Balhae

Alternate meaning: Bohai Sea

Balhae, (called Bohai by Chinese) (698 - 926), also known as Jin (진국, 振國), was a Korean kingdom occupying the northern Korean peninsula and parts of Manchuria and the Russian Far East. After Goguryeo's capital and southern territories fell to Unified Silla, Dae Jo-young, the leader of Goguryeo remnants, established what he considered the successor to Goguryeo. Balhae was conquered by the Khitans in 926.

History

Founding

The earliest known recorded mention of Balhae come from the Book of Tang, which was compiled between 941 to 945. Manchuria and northern Korea was previously the territory of the Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Goguryeo fell to the allied forces of Silla and the Tang Dynasty in 668. The Tang annexed much of western Manchuria, while Silla unified the Korean peninsula south of the Taedong River. In the aftermath of the destruction caused by invasion and war, Goguryeo refugees fled to the east or south to Silla.

Expansion and foreign relations

In the confusion of a Khitan attack against the Tang in 696, Goguryeo remnants, led by Geolgeol Jungsang and Sumo Mohe tribe, led by Qisi Piyu, escaped eastward to their homeland. The two leaders died but Dae Jo-young, the son of Geolgeol Jungsang, established the State of Jin, claiming to be successors of Goguryeo. Dae Jo-young established his capital at Dongmu Mountain in the south of today's Jilin province. Since it gained power under protection of the northern nomadic empire of Gokturk, Tang called Dae Joyoung "Prefecture King of Bohai (Balhae)" in 713. China had considered Bohai a Chinese prefecture, but since then referred to it as a kingdom. The title was upgraded to "State King of Balhae" in 762.

The second king Mu, who felt encircled by Tang, Silla and Black Water Mohe along the Amur River, attacked Tang and his navy briefly occupied a port on the Shandong Peninsula in 732. Later, a compromise was forged between Tang and Balhae, which resumed tributary missions to Tang. He also sent a mission to Japan in 728 to threaten Silla from the rear. Balhae kept diplomatic and commercial contacts with Japan until the end of the kingdom. Because of its proximity to many powerful states, Balhae became a buffer zone for the region.

The third king Mun expanded its territory into the Amur valley in the north and the Liaodong Peninsula in the west. He also established the permanent capital near Lake Jingpo in the south of today's Heilongjiang province around 755.

By the 8th century, Balhae controlled northern Korea, all of Northeastern Manchuria, and the Liaodong peninsula. Its strength was such that Silla was forced to build a northern wall in 721 as well as maintain active defences along the common border.

Fall and legacy

However, by the early 10th century, ethnic differences between the Goguryeo and the Mohe (Malgal) people weakened the state. Eventually, Balhae would succumb to the Khitans, a new emerging power in Manchuria which founded the Liao Dynasty. After destroying Balhae in 926, the Khitan established the puppet Dongdan Kingdom, which was soon followed by the annexation by Liao in 936. Balhae aristocrats were moved to Liaoyang but small fragments of the state remained semi-independent. Some Balhae people, including a son of the last king, fled southward to Goryeo, successor to Unified Silla. Some descendants of the royal family lived in Korea, changing their family name to Tae (太). Balhae was the last state in Korean history to hold any significant territory in Manchuria, although later Korean dynasties would continue to regard themselves as successors of Balhae.

The Khitans themselves would eventually succumb to the Jurchen people, which founded the Jin Dynasty. The Jin dynasty favored the Balhae people as well as the Khitans. The fourth, fifth and seventh emperors of Jin were mothered by Balhae concubines. The 13th century census of Northern China by the Mongols distinguished Balhae from other ethnic groups such as Goryeo, Khitan and Jurchen. This suggests that the Balhae people still preserved their identity even after the conquest of the kingdom.

Government and culture

The people of Balhae were made up of former Goguryeo elements and of several Tungusic peoples present in Manchuria, of which the Mohe (Malgal) made up the largest element.

Its culture and government was heavily influenced by Tang China. It modeled its system of government upon that of Tang China, to an even greater extent than Silla. The government operated three chancelleries and six ministries, and its capital, Sanggyong, was modeled after Chang'an, the capital of the Tang Dynasty. In addition, Balhae sent many students to Tang China to study, and many went on to take and pass the Chinese civil service examinations.([1][2])

An important source of cultural information on Balhae was discovered at the end of the 20th century at the Ancient Tombs at Longtou Mountain, especially the Mausoleum of Princess Jeong-Hyo.

Characterization and political interpretation

Controversy rests over the ethnic makeup of the people of Balhae. That Balhae was founded by a former general from Goguryeo is undisputed, but some dispute his ethnicity is, due to ambiguous wording in historical sources. No written records from Balhae itself survive.

Western reference publications generally consider Balhae a part of Korean history. [3] [4] [5] [6]. It is generally characterized as a successor to Goguryeo that traded with China and Japan, and its name is romanized from Korean. It is seen as composed of peoples of northern Manchuria and northern Korea, with its founder and the ruling class consisting largely of the former aristocrats of Goguryo. Some scholars believe Dae Joyeong was of Goguryeo ethnicity, while others believe he was an ethnic Malgal from Goguryeo. [7] [8]

Like many ancient Korean and Japanese kingdoms, Balhae sometimes paid tribute to China, and a heir who lacks this sanction was called by China 知國務 ("State Affairs Leader"), not king; also, China considered every king simultaneously the Prefect of Huhan Prefecture (忽汗州都督府都督). However, Balhae rulers called themselves emperors and declared their own era names. Chinese historians consider Balhae to be composed of the Balhae ethnic group, which was mostly based on the Mohe. Historically, the Jurchens (later renamed the Manchus, considered themselves as sharing ancestry with the Mohe (Malgal), and the People's Republic of China continues to consider Balhae as part of the history of its ethnic Manchus. [9]

Russian archaelogists and scholars, like those from China, think of Balhae as an independent Mohe state, with Central Asian and Chinese influence. [10]

In relations with Japan, Balhae referred to itself as Goguryeo, and Japan welcomed this as a kind of restoration of its former friendly relationship with Goguryeo. [11] [12] Modern Japanese scholars view Balhae as an independent state. [13] [14]

Western reference publications generally consider Balhae a part of Manchuria history. [15]

Former Kogury terrain in Manchuria came under the control of the state of Parhae (or Bohai in Chinese), founded by a former Kogury general who first proclaimed a state of Chin, renamed Parhae in 713. It was made up of Kogury remnants and several Tungusic peoples (largely Malgal) living in central Manchuria (the present Heilongjiang Province in China).

[16] [17] [18]. It is generally characterized as a successor to Goguryeo that traded with China and Japan, and its name is romanized from Korean. It is seen as composed of peoples of northern Manchuria and northern Korea, with its founder and the ruling class consisting largely of the former aristocrats of Goguryo. Some scholars believe Dae Joyeong was of Goguryeo ethnicity, while others believe he was an ethnic Malgal from Goguryeo. [19] [20] [21] [22] [23](See also External links).

See also

• History of Korea
• List of Balhae monarchs
• Ancient Tombs at Longtou Mountain
• Ethnic groups in Chinese history
• Mausoleum of Princess Jeong-Hyo

External links

• Encyclopedia Britannica
• Britannica Concise Encyclopedia
• Encyclopedia of World History
• Columbia Encyclopedia
• U.S. Library of Congress: Country Studies
• Metropolitan Museum of Art
• Provinces of Balhae Kingdom (in Korean)