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}}</ref> or ''B. cepacia'' medium).<ref name="Peacock"/> For heavily contaminated samples, such as faeces, a modified version of Ashdown's that includes [[norfloxacin]], [[amoxicillin]], and [[polymyxin B]] has been proposed.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Goodyear A, Strange L, Rholl DA, ''et al.''|title=An improved selective culture medium enhances the isolation of ''Burkholderia pseudomallei'' from contaminated specimens.|journal=Am J Trop Med Hyg|year=2013|volume=89|issue=5|pages=973&ndash;82|doi=10.4269/ajtmh.13-0119}}</ref>
}}</ref> or ''B. cepacia'' medium).<ref name="Peacock"/> For heavily contaminated samples, such as faeces, a modified version of Ashdown's that includes [[norfloxacin]], [[amoxicillin]], and [[polymyxin B]] has been proposed.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Goodyear A, Strange L, Rholl DA, ''et al.''|title=An improved selective culture medium enhances the isolation of ''Burkholderia pseudomallei'' from contaminated specimens.|journal=Am J Trop Med Hyg|year=2013|volume=89|issue=5|pages=973&ndash;82|doi=10.4269/ajtmh.13-0119}}</ref> In blood culture, the BacT/ALERT MB system (normally used for culturing [[Mycobacteria|Mycobacterium]]) by bioMérieux has been shown have superior yields compared to conventional blood culture media.<ref>{{cite journal|author = Jorakate P, Higdon M, Kaewpan A, ''et al.''|title=Contribution of the BacT/ALERT MB Mycobacteria Bottle to bloodstream infection surveillance in Thailand: added yield for ''Burkholderia pseudomallei.''|journal=J Clin Microbiol|date=2015|pubmed=25588650 }}</ref>


Even when the isolate is recognised to be significant, commonly used identification systems may misidentify the organism as ''[[Chromobacterium violaceum]]'' or other nonfermenting, Gram-negative bacilli such as ''[[Burkholderia cepacia]]'' or ''[[Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Inglis TJ, Chiang D, Lee GS, Chor-Kiang L |title=Potential misidentification of Burkholderia pseudomallei by API 20NE |journal=Pathology |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=62–4 |date=February 1998 |pmid=9534210 |doi=10.1080/00313029800169685 |url=}}</ref><ref name="Lowe">{{cite journal |author=Lowe P, Engler C, Norton R |title=Comparison of automated and nonautomated systems for identification of Burkholderia pseudomallei |journal=Journal of clinical microbiology |volume=40 |issue=12 |pages=4625–7 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12454163 |pmc=154629 |doi=10.1128/JCM.40.12.4625-4627.2002 |url=http://jcm.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12454163}}</ref> Again, because the disease is rarely seen in western countries, identification of ''B. pseudomallei'' in cultures may not actually trigger alarms in physicians unfamiliar with the disease.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kite-Powell A, Livengood JR, Suarez J, ''et al.''|title=Imported Melioidosis&mdash;South Florida, 2005|journal=Morb Mortal Wkly Rep|year=2006|volume=55|issue=32|pages=873&ndash;76|pmid=16915220|url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5532a1.htm}}</ref> Routine biochemical methods for identification of bacteria vary widely in their identification of this organism: the [[Analytical profile index|API]] 20NE system accurately identifies ''B. pseudomallei'' in 99% of cases,<ref name="2007Amornchai">{{cite journal |author=Amornchai P, Chierakul W, Wuthiekanun V, ''et al.'' |title=Accuracy of Burkholderia pseudomallei identification using the API 20NE system and a latex agglutination test |journal=Journal of clinical microbiology |volume=45 |issue=11 |pages=3774–6 |date=November 2007 |pmid=17804660 |pmc=2168515 |doi=10.1128/JCM.00935-07 |url=http://jcm.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17804660}}</ref> as does the automated Vitek 1 system, but the automated Vitek 2 system only identifies 19% of isolates.<ref name="Lowe"/>
Even when the isolate is recognised to be significant, commonly used identification systems may misidentify the organism as ''[[Chromobacterium violaceum]]'' or other nonfermenting, Gram-negative bacilli such as ''[[Burkholderia cepacia]]'' or ''[[Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Inglis TJ, Chiang D, Lee GS, Chor-Kiang L |title=Potential misidentification of Burkholderia pseudomallei by API 20NE |journal=Pathology |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=62–4 |date=February 1998 |pmid=9534210 |doi=10.1080/00313029800169685 |url=}}</ref><ref name="Lowe">{{cite journal |author=Lowe P, Engler C, Norton R |title=Comparison of automated and nonautomated systems for identification of Burkholderia pseudomallei |journal=Journal of clinical microbiology |volume=40 |issue=12 |pages=4625–7 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12454163 |pmc=154629 |doi=10.1128/JCM.40.12.4625-4627.2002 |url=http://jcm.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12454163}}</ref> Again, because the disease is rarely seen in western countries, identification of ''B. pseudomallei'' in cultures may not actually trigger alarms in physicians unfamiliar with the disease.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kite-Powell A, Livengood JR, Suarez J, ''et al.''|title=Imported Melioidosis&mdash;South Florida, 2005|journal=Morb Mortal Wkly Rep|year=2006|volume=55|issue=32|pages=873&ndash;76|pmid=16915220|url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5532a1.htm}}</ref> Routine biochemical methods for identification of bacteria vary widely in their identification of this organism: the [[Analytical profile index|API]] 20NE system accurately identifies ''B. pseudomallei'' in 99% of cases,<ref name="2007Amornchai">{{cite journal |author=Amornchai P, Chierakul W, Wuthiekanun V, ''et al.'' |title=Accuracy of Burkholderia pseudomallei identification using the API 20NE system and a latex agglutination test |journal=Journal of clinical microbiology |volume=45 |issue=11 |pages=3774–6 |date=November 2007 |pmid=17804660 |pmc=2168515 |doi=10.1128/JCM.00935-07 |url=http://jcm.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17804660}}</ref> as does the automated Vitek 1 system, but the automated Vitek 2 system only identifies 19% of isolates.<ref name="Lowe"/>

Revision as of 10:45, 26 January 2015

Burkholderia pseudomallei
B. pseudomallei colonies on Ashdown's agar showing the characteristic cornflower head morphology.
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Bacteria
Phylum:
Proteobacteria
Class:
Beta Proteobacteria
Order:
Burkholderiales
Family:
Burkholderiaceae
Genus:
Burkholderia
Species:
B. pseudomallei
Binomial name
Burkholderia pseudomallei
(Whitmore 1913)
Yabuuchi et al. 1993[1]
Synonyms

Bacillus pseudomallei Whitmore 1913
Bacterium whitmori Stanton and Fletcher 1921
Malleomyces pseudomallei Breed 1939
Loefflerella pseudomallei Brindle and Cowan 1951
Pfeiferella pseudomallei
Pseudomonas pseudomallei (Whitmore 1913) Haynes 1957

Burkholderia pseudomallei (also known as Pseudomonas pseudomallei) is a Gram-negative, bipolar, aerobic, motile rod-shaped bacterium.[2] It infects humans and animals and causes the disease melioidosis. It is also capable of infecting plants.[3]

B. pseudomallei measures 2-5 μm in length and 0.4-0.8 μm in diameter and is capable of self-propulsion using flagellae. The bacteria can grow in a number of artificial nutrient environments, especially betaine- and arginine-containing ones.

In vitro, optimal proliferation temperature is reported around 40°C in neutral or slightly acidic environments (pH 6.8–7.0). The majority of strains are capable of fermentation of sugars without gas formation (most importantly, glucose and galactose, older cultures are reported to also metabolize maltose and starch). Bacteria produce both exo- and endotoxins. The role of the toxins identified in the process of melioidosis symptom development has not been fully elucidated.[4]

Identification

B. pseudomallei is not fastidious and will grow on a large variety of culture media (blood agar, MacConkey agar, EMB, etc.). Ashdown's medium (or Burkholderia cepacia medium) may be used for selective isolation.[5] Cultures typically become positive in 24 to 48 hours (this rapid growth rate differentiates the organism from B. mallei, which typically takes a minimum of 72 hours to grow). Colonies are wrinkled, have a metallic appearance, and possess an earthy odour. On Gram staining, the organism is a Gram-negative rod with a characteristic "safety pin" appearance (bipolar staining). On sensitivity testing, the organism appears highly resistant (it is innately resistant to a large number of antibiotics including colistin and gentamicin) and that again differentiates it from B. mallei, which is in contrast, exquisitely sensitive to a large number of antibiotics. For environmental specimens only, differentiation from the nonpathogenic B. thailandensis using an arabinose test is necessary (B. thailandensis is never isolated from clinical specimens).[6] The laboratory identification of B. pseudomallei has been described in the literature.[7]

The classic textbook description of B. pseudomallei in clinical samples is of an intracellular, bipolar-staining, Gram-negative rod, but this is of little value in identifying the organism from clinical samples.[7] Some[8] suggest the Wayson stain is useful for this purpose, but this has been shown not to be the case.[9]

Laboratory identification of B. pseudomallei can be difficult, especially in Western countries where it is rarely seen. The large wrinkled colonies look like environmental contaminants, so are often discarded as being of no clinical significance. Colony morphology is very variable and a single strain may display up multiple colony types,[10][11] so inexperienced laboratory staff may mistakenly believe the growth is not pure. The organism grows more slowly than other bacteria that may be present in clinical specimens, and in specimens from nonsterile sites, is easily overgrown. Nonsterile specimens should, therefore, be cultured in selective media (e.g., Ashdown's[12][13] or B. cepacia medium).[5] For heavily contaminated samples, such as faeces, a modified version of Ashdown's that includes norfloxacin, amoxicillin, and polymyxin B has been proposed.[14] In blood culture, the BacT/ALERT MB system (normally used for culturing Mycobacterium) by bioMérieux has been shown have superior yields compared to conventional blood culture media.[15]

Even when the isolate is recognised to be significant, commonly used identification systems may misidentify the organism as Chromobacterium violaceum or other nonfermenting, Gram-negative bacilli such as Burkholderia cepacia or Pseudomonas aeruginosa.[16][17] Again, because the disease is rarely seen in western countries, identification of B. pseudomallei in cultures may not actually trigger alarms in physicians unfamiliar with the disease.[18] Routine biochemical methods for identification of bacteria vary widely in their identification of this organism: the API 20NE system accurately identifies B. pseudomallei in 99% of cases,[19] as does the automated Vitek 1 system, but the automated Vitek 2 system only identifies 19% of isolates.[17]

The pattern of resistance to antimicrobials is distinctive, and helps to differentiate the organism from P. aeruginosa. The majority of B. pseudomallei isolates are intrinsically resistant to all aminoglycosides (via an efflux pump mechanism),[20] but sensitive to co-amoxiclav:[21] this pattern of resistance almost never occurs in P. aeruginosa and is helpful in identification.[22] Unfortunately, the majority of strains in Sarawak, Borneo, are susceptible to aminoglycosides and macrolides, which means the conventional recommendations for isolation and identification do not apply there.[23]

Molecular methods (PCR) of diagnosis are possible, but not routinely available for clinical diagnosis.[24][25] Fluorescence in situ hybridisation has also been described, but has not been clinically validated, and it not commercially available .[26] In Thailand, a latex agglutination assay is widely used,[19] while a rapid immunofluorescence technique is also available in a small number of centres.[27]

Disinfection

B. pseudomallei is susceptible to numerous disinfectants, including benzalkonium chloride, iodine, mercuric chloride, potassium permanganate, 1% sodium hypochlorite, 70% ethanol, 2% glutaraldehyde, and to a lesser extent, phenolic preparations.[28] B. pseudomallei is effectively killed by the commercial disinfectants, Perasafe and Virkon.[29] The microorganism can also be destroyed by heating to above 74°C for 10 min or by ultraviolet irradiation. B. pseudomallei is not reliably disinfected by chlorine.[30][31]

Medical importance

Main article: Melioidosis

B. pseudomallei infection in humans is called melioidosis. The mortality of melioidosis is 20 to 50% even with treatment.[21]

Antibiotic treatment and sensitivity testing

Main article: Melioidosis treatment

The antibiotic of choice is ceftazidime.[21] While various antibiotics are active in vitro (e.g., chloramphenicol, doxycycline, co-trimoxazole), they have been proven to be inferior in vivo for the treatment of acute melioidosis.[32] Disc diffusion tests are unreliable when looking for co-trimoxazole resistance in B. pseudomallei (they greatly overestimate resistance) and Etests or agar dilution tests should be used in preference.[33][34] The actions of co-trimoxazole and doxycycline are antagonistic, which suggests these two drugs ought not to be used together.[35]

The organism is intrinsically resistant to gentamicin[36] and colistin, and this fact is helpful in the identification of the organism.[37] Kanamycin is used to kill B. pseudomallei in the laboratory, but the concentrations used are much higher than those achievable in humans.[38]

Pathogenicity mechanisms and virulence factors

B. pseudomallei is an "accidental pathogen". An environmental organism, it has no requirement to pass through an animal host to replicate. From the point of view of the bacterium, human infection is an evolutionary "dead end".[39]

Strains which cause disease in humans differ from those causing disease in other animals by possessing certain genomic islands.[40] It may have the ability to cause disease in humans because of DNA it has acquired from other microorganisms.[40] The mutation rate is also high, and the organism continues to evolve even after infecting the host.[41]

B. pseudomallei is able to invade cells (it is an intracellular pathogen).[42] It is able to polymerise actin and to spread from cell to cell, causing cell fusion and the formation of multinucleated giant cells.[43] The bacterium also expresses a toxin called lethal factor 1.[44] B. pseudomallei is one of the first Proteobacteria to be identified as containing an active type-6 secretion system. it is also the only organism identified that contains up to six different ones.[45]

B. pseudomallei is intrinsically resistant to a large number of antimicrobial agents. One important mechanism is that it is able to pump drugs out of the cell, and this mediates resistance to aminoglycosides (AmrAB-OprA), tetracyclines, fluoroquinolones, and macrolides (BpeAB-OprB).[46]

Vaccine candidates

No vaccine is currently available, but a number of vaccine candidates have been suggested. Aspartate-β-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (asd) gene deletion mutants are auxotrophic for diaminopimelate (DAP) in rich media and auxotrophic for DAP, lysine, methionine, and threonine in minimal media.[47] The Δasd bacterium (bacterium with the asd gene removed) protects against inhalational melioidosis in mice.[48]

References

  1. ^ Yabuuchi, E; Kosako, Y; Oyaizu, H; Yano, I; Hotta, H; Hashimoto, Y; Ezaki, T; Arakawa, M (1992). "Proposal of Burkholderia gen. nov. and transfer of seven species of the genus Pseudomonas homology group II to the new genus, with the type species Burkholderia cepacia (Palleroni and Holmes 1981) comb. nov". Microbiol Immunol. 36 (12): 1251–1275. doi:10.1111/j.1348-0421.1992.tb02129.x. PMID 1283774.
  2. ^ "Burkholderia pseudomallei". VirginiaTech Pathogen Database. Retrieved 2006-03-26.
  3. ^ Lee YH, Chen Y, Ouyang X, Gan YH (2010). "Identification of tomato plant as a novel host model for Burkholderia pseudomallei". BMC Microbiol. 10: 28. doi:10.1186/1471-2180-10-28. PMC 2823722. PMID 20109238.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  4. ^ Haase A, Janzen J, Barrett S, Currie B (July 1997). "Toxin production by Burkholderia pseudomallei strains and correlation with severity of melioidosis". Journal of Medical Microbiology. 46 (7): 557–63. doi:10.1099/00222615-46-7-557. PMID 9236739.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  14. ^ Goodyear A, Strange L, Rholl DA; et al. (2013). "An improved selective culture medium enhances the isolation of Burkholderia pseudomallei from contaminated specimens". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 89 (5): 973–82. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.13-0119. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  15. ^ Jorakate P, Higdon M, Kaewpan A; et al. (2015). "Contribution of the BacT/ALERT MB Mycobacteria Bottle to bloodstream infection surveillance in Thailand: added yield for Burkholderia pseudomallei.". J Clin Microbiol. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |pubmed= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  17. ^ a b Lowe P, Engler C, Norton R (December 2002). "Comparison of automated and nonautomated systems for identification of Burkholderia pseudomallei". Journal of clinical microbiology. 40 (12): 4625–7. doi:10.1128/JCM.40.12.4625-4627.2002. PMC 154629. PMID 12454163.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ^ Kite-Powell A, Livengood JR, Suarez J; et al. (2006). "Imported Melioidosis—South Florida, 2005". Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 55 (32): 873–76. PMID 16915220. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ^ a b Amornchai P, Chierakul W, Wuthiekanun V; et al. (November 2007). "Accuracy of Burkholderia pseudomallei identification using the API 20NE system and a latex agglutination test". Journal of clinical microbiology. 45 (11): 3774–6. doi:10.1128/JCM.00935-07. PMC 2168515. PMID 17804660. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ^ Moore RA, DeShazer D, Reckseidler S, Weissman A, Woods DE (March 1999). "Efflux-mediated aminoglycoside and macrolide resistance in Burkholderia pseudomallei". Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy. 43 (3): 465–70. PMC 89145. PMID 10049252.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ a b c Wuthiekanun V, Peacock SJ (June 2006). "Management of melioidosis". Expert review of anti-infective therapy. 4 (3): 445–55. doi:10.1586/14787210.4.3.445. PMID 16771621.
  22. ^ Hodgson K, Engler C, Govan B; et al. (2009). "A comparison of routine bench and molecular diagnostic methods in the identification of Burkholderia pseudomallei". J Clin Microbiol. 47 (5): 1578–80. doi:10.1128/JCM.02507-08. PMC 2681847. PMID 19279182. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  23. ^ Podin Y, Sarovich DS, Price EP, Kaestli M, Mayo M, Hii K; et al. (2013). "Burkholderia pseudomallei from Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo are predominantly susceptible to aminoglycosides and macrolides". Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 58 (1): 162–6. doi:10.1128/AAC.01842-13. PMID 24145517. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. ^ Ruppitsch W, Stöger A, Indra A; et al. (March 2007). "Suitability of partial 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequence analysis for the identification of dangerous bacterial pathogens". Journal of applied microbiology. 102 (3): 852–9. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2672.2006.03107.x. PMID 17309636. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  25. ^ Wattiau P, Van Hessche M, Neubauer H, Zachariah R, Wernery U, Imberechts H (March 2007). "Identification of Burkholderia pseudomallei and related bacteria by multiple-locus sequence typing-derived PCR and real-time PCR". Journal of clinical microbiology. 45 (3): 1045–8. doi:10.1128/JCM.02350-06. PMC 1829090. PMID 17251403.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  29. ^ Wuthiekanun V, Wongsuwan G, Pangmee S, Teerawattanasook N, Day NP, Peacock SJ (2010). "Perasafe, Virkon and bleach are bactericidal for Burkholderia pseudomallei, a select agent and the cause of melioidosis". J Hosp Infect. 77 (2): 183–184. doi:10.1016/j.jhin.2010.06.026. PMC 3036794. PMID 20832143.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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