy for other crows. [[bird trapping|Trapping]] is considered the most humane method for crow removal because the crows can be relocated without harm or stress. However, most wild birds in general have a knack for returning to their home ranges.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://icwdm.org/handbook/birds/bird_e33.pdf |title= American crows|author=Johnson, R. J.|publisher= Internet Center for Wildlife Management|accessdate=19 December 2013}}</ref>
+===Other methods===
+Other methods have been used with little or limited success. Lasers have been used successfully to remove large flocks of birds from roost structures in urban areas, but success in keeping crows off roosts has been short lived.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1080/09670870210151689 }}</ref> Homeowners can reduce the presence of crows by keeping trash stored in containers, feeding pets indoors, and hanging tin pie-pans or reflective gazing globes around garden areas.
+==As a food supplement==
+Crows were hunted for survival by [[Curonians]], a Baltic tribe,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nerija.lt/kultra/verslai/varnu-gaudymas |title=Crow hunting |publisher=http://www.nerija.lt |accessdate=17 March 2013}}</ref> when common food was exhausted and the landscape changed so that farming was not as productive during the 18th and 19th centuries. Fishermen supplemented their diet by gathering coastal bird eggs and preserving crow meat by salting and smoking it. It became a traditional food for poor folk and is documented in a poem, ''[[The Seasons (poem)|The Seasons]]'' by [[Kristijonas Donelaitis|K. Donelaitis]]. After the non-hunting policy was lifted by the Prussian government in 1721&ndash;24 and alternative food supplies increased, the practice was forgotten. The tradition reemerged after World War I; in marketplaces, it was common to find butchered crows which were sought after and bought by townsfolk. The hunted crows were not the local, but the migrating ones; each year during the spring and autumn crows migrated via the [[Curonian Spit]] between Finland and the rest of Europe. In 1943, the government even issued a hunting quota for such activities. Crows were usually caught by attracting them with smoked fish or grains soaked in spirits and then collecting them with nets. It was a job for the elderly or young who were unable to go to sea to fish, and it was common to catch 150 to 200 birds during a hunting day.
+==In human culture==
+{{See also|Cultural depictions of ravens}}
+[[File:Brooklyn Museum - Crow on a Branch - Kawanabe Kyosai.jpg|thumb|right|''Crow on a Branch'' - [[Kawanabe Kyosai]] (1831–1889)]]
+The [[common raven]] and [[carrion crow]] have been blamed for killing weak lambs and are often seen eating freshly dead corpses probably killed by other means. The Australian raven has been documented chasing, attacking and seriously injuring lambs.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1071/EA9670329 }}</ref> [[Rook (bird)|Rooks]] have been blamed for eating grain in the UK and [[brown-necked raven]] for raiding date crops in desert countries.<ref name = "CotW83">{{cite book|author=Goodwin D.|year=1983|title=Crows of the World |publisher=Queensland University Press, St Lucia, Qld|isbn=0-7022-1015-3}}</ref>
+In [[Auburn, New York|Auburn]] in the U.S. state of New York, 25,000 to 50,000 American crows (C. brachyrhynchos) have taken to roosting in the small city's large trees during winter since around 1993.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnylinks.com/crows/ |title=Auburn NY Crow Roost and lighting changes |publisher=Cnylinks.com |accessdate=12 November 2011}}</ref> In 2003, a controversial, organized crow hunt proved ineffective at reducing their numbers and the problem (concerns for public health and the sheer noise of so many crows) continues.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.auburnpub.com/articles/2003/02/03/opinion/our_view/ourview01.txt |title=The Citizen, Auburn NY |publisher=Auburnpub.com |date=14 June 2002 |accessdate=12 November 2011}}</ref>
+At a [[TED (conference)|Technology Entertainment Design conference]] in March 2008, [[Joshua Klein]] presented the potential use of a [[vending machine]] for crows. He suggested the crows could be trained to pick up [[waste]] and the vending machine would be designed to give a reward in exchange for the trash.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ted.com/index.php/talks/joshua_klein_on_the_intelligence_of_crows.html |first=Joshua |last=Klein |title=The amazing intelligence of crows |work= [[TED (conference)|TED conference]] |year=2008 |accessdate=9 July 2008}}</ref>
+Crows have been shown to have the ability to visually recognize individual humans, and to transmit information about "bad" humans by squawking.<ref>[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=106826971 The Crow Paradox] by Robert Krulwich. Morning Edition, National Public Radio. 27 July 2009.</ref>
+===Myth and spirituality===
+[[File:The-Twa-Corbies.jpg|left|thumb|upright|''[[The Three Ravens|The Twa Corbies]]'' by [[Arthur Rackham]]]]
+In [[Irish mythology]], crows are associated with [[Morrigan]], the goddess of war and death.<ref>{{cite book|author=Leeming, David Adams|chapter=Crows and ravens|title=The Oxford companion to world mythology|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-515669-0|page=86|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=kQFtlva3HaYC&pg=PA86}}</ref>
+The god [[Bran the Blessed]] – whose name means "crow" or "[[raven]]"- is associated with corvids and death; tradition holds that Bran's severed head is buried under the [[Tower of London]], facing France – a possible genesis for the practice of keeping ravens in the Tower, said to protect the fortunes of Britain. In [[Cornish folklore]], crows – [[magpies]] particularly- – are associated with death and the "otherworld", and proscribes respectful greeting. The origin of "counting crows" as [[augury]] is British; however, the British version rather is to "count magpies" – their black and white [[Piebald|pied]] colouring alluding to the realms of the living and dead.
+In [[Norse mythology]], [[Huginn and Muninn]] are a pair of [[common raven]]s that range the entire world, [[Midgard]], bringing the god [[Odin]] information.
+In [[Sweden]], ravens are held to be the ghosts of murdered men.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.avianweb.com/commonravens.html |title=Common Ravens - Species Information |publisher=Avianweb.com |accessdate=19 December 2013}}</ref> In [[Denmark]], the night raven is considered an exorcised spirit. There is a hole in its left wing where the stake used to exorcise it was driven into the earth. Those looking through the hole will become a night raven themselves.<ref>''[[The Atlantic Monthly]]'', Volume 34 (Google eBook)</ref>
+In [[Australian Aboriginal mythology]], [[Crow (Australian Aboriginal mythology)|Crow]] is a [[trickster]], [[culture hero]], and ancestral being. Legends relating to Crow have been observed in various Aboriginal language groups and cultures across Australia; these commonly include stories relating to Crow's role in the theft of fire, the origin of death, and the killing of Eagle's son.
+[[File:Corbeau branche Kyo.jpg|thumb|upright|''Crow on a branch'', [[Maruyama Ōkyo]] (1733–1795)]]
+The [[Chaldean mythology|Chaldean myth]] the ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', [[Utnapishtim]] releases a [[dove]] and raven to find land; however, the dove merely circles and returns. Only then does Utnapishtim send forth the raven, which does not return, and Utnapishtim concludes the raven has found land.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kovacs, Maureen Gallery|title=The epic of Gilgamesh|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=1989|isbn=978-0-8047-1711-3|page=102|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=YYxEd9c0EUYC&pg=PA102}}</ref>
+According to Ovid's Metamorphoses, in [[Greek mythology]], the god [[Apollo]] became enraged when the crow exposed his lover [[Coronis (Greek mythology)|Coronis']] tryst with a mortal, his ire transmuting the crow's feathers from white to black.<ref>{{cite book|author=Dixon-Kennedy, Mike|chapter=Coronis/Corvus|title=Encyclopedia of Greco-Roman mythology|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1998|isbn=978-1-57607-129-8|page=93|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2U7okUE3PIcC&pg=PA93}}</ref>
+In the ''[[Contents and stories of the Yoga Vasistha#Section Six: On Liberation|Story of Bhusunda]]'', a chapter of the ''[[Yoga Vasistha]]'', a very old sage in the form of a crow, Bhusunda, recalls a succession of epochs in the earth's history, as described in [[Hindu cosmology]]. He survived several destructions, living on a [[Kalpavriksha|wish-fulfilling tree]] on [[Mount Meru]].<ref name="cole-hindu-zoro">Cole, Juan R.I. ''[http://bahaistudies.net/hindu_zoro.html Baha'u'llah on Hinduism and Zoroastrianism: The Tablet to Mirza Abu'l-Fadl Concerning the Questions of Manakji Limji Hataria]''.</ref> Crows are also considered ancestors in Hinduism and during [[Śrāddha]], the practice of offering food or [[Pinda (riceball)|pinda]] to crows is still in vogue.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.hindu.com/2001/07/26/stories/13261289.htm | location=Chennai, India | work=The Hindu|title=It's a crow's day |author=Vasudevan, Vidia | date=26 July 2001}}</ref>
+Crows are mentioned often in [[Buddhism]], especially [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan]] disciplines. The Dharmapala (protector of the Dharma) [[Mahakala]] is represented by a crow in one of his physical/earthly forms.{{citation needed|date=December 2012}}
+In [[Japanese mythology]], a [[three-legged crow]] called {{Nihongo|''Yatagarasu''|八咫烏||"eight-hand-crow"}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Picken, Stuart D.B.|title=Essentials of Shinto: an analytical guide to principal teachings|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=1994|isbn=978-0-313-26431-3|page=96|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=yA3_QqC6pPgC&pg=PA96}}</ref> is depicted.<ref>{{cite book|author=Como, Michael|title=Weaving and binding: immigrant gods and female immortals in ancient Japan|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8248-2957-5|pages=100–103|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=-UNEhdX6ePMC&pg=PA100}}</ref>
+In [[Korean mythology]], there is a [[three-legged crow]] known as Samjokgo (hangul: 삼족오; hanja: 三足烏).{{citation needed|date=December 2012}}
+In [[Chinese mythology]], the world originally had ten suns either spiritually embodied as ten crows and/or carried by ten crows: when all ten decided to rise at once the effect was devastating to crops, so the gods sent their greatest archer [[Houyi]], who shot down nine crows and spared only one. This mythology comes from a text in ''[[Shanhaijing]]'', among other sources.<ref>{{cite book|last=Yang|first=Lihui|title=Handbook of Chinese Mythology|year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=95–96 and 231|url=http://books.google.com/?id=tUwTxocaOGsC&pg=PA95|isbn=9780195332636}}</ref>
+In [[Hinduism]], crows are thought of as carriers of information. They give omens to people regarding their situations. For example, when a crow crows in front of a person's house, he is expected to have special visitors that day. Also, in Hindu literature, crows have great memories which they use to give information.{{citation needed|date=December 2012}}
+[[File:Indian Crow.jpg|thumb|upright|[[House crow]] (''Corvus splendens'')]]
+In [[Islam]], crow is one of the five animals for which there is no blame on the one who kills them.<ref>[http://islamqa.info/en/2896 What Ruling on killing mice and rats]. Islamqa.info. Retrieved on 19 April 2014.</ref>
+Ancient Greek authors tell how a jackdaw, being a social creature, may be caught with a dish of oil that it falls into while looking at its own reflection.<ref name=wentworth>D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson, ''A Glossary of Greek Birds.'' Oxford, 1895. p. 89.</ref> The Roman poet [[Ovid]] saw them as a harbinger of rain (Amores 2,6, 34).<ref name="deVries76">{{cite book |last=de Vries |first=Ad |title=Dictionary of Symbols and Imagery |year=1976 |page=275|publisher=North-Holland Publishing Company |location=Amsterdam |isbn=0-7204-8021-3}}</ref> In Greek legend, princess [[Arne Sithonis|Arne]] was bribed with gold by King [[Minos]] of Crete, and was punished for her avarice by being transformed into an equally avaricious jackdaw, who still seeks shiny things.<ref name=Graves1589>{{cite book |last=Graves |first=R |authorlink=Robert Graves |title=Greek Myths |year=1955|publisher=Penguin |location=London |isbn=0-14-001026-2|page=308 |chapter=Scylla and Nisus}}</ref>
+In [[Aesop's Fables]], the jackdaw embodies stupidity in one tale, by starving while waiting for figs on a fig tree to ripen, and vanity in another – the jackdaw sought to become king of the birds with borrowed feathers, but was shamed when they fell off.<ref name="deVries76">{{cite book |last=de Vries |first=Ad |title=Dictionary of Symbols and Imagery |year=1976 |pages=388–89|publisher=North-Holland Publishing Company |location=Amsterdam |isbn=0-7204-8021-3}}</ref> [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] notes how the [[Thessalian]]s, [[Illyrians]] and [[Lemnian]]s cherished jackdaws for destroying grasshoppers' eggs. The [[Veneti]] are fabled to have bribed the jackdaws to spare their crops.<ref name=wentworth/> Another ancient Greek and Roman adage runs, "The swans will sing when the jackdaws are silent," meaning that educated or wise people will speak after the foolish become quiet.<ref>''Collected Works of [[Erasmus]]: Adages: Ivi1 to Ix100.'' Translated by Roger A. Mynors. University of Toronto Press, 1989. p. 314.</ref> In reality, corvids are among the most intelligent birds in the world, and this traditional association with ignorance is quite inaccurate. However, there is one other Aesop Fable where the crow is depicted as very cunning. He comes up to a pitcher and knows that his beak is too short to reach the water and if he tips it over, all the water will fall out. The crow then proceeds to pick up pebbles and places them in the pitcher so the water may rise and he can reach it to relieve his thirst.<ref>[http://www.pagebypagebooks.com/Aesop/Aesops_Fables/The_Crow_and_the_Pitcher_p1.html The Crow and the Pitcher], Aesop's Fables</ref>
+==See also==
+* [[Corvus (heraldry)]]
+* [[Eating crow]]
+* [[Ischys]] for the Greek myth of why the crow's feathers are black.
+* [[Raven]]
+* [[Scarecrow]]s
+==References==
+{{Reflist|30em}}
+==Further reading==
+{{refbegin}}
+*{{cite book|chapter=Crow|title=The international wildlife encyclopedia, Volume 10|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|year=2002|isbn=978-0-7614-7266-7|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ojMQP6aWW6sC&pg=PA610|author=Burton, Maurice & Burton, Robert}}
+*{{cite journal|ref=idGill2003|title=Osteometry and Systematics of the Extinct New Zealand Ravens (Aves: Corvidae: Corvus)|url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=149547.|author=Gill, B. J.|journal=Journal of Systematic Palaeontology|year=2003|volume=1|pages=43–58|accessdate=14 March 2008|doi=10.1017/S1477201903001019}}
+*{{cite book|ref=idGoodwin1983|author=Goodwin, D.|title=Crows of the World|isbn=0-7022-1015-3|year=1983|publisher=Queensland University Press}}
+*{{cite book|ref=idHeinrich1991|author=Heinrich, Bernd|title=Ravens in Winter|isbn=0-679-73236-5|year=1991|publisher=Vintage Press}}
+*{{cite book|ref=idHeinrich1999|author=Heinrich, Bernd|title=Mind of the Raven: Investigations and Adventures with Wolf-Birds|isbn=978-0-06-093063-9|year=1999|publisher=Cliff Street Books}}
+*{{cite book|ref=idKilham1991|author=Kilham, Lawrence|title=The American Crow and the Common Raven|isbn=0-89096-466-1|year=1991|publisher=Texas A&M University Press}}
+* {{cite book|title=Crows and jays: a guide to the crows, jays, and magpies of the world|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|year=1994|isbn=978-0-395-67171-9|author=Madge, Steve & Burn, Hillary}}
+*{{cite book|ref=idWesterfield2011|author=Westerfield, Michael|title=The Language of Crows: The crows.net Book of the American Crow|isbn=978-0-937992-00-5|year=2011|publisher=Ashford Press}}
+*{{cite book|ref=idWorthy2002|title=The Lost World of the Moa: Prehistoric Life of New Zealand|isbn=0-253-34034-9|year=2002|publisher=Indiana University Press|author=Worthy, Trevor H. & Holdaway, Richard N.}}
+{{refend}}
+==External links==
+{{Wikisource1911Enc|Crow}}
+{{Commons category|Corvus}}
+*[http://www.birds.cornell.edu/crows/crowfaq.htm Frequently Asked Questions About Crows]
+*[http://www.birdhouses101.com/crow.asp Crow: by Bird Houses 101]
+*[http://www.crows.net/ crows.net: The Language & Culture of Crows]
+*[http://www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/crow/ Video of Crow Making and Using Tools]
+*[http://users.ox.ac.uk/~kgroup/tools/tools_main.shtml Info on Tool use by Crows]
+*[http://ibc.lynxeds.com/family/crows-corvidae Crow Videos] on the Internet Bird Collection
+*[http://www.ted.com/talks/view/id/261 TED Talk: The Amazing Intelligence of Crows] by Joshua Klein
+*[http://www.corvidcorner.com Corvid Corner] – A Site about the Crow Family
+*{{YouTube|zJoBJM8G4JA|Video: A Crow uses Electrical Wire as Nest-building Material}}
+*[http://video.pbs.org/video/1621910826/# A Murder of Crows], 2010 PBS documentary
+*[http://www.cracked.com/article_19042_6-terrifying-ways-crows-are-way-smarter-than-you-think.html 6 Terrifying Ways Crows Are Way Smarter Than You Think] at [[Cracked.com]]
+{{Corvidae|2}}
+[[Category:Corvus|*]]
+[[Category:Talking birds]]
+[[Category:Scavengers]]