Type 2 diabetes: Difference between revisions
Gandydancer (talk | contribs) →Lifestyle: add information |
|||
Line 131: | Line 131: | ||
People with a confirmed diagnosis of diabetes are tested routinely for complications. This includes yearly urine testing for [[microalbuminuria]] and examination of the [[retina]] of the eye for [[diabetic retinopathy|retinopathy]]. |
People with a confirmed diagnosis of diabetes are tested routinely for complications. This includes yearly urine testing for [[microalbuminuria]] and examination of the [[retina]] of the eye for [[diabetic retinopathy|retinopathy]]. |
||
⚫ | The [[U.S. Preventive Services Task Force]] concluded that "the evidence is insufficient to recommend for or against routinely screening asymptomatic adults for type 2 diabetes, impaired glucose tolerance, or impaired fasting glucose,"<ref name=pmid12558362>{{cite journal |author=Harris R, Donahue K, Rathore SS, Frame P, Woolf SH, Lohr KN |title=Screening adults for type 2 diabetes: a review of the evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=138 |issue=3 |pages=215–29 |year=2003 |month=February |pmid=12558362 |url=http://www.annals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12558362 |accessdate=19 July 2008}}</ref><ref name=pmid12558361>{{cite journal |title=Screening for type 2 diabetes mellitus in adults: recommendations and rationale |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=138 |issue=3 |pages=212–4 |year=2003 |month=February |pmid=12558361 |url=http://www.annals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12558361 |accessdate=19 July 2008 |author1=U.S. Preventive Services Task Force}}</ref> this was a grade I recommendation<ref>[http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/3rduspstf/ratings.htm Grade I recommendation]</ref> when published in 2003. However, the USPSTF does recommend screening for diabetics in adults with hypertension or hyperlipidemia.<ref>[http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/3rduspstf/ratings.htm grade B recommendation]</ref> |
||
==Prevention== |
==Prevention== |
||
{{Main|Prevention of diabetes mellitis type 2}} |
|||
Onset of type 2 diabetes can often be delayed through proper nutrition and regular exercise.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Raina Elley C, Kenealy T |title=Lifestyle interventions reduced the long-term risk of diabetes in adults with impaired glucose tolerance |journal=Evid Based Med |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=173 |year=2008 |month=December |pmid=19043031 |doi=10.1136/ebm.13.6.173 }}</ref> |
Onset of type 2 diabetes can often be delayed through proper nutrition and regular exercise.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Raina Elley C, Kenealy T |title=Lifestyle interventions reduced the long-term risk of diabetes in adults with impaired glucose tolerance |journal=Evid Based Med |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=173 |year=2008 |month=December |pmid=19043031 |doi=10.1136/ebm.13.6.173 }}</ref> |
||
⚫ | A 2005 report concluded that "there is evidence that combined diet and exercise, as well as drug therapy (metformin, acarbose), may be effective at preventing progression to diabetes in IGT subjects".<ref name=pmid16194123>{{cite journal |author=Santaguida PL, Balion C, Hunt D, ''et al.'' |title=Diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of impaired glucose tolerance and impaired fasting glucose |journal=Evid Rep Technol Assess (Summ) |issue=128 |pages=1–11 |year=2005 |month=August |pmid=16194123 |url=http://www.ahrq.gov/downloads/pub/evidence/pdf/impglucose/impglucose.pdf |format=PDF|accessdate=19 July 2008}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/epcindex.htm evidence report]</ref> |
||
⚫ | |||
⚫ | |||
[[Milk]] has also been associated with the prevention of diabetes. A questionnaire study was done by Choi et al. of 41,254 men which including a twelve year follow up showed this association. In this study, it was found that diets high in low-fat [[dairy]] might lower the risk of type 2 diabetes in men. Even though these benefits are being considered linked to milk consumption, the effect of diet is only one factor that is affecting the body's overall health.<ref> |
|||
{{cite journal |
|||
|author = Choi HK, Willett WC, Stampfer P, Vasson MP, Maubois JL, Beaufrere B |
|||
|title = Dairy consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in men |
|||
|journal = Archives of Internal Medicine |
|||
|volume = 165 |
|||
|pages = 997–1003 |
|||
|year = 2005 |
|||
|accessdate = 2009-10-29 |
|||
|doi = 10.1001/archinte.165.9.997 |
|||
|pmid = 15883237 |
|||
|issue = 9 |
|||
}}</ref> |
|||
===Lifestyle=== |
|||
Type 2 diabetes risk can be reduced in many cases by making changes in diet and increasing physical activity.<ref name=pmid17098085 /><ref name="Knowler">{{cite journal |author=Knowler WC, Barrett-Connor E, Fowler SE, ''et al.'' |title=Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin |journal=[[The New England Journal of Medicine]] |volume=346 |issue=6 |pages=393–403 |year=2002 |month=February |pmid=11832527 |pmc=1370926 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa012512}}</ref><ref>{{cite doi|10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61457-4}}</ref> The [[American Diabetes Association]] (ADA) recommends maintaining a healthy weight, getting at least 2½ hours of exercise per week (several brisk sustained walks appear sufficient), having a modest fat intake, and eating sufficient fiber (e.g., from whole grains). |
|||
There is inadequate evidence that eating foods of low [[glycemic index]] is clinically helpful despite recommendations and suggested diets emphasizing this approach.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bantle JP, Wylie-Rosett J, Albright AL, ''et al.'' |title=Nutrition recommendations and interventions for diabetes—2006: a position statement of the American Diabetes Association |journal=Diabetes Care |volume=29 |issue=9 |pages=2140–57 |year=2006 |month=September |pmid=16936169 |doi=10.2337/dc06-9914}}</ref> |
|||
Diets that are very low in saturated fats reduce the risk of becoming insulin resistant and diabetic.<ref name="Barnard 2007">{{Cite book|last=Barnard|first=Neal|coauthors=|year=2007|chapter=13|title=Dr. Neal Barnard's Program for Reversing Diabetes: The Scientifically Proven System for Reversing Diabetes Without Drugs|publisher=Rodale/Holtzbrinck Publishers|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-59486-528-2|isbn-status=May be invalid – please double check}}</ref><ref name=pmid19386029>{{cite journal |author=Barnard ND, Katcher HI, Jenkins DJ, Cohen J, Turner-McGrievy G |title=Vegetarian and vegan diets in type 2 diabetes management |journal=Nutrition Reviews |volume=67 |issue=5 |pages=255–63 |year=2009 |month=May |pmid=19386029 |doi=10.1111/j.1753-4887.2009.00198.x}}</ref> Study group participants whose "physical activity level and dietary, smoking, and alcohol habits were all in the low-risk group had an 82% lower incidence of diabetes."<ref name="Mozaffarian D, Kamineni A, Carnethon M, Djoussé L, Mukamal KJ, Siscovick D 2009 798–807"/> In another study of dietary practice and incidence of diabetes, "foods rich in vegetable oils, including non-hydrogenated margarines, nuts, and seeds, should replace foods rich in saturated fats from meats and fat-rich dairy products. Consumption of partially hydrogenated fats should be minimized."<ref name="Fat2009"/> However, in 2010, scientists at the [[Harvard School of Public Health]] and collaborators from other institutions identified a natural substance in dairy fat that may substantially reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes. The compound, trans-palmitoleic acid, is a fatty acid found in milk and other dairy products. It is not produced by the body and so only comes from the diet. The researchers examined participants who have been followed for 20 years in an observational study to evaluate risk factors for cardiovascular diseases in older adults. During follow-up it was found that individuals with higher circulating levels of trans-palmitoleic acid had a much lower risk of developing diabetes, with about a 60% lower risk among participants in the highest quintile (fifth) of trans-palmitoleic acid levels, compared to individuals in the lowest quintile, almost a three-fold difference in risk of developing diabetes among individuals with the highest blood levels of trans-palmitoleic acid.<ref>http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/12/101220200000.htm</ref> |
|||
There are numerous studies which suggest connections between some aspects of type 2 diabetes with ingestion of certain foods or with some drugs. Breastfeeding may also be associated with the prevention of type 2 diabetes in mothers.<ref name="JAMA2005-Stuebe">{{cite journal |author=Stuebe AM, Rich-Edwards JW, [[Walter Willett|Willett WC]], [[JoAnn E. Manson|Manson JE]], Michels KB |title=Duration of lactation and incidence of type 2 diabetes |journal=JAMA |volume=294 |issue=20 |pages=2601–10 |year=2005 |month=November |pmid=16304074 |doi=10.1001/jama.294.20.2601}}</ref> |
|||
Lowering meat intake may help prevent diabetes, as several studies have found lower incidence among [[vegetarians]].<ref>{{cite pmid|3985239}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |
|||
| last1 = Jenkins | first1 = DJA |
|||
| last2 = Kendall | first2 = CWC |
|||
| last3 = Marchie | first3 = A |
|||
| last4 = Jenkins | first4 = AL |
|||
| last5 = Augustin | first5 = LSA |
|||
| last6 = Ludwig | first6 = DS |
|||
| last7 = Barnard | first7 = ND |
|||
| last8 = Anderson | first8 = JW |
|||
| display-authors = 2 |
|||
| title = Type 2 diabetes and the vegetarian diet |
|||
| journal = Am J Clin Nutr |
|||
| volume = 78 |
|||
| issue = 3 Suppl |
|||
| pages = 610S–616S |
|||
| year = 2003 |
|||
| month = September |
|||
| pmid = 12936955 |
|||
}}</ref><ref>{{cite pmid|10446033}}</ref> |
|||
===Medications=== |
|||
Some studies have shown delayed progression to diabetes in predisposed patients through prophylactic use of [[metformin]],<ref name="Knowler" /> [[rosiglitazone]],<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gerstein HC, Yusuf S, Bosch J, ''et al.'' |title=Effect of rosiglitazone on the frequency of diabetes in patients with impaired glucose tolerance or impaired fasting glucose: a randomised controlled trial |journal=Lancet |volume=368 |issue=9541 |pages=1096–105 |year=2006 |month=September |pmid=16997664 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69420-8}}</ref> or [[valsartan]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kjeldsen SE, Julius S, Mancia G, ''et al.'' |title=Effects of valsartan compared to amlodipine on preventing type 2 diabetes in high-risk hypertensive patients: the VALUE trial |journal=Journal of Hypertension |volume=24 |issue=7 |pages=1405–12 |year=2006 |month=July |pmid=16794491 |doi=10.1097/01.hjh.0000234122.55895.5b}}</ref> In patients on [[hydroxychloroquine]] for [[rheumatoid arthritis]], incidence of diabetes was reduced by 77% though causal mechanisms are unclear.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wasko MC, Hubert HB, Lingala VB, ''et al.'' |title=Hydroxychloroquine and risk of diabetes in patients with rheumatoid arthritis |journal=JAMA |volume=298 |issue=2 |pages=187–93 |year=2007 |month=July |pmid=17622600 |doi=10.1001/jama.298.2.187}}</ref> Lifestyle interventions are however more effective than metformin at preventing diabetes regardless of weightloss.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Knowler WC, Fowler SE, Hamman RF, ''et al.'' |title=10-year follow-up of diabetes incidence and weight loss in the Diabetes Prevention Program Outcomes Study |journal=Lancet |volume=374 |issue=9702 |pages=1677–86 |year=2009 |month=November |pmid=19878986 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61457-4 |url=}}</ref> |
|||
==Management== |
==Management== |
Revision as of 23:06, 23 December 2010
Type 2 diabetes | |
---|---|
Specialty | Family medicine, endocrinology ![]() |
Diabetes mellitus type 2–formerly non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) or adult-onset diabetes–is a metabolic disorder that is characterized by high blood glucose in the context of insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency.[2] Diabetes is often initially managed by increasing exercise and dietary modification. As the condition progresses, medications may be needed.
Unlike type 1 diabetes, there is very little tendency toward ketoacidosis though it is not unheard of.[3] One effect that can occur is nonketonic hyperglycemia. Long-term complications from high blood sugar can include increased risk of heart attacks, strokes, amputation, and kidney failure.
Signs and symptoms
The classical symptoms of diabetes are polyuria (frequent urination), polydipsia (increased thirst), polyphagia (increased hunger), fatigue and weight loss.[4]
Cause
Type 2 diabetes is due primarily to lifestyle factors and genetics.[5] It was also found that oligomers of islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP), a protein that forms amyloid deposits in the pancreas during type 2 diabetes, triggered the NLRP3 inflammasome and generated mature IL-1β. One therapy for type 2 diabetes, glyburide, suppressed IAPP-mediated IL-1β production in vitro.[6]
Lifestyle
A number of lifestyle factors are known to be important to the development of type 2 diabetes. In one study, those who had high levels of physical activity, a healthy diet, did not smoke, and consumed alcohol in moderation had an 82% lower rate of diabetes. When a normal weight was included the rate was 89% lower. In this study a healthy diet was defined as one high in fiber, with a high polyunsaturated to saturated fat ratio, and a lower mean glycemic index.[7] Obesity has been found to contribute to approximately 55% of cases of type 2 diabetes,[8] and decreasing consumption of saturated fats and trans fatty acids while replacing them with unsaturated fats may decrease the risk.[5] The increased rate of childhood obesity in between the 1960s and 2000s is believed to have led to the increase in type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents.[9]
Environmental toxins may contribute to recent increases in the rate of type 2 diabetes. A positive correlation has been found between the concentration in the urine of bisphenol A, a constituent of some plastics, and the incidence of type 2 diabetes.[10]
Medical conditions
There are many factors which can potentially give rise to or exacerbate type 2 diabetes. These include obesity, hypertension, elevated cholesterol (combined hyperlipidemia), and with the condition often termed metabolic syndrome (it is also known as Syndrome X, Reavan's syndrome, or CHAOS). Other causes include acromegaly, Cushing's syndrome, thyrotoxicosis, pheochromocytoma, chronic pancreatitis, cancer and drugs. Additional factors found to increase the risk of type 2 diabetes include aging,[11] high-fat diets[12] and a less active lifestyle.[13]
Subclinical Cushing's syndrome (cortisol excess) may be associated with type 1 diabetes.[14] The percentage of subclinical Cushing's syndrome in the diabetic population is about 9%.[15] Diabetic patients with a pituitary microadenoma can improve insulin sensitivity by removal of these microadenomas.[16]
Hypogonadism is often associated with cortisol excess, and testosterone deficiency is also associated with type 2 diabetes,[17][18] even if the exact mechanism by which testosterone improve insulin sensitivity is still not known.
Genetics
There is also a strong inheritable genetic connection in type 2 diabetes: having relatives (especially first degree) with type 2 increases risks of developing type 2 diabetes very substantially. In addition, there is also a mutation to the Islet Amyloid Polypeptide gene that results in an earlier onset, more severe, form of diabetes.[19][20]
About 55 percent of type 2 diabetes patients are obese at diagnosis[21] —chronic obesity leads to increased insulin resistance that can develop into type 2 diabetes, most likely because adipose tissue (especially that in the abdomen around internal organs) is a (recently identified) source of several chemical signals to other tissues (hormones and cytokines).
Other research shows that type 2 diabetes causes obesity as an effect of the changes in metabolism and other deranged cell behavior attendant on insulin resistance.[22]
However, environmental factors (almost certainly diet and weight) play a large part in the development of type 2 diabetes in addition to any genetic component. This can be seen from the adoption of the type 2 diabetes epidemiological pattern in those who have moved to a different environment as compared to the same genetic pool who have not. Immigrants to Western developed countries, for instance, as compared to lower incidence countries of origins.[23]
There is a stronger inheritance pattern for type 2 diabetes. Those with first-degree relatives with type 2 diabetes have a much higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes, increasing with the number of those relatives. Concordance among monozygotic twins is close to 100%, and about 25% of those with the disease have a family history of diabetes. Genes significantly associated with developing type 2 diabetes, include TCF7L2, PPARG, FTO, KCNJ11, NOTCH2, WFS1, CDKAL1, IGF2BP2, SLC30A8, JAZF1, and HHEX.[24][25] KCNJ11 (potassium inwardly rectifying channel, subfamily J, member 11), encodes the islet ATP-sensitive potassium channel Kir6.2, and TCF7L2 (transcription factor 7–like 2) regulates proglucagon gene expression and thus the production of glucagon-like peptide-1.[26] Moreover, obesity (which is an independent risk factor for type 2 diabetes) is strongly inherited.[27]
Monogenic forms, e.g., MODY, constitute 1–5 % of all cases.[28]
Various hereditary conditions may feature diabetes, for example myotonic dystrophy and Friedreich's ataxia. Wolfram's syndrome is an autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disorder that first becomes evident in childhood. It consists of diabetes insipidus, diabetes mellitus, optic atrophy, and deafness, hence the acronym DIDMOAD.[29]
Gene expression promoted by a diet of fat and glucose as well as high levels of inflammation related cytokines found in the obese results in cells that "produce fewer and smaller mitochondria than is normal," and are thus prone to insulin resistance.[30]
Medications
Some drugs, used for any of several conditions, can interfere with the insulin regulation system, possibly producing drug induced hyperglycemia. Some examples follow, giving the biochemical mechanism in each case:
- Atypical Antipsychotics - Alter receptor binding characteristics, leading to increased insulin resistance.
- Beta-blockers - Inhibit insulin secretion.
- Calcium Channel Blockers - Inhibits secretion of insulin by interfering with cytosolic calcium release.
- Corticosteroids - Cause peripheral insulin resistance and gluconeogenesis.
- Fluoroquinolones - Inhibits insulin secretion by blocking ATP sensitive potassium channels.
- Niacin - causes increased insulin resistance due to increased free fatty acid mobilization.
- Phenothiazines - Inhibit insulin secretion.
- Protease Inhibitors - Inhibit the conversion of proinsulin to insulin.
- Somatropin - May decrease sensitivity to insulin, especially in those susceptible.
- Thiazide Diuretics - Inhibit insulin secretion due to hypokalemia. They also cause increased insulin resistance due to increased free fatty acid mobilization.
Pathophysiology
Insulin resistance means that body cells do not respond appropriately when insulin is present. Unlike type 1 diabetes mellitus, insulin resistance is generally "post-receptor", meaning it is a problem with the cells that respond to insulin rather than a problem with the production of insulin.
This is a more complex problem than type 1, but is sometimes easier to treat, especially in the early years when insulin is often still being produced internally. Severe complications can result from improperly managed type 2 diabetes, including renal failure, erectile dysfunction, blindness, slow healing wounds (including surgical incisions), and arterial disease, including coronary artery disease. The onset of type 2 diabetes has been most common in middle age and later life, although it is being more frequently seen in adolescents and young adults due to an increase in child obesity and inactivity. A type of diabetes called MODY is increasingly seen in adolescents, but this is classified as a diabetes due to a specific cause and not as type 2 diabetes.
Diabetes mellitus with a known etiology, such as secondary to other diseases, known gene defects, trauma or surgery, or the effects of drugs, is more appropriately called secondary diabetes mellitus or diabetes due to a specific cause. Examples include diabetes mellitus such as MODY or those caused by hemochromatosis, pancreatic insufficiencies, or certain types of medications (e.g., long-term steroid use).
Diagnosis
Condition | 2-hour glucose | Fasting glucose | HbA1c | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Unit | mmol/L | mg/dL | mmol/L | mg/dL | mmol/mol | DCCT % |
Normal | < 7.8 | < 140 | < 6.1 | < 110 | < 42 | < 6.0 |
Impaired fasting glycaemia | < 7.8 | < 140 | 6.1–7.0 | 110–125 | 42–46 | 6.0–6.4 |
Impaired glucose tolerance | ≥ 7.8 | ≥ 140 | < 7.0 | < 126 | 42–46 | 6.0–6.4 |
Diabetes mellitus | ≥ 11.1 | ≥ 200 | ≥ 7.0 | ≥ 126 | ≥ 48 | ≥ 6.5 |
The World Health Organization definition of diabetes is for a single raised glucose reading with symptoms, otherwise raised values on two occasions, of either:[33]
- fasting plasma glucose ≥ 7.0 mmol/l (126 mg/dl)
- or
- With a glucose tolerance test, two hours after the oral dose a plasma glucose ≥ 11.1 mmol/l (200 mg/dl)
Accuracy of tests for early detection
If a 2-hour postload glucose level of at least 11.1 mmol/L (≥ 200 mg/dL) is used as the reference standard, the fasting plasma glucose > 7.0 mmol/L (126 mg/dL) diagnoses current diabetes with[34]:
- sensitivity about 50%
- specificity greater than 95%
A random capillary blood glucose > 6.7 mmol/L (120 mg/dL) diagnoses current diabetes with[35]:
- sensitivity = 75%
- specificity = 88%
Glycosylated hemoglobin values that are elevated (over 5%), but not in the diabetic range (not over 7.0%) are predictive of subsequent clinical diabetes in United States female health professionals.[36] In this study, 177 of 1061 patients with glycosylated hemoglobin value less than 6% became diabetic within 5 years compared to 282 of 26281 patients with a glycosylated hemoglobin value of 6.0% or more. This equates to a glycosylated hemoglobin value of 6.0% or more having:
- sensitivity = 16.7%
- specificity = 98.9%
Benefit of early detection
Since publication of the USPSTF statement, a randomized controlled trial of prescribing acarbose to patients with "high-risk population of men and women between the ages of 40 and 70 years with a body mass index (BMI), calculated as weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in meters, between 25 and 40. They were eligible for the study if they had IGT according to the World Health Organization criteria, plus impaired fasting glucose (a fasting plasma glucose concentration of between 100 and 140 mg/dL or 5.5 and 7.8 mmol/L) found a number needed to treat of 44 (over 3.3 years) to prevent a major cardiovascular event.[37]
Other studies have shown that lifestyle changes,[38] orlistat[39] and metformin[40] can delay the onset of diabetes.
Screening
Diabetes screening is recommended for many people at various stages of life, and for those with any of several risk factors. The screening test varies according to circumstances and local policy, and may be a random blood glucose test, a fasting blood glucose test, a blood glucose test two hours after 75 g of glucose, or an even more formal glucose tolerance test. Many healthcare providers recommend universal screening for adults at age 40 or 50, and often periodically thereafter. Earlier screening is typically recommended for those with risk factors such as obesity, family history of diabetes, history of gestational diabetes, high-risk ethnicity (Hispanic, Native American, Afro-Caribbean, Pacific Islander, or Māori).[41][42]
Many medical conditions are associated with diabetes and warrant screening. A partial list includes: subclinical Cushing's syndrome,[14] testosterone deficiency,[17] high blood pressure, past gestational diabetes, polycystic ovary syndrome, chronic pancreatitis, fatty liver, cystic fibrosis, several mitochondrial neuropathies and myopathies (such as MIDD), myotonic dystrophy, Friedreich's ataxia, some of the inherited forms of neonatal hyperinsulinism. The risk of diabetes is higher with chronic use of several medications, including long term corticosteroids, some chemotherapy agents (especially L-asparaginase), as well as some of the antipsychotics and mood stabilizers (especially phenothiazines and some atypical antipsychotics).
People with a confirmed diagnosis of diabetes are tested routinely for complications. This includes yearly urine testing for microalbuminuria and examination of the retina of the eye for retinopathy.
The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force concluded that "the evidence is insufficient to recommend for or against routinely screening asymptomatic adults for type 2 diabetes, impaired glucose tolerance, or impaired fasting glucose,"[34][43] this was a grade I recommendation[44] when published in 2003. However, the USPSTF does recommend screening for diabetics in adults with hypertension or hyperlipidemia.[45]
Prevention
Onset of type 2 diabetes can often be delayed through proper nutrition and regular exercise.[46]
A 2005 report concluded that "there is evidence that combined diet and exercise, as well as drug therapy (metformin, acarbose), may be effective at preventing progression to diabetes in IGT subjects".[47][48]
Management
Left untreated, type 2 diabetes is a chronic, progressive condition, but there are well-established treatments which can delay or prevent entirely the formerly inevitable consequences of the condition. Often, the condition is viewed as progressive since poor management of blood sugar leads to a myriad of steadily worsening complications. However, if blood sugar is properly maintained, then the condition is, in a limited sense, cured - that is, patients are at no heightened risk for neuropathy, blindness, or any other high blood sugar complication, though the underlying isssue, a tendency to hyperglycemia has not been addressed directly. A study at UCLA in 2005 showed that the Pritikin Program of diet and exercise brought dramatic improvement to a group of diabetics and pre-diabetics in only three weeks, so that about half no longer met the criteria for the condition.[49][50]
There are two main goals of treatment:
- reduction of mortality and concomitant morbidity (from assorted diabetic complications)
- preservation of quality of life
The first goal can be achieved through close glycemic control (i.e., to near 'normal' blood glucose levels); the reduction in severity of diabetic side effects has been very well demonstrated in several large clinical trials and is established beyond controversy. The second goal is often addressed (in developed countries) by support and care from teams of diabetic health workers (usually physician, PA, nurse, dietitian or a certified diabetic educator). Endocrinologists, family practitioners, and general internists are the physician specialties most likely to treat people with diabetes. Knowledgeable patient participation is vital to clinical success, and so patient education is a crucial aspect of this effort.
Type 2 diabetes is initially treated by adjustments in diet and exercise, and by weight loss, most especially in obese patients. The amount of weight loss which improves the clinical picture is sometimes modest (2–5 kg or 4.4-11 lb); this is almost certainly due to currently poorly understood aspects of fat tissue activity, for instance chemical signaling (especially in visceral fat tissue in and around abdominal organs). In many cases, such initial efforts can substantially restore insulin sensitivity. In some cases strict diet can adequately control the glycemic levels.
Diabetes education is an integral component of medical care. A Cochrane Review of studies concluded that using community-based health advocates to deliver information within same-gender groups or adapting dietary and lifestyle advice to fit a particular community's likely diet can help people with type 2 diabetes control their blood sugar levels, certainly for up to six months, following health education. This conclusion was reached by a team of Cochrane Researchers after they considered the data in 11 trials that involved 1,603 people.[51]. However, a further Cochrane review of studies found that there is no indication that dietary advice alone can prevent type 2 diabetes.[52]
Goals
Treatment goals for type 2 diabetic patients are related to effective control of blood glucose, blood pressure and lipids to minimize the risk of long-term consequences associated with diabetes. They are suggested in clinical practice guidelines released by various national and international diabetes agencies.
The targets are:
- HbA1c of 6%[53] to 7.0%[54]
- Preprandial blood glucose: 4.0 to 6.0 mmol/L (72 to 108 mg/dl)[55]
- 2-hour postprandial blood glucose: 5.0 to 8.0 mmol/L (90 to 144 mg/dl)[55]
In older patients, clinical practice guidelines by the American Geriatrics Society states "for frail older adults, persons with life expectancy of less than 5 years, and others in whom the risks of intensive glycemic control appear to outweigh the benefits, a less stringent target such as HbA1c of 8% is appropriate".[56]
Lifestyle modification
- Exercise
In September 2007, a joint randomized controlled trial by the University of Calgary and the University of Ottawa found that "Either aerobic or resistance training alone improves glycemic control in type 2 diabetes, but the improvements are greatest with combined aerobic and resistance training than either alone."[57][58] The combined program reduced the HbA1c by 0.5 percentage point. Other studies have established that the amount of exercise needed is not large or extreme, but must be consistent and continuing. Examples might include a brisk 45 minute walk every other day.
Theoretically, exercise does have benefits in that exercise would stimulate the release of certain ligands that cause GLUT4 to be released from internal endosomes to the cell membrane. Insulin though, which no longer works effectively in those afflicted with type 2 diabetes, causes GLUT1 to be placed into the membrane. Exercise also allows for the uptake of glucose independently of insulin, i.e. by adrenaline.
- Dietary management
Modifying the diet to limit and control glucose (or glucose equivalent, e.g., starch) intake, and in consequence, blood glucose levels, is known to assist type 2 patients, especially early in the course of the condition's progression. Additionally, weight loss is recommended and is often helpful in persons suffering from type 2 diabetes (see above).
Monitoring of blood glucose
Self-monitoring of blood glucose may not improve outcomes in some cases, especially those of "reasonably well controlled non-insulin treated patients with type 2 diabetes".[59] Nevertheless, it is very strongly recommended for patients in whom it can assist in maintaining proper glycemic control[60], and is well worth the cost (sometimes considerable) if it does. It is the only source of current information on the glycemic state of the body, as changes are rapid and frequent, depending on food, exercise, and medication (dosage and timing with respect to both diet and exercise), and secondarily, on time of day, stress (mental and physical), infection, etc. However, patient adherence to self-monitoring routines is often sporadic and prone to fluctuation, with patients often self-monitoring very regularly near to check-up times and very little during other times.[60]Ensuring due compliance is an ongoing issue which may well affect research results into efficacy and benefits of self-monitoring.
The Reaction Project (EU R&D project) aims to research and develop an intelligent service platform that can provide professional, remote monitoring and therapy management to diabetes patients in different healthcare regimes across Europe. The platform, with emphasis on blood pressure control and lifestyle factors combined with new technology supporting tight glucose control measuring will enable a constant flow of readings sent automatically to medical staff without the need for the patients' physical appearance at the hospital. It will contribute to improve the risk profile of most diabetes related complications.
The National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE), UK released updated diabetes recommendations on 30 May 2008. They indicate that self-monitoring of blood glucose levels for people with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes should be part of a structured self-management education plan.[61] However, a recent study found that a treatment strategy of intensively lowering blood sugar levels (below 6%) in patients with additional cardiovascular disease risk factors poses more harm than benefit, and so there appear to be limits to benefit of intensive blood glucose control in some patients.[62][63]
Medications
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Metformin_500mg_Tablets.jpg/200px-Metformin_500mg_Tablets.jpg)
There are several drugs available for type 2 diabetics—most are unsuitable or even dangerous for use by type 1 diabetics. They fall into several classes and are not equivalent, nor can they be simply substituted one for another. All are prescription drugs.
One of the most widely used drugs now used for type 2 diabetes is the biguanide metformin; it works primarily by reducing liver release of blood glucose from glycogen stores and secondarily by provoking some increase in cellular uptake of glucose in body tissues. Metformin also reduces insulin resistance and is preferred in obese patients as it promotes weight loss. Both historically and currently the most commonly used drugs are in the Sulfonylurea group, of which several members (including glibenclamide and gliclazide) are widely used; these increase glucose stimulated insulin secretion by the pancreas and so lower blood glucose even in the face of insulin resistance. Their chief adverse effect is increased chance of hypoglycemic episodes.
Newer drug classes include:
- Thiazolidinediones (TZDs) (rosiglitazone, pioglitazone, and troglitazone -- the last, as Rezulin, was withdrawn from the US market because of an increased risk of systemic acidosis). These increase tissue insulin sensitivity by affecting gene expression
- α-glucosidase inhibitors (acarbose and miglitol) which interfere with absorption of some glucose containing nutrients, reducing (or at least slowing) the amount of glucose absorbed
- Meglitinides which stimulate insulin release (nateglinide, repaglinide, and their analogs) quickly; they can be taken with food, unlike the sulfonylureas which must be taken prior to food (sometimes some hours before, depending on the drug)
- Peptide analogs which work in a variety of ways:
- Incretin mimetics which increase insulin output from the beta cells among other effects. These includes the Glucagon-like peptide (GLP) analog exenatide, sometimes referred to as lizard spit as it was first identified in Gila monster saliva
- Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors increase Incretin levels (sitagliptin) by decreasing their deactivation rates
- Amylin agonist analog, which slows gastric emptying and suppresses glucagon (pramlintide)
Oral
A systematic review of randomized controlled trials found that metformin and second-generation sulfonylureas are the preferred choices for most with type 2 diabetes, especially those early in the course of the condition.[64] Failure of response after a time is not unknown with most of these agents: the initial choice of anti-diabetic drug has been compared in a randomized controlled trial which found "cumulative incidence of monotherapy failure at 5 years to be 15% with rosiglitazone, 21% with metformin, and 34% with glyburide".[65] Of these, rosiglitazone users showed more weight gain and edema than did non-users.[65] Rosiglitazone may increase risk of death from cardiovascular causes though the causal connection is unclear.[66] Pioglitazone and rosiglitazone may also increase the risk of fractures.[67][68]
For patients who also have heart failure, metformin may be the best tolerated drug.[69]
The variety of available agents can be confusing, and the clinical differences among type 2 diabetes patients compounds the problem. At present, choice of drugs for type 2 diabetics is rarely straightforward and in most instances has elements of repeated trial and adjustment.
Injectable peptide analogs
DPP-4 inhibitors (also known as glyptins) lowered HbA1c by 0.74% (points), comparable to other antidiabetic drugs.[70] GLP-1 analogs resulted in weight loss and had more gastrointestinal side effects, while DPP-4 inhibitors were generally weight neutral and increased risk for infection and headache, but both classes appear to present an alternative to other antidiabetic drugs. However, weight gain and/or hypoglycaemia have been observed when DPP-4 inhibitors were used with sulfonylureas; effect on long-term health and morbidity rates are still unknown.[71]
Insulin
In rare cases, if antidiabetic drugs fail (i.e., the clinical benefit stops), insulin therapy may be necessary – usually in addition to oral medication therapy – to maintain normal or near normal glucose levels.[72][73]
Typical total daily dosage of insulin is 0.6 U/kg.[74] But, of course, best timing and indeed total amounts depend on diet (composition, amount, and timing) as well the degree of insulin resistance. More complicated estimations to guide initial dosage of insulin are:[75]
- For men, [(fasting plasma glucose [mmol/liter]–5)x2] x (weight [kg]÷(14.3xheight [m])–height [m])
- For women, [(fasting plasma glucose [mmol/liter]–5)x2] x (weight [kg]÷(13.2xheight [m])–height [m])
The initial insulin regimen are often chosen based on the patient's blood glucose profile.[76] Initially, adding nightly insulin to patients failing oral medications may be best.[77] Nightly insulin combines better with metformin than with sulfonylureas.[74] The initial dose of nightly insulin (measured in IU/d) should be equal to the fasting blood glucose level (measured in mmol/L). If the fasting glucose is reported in mg/dl, multiply by 0.05551 to convert to mmol/L.[78]
When nightly insulin is insufficient, choices include:
- Premixed insulin with a fixed ratio of short and intermediate acting insulin; this tends to be more effective than long acting insulin, but is associated with increased hypoglycemia.[79][80][81] Initial total daily dosage of biphasic insulin can be 10 units if the fasting plasma glucose values are less than 180 mg/dl or 12 units when the fasting plasma glucose is above 180 mg/dl".[80] A guide to titrating fixed ratio insulin is available.[76]
- Long acting insulins such as insulin glargine and insulin detemir. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials by the Cochrane Collaboration found "only a minor clinical benefit of treatment with long-acting insulin analogues for patients with diabetes mellitus type 2".[82] More recently, a randomized controlled trial found that although long acting insulins were less effective, they were associated with reduced hypoglycemic episodes.[79]
- Insulin Pump therapy in type 2 diabetes is gradually becoming popular.In an original published study, in addition to reduction of blood sugars, there is evidence of profound benefits in resistant neuropathic pain and also improvements in sexual performance.[83]
Gastric bypass surgery
Gastric Bypass procedures are currently considered an elective procedure with no universally accepted algorithm to decide who should have the surgery. In the diabetic patient, certain types result in 99-100% prevention of insulin resistance and 80-90% clinical resolution or remission of type 2 diabetes. In 1991, the NIH (National Institutes of Health) Consensus Development Conference on Gastrointestinal Surgery for Obesity proposed that the body mass index (BMI) threshold to consider surgery should drop from 40 to 35 in the appropriate patient. More recently, the American Society for Bariatric Surgery (ASBS) and the ASBS Foundation suggested that the BMI threshold be lowered to 30 in the presence of severe co-morbidities.[84] Debate has flourished about the role of gastric bypass surgery in type 2 diabetics since the publication of The Swedish Obese Subjects Study. The largest prospective series showed a large decrease in the occurrence of type 2 diabetes in the post-gastric bypass patient at both 2 years (odds ratio was 0.14) and at 10 years (odds ratio was 0.25).[85]
A study of 20-years of Greenville (US) gastric bypass patients found that 80% of those with type 2 diabetes before surgery no longer required insulin or oral agents to maintain normal glucose levels. Weight loss occurred rapidly in many people in the study who had had the surgery. The 20% who did not respond to bypass surgery were, typically, those who were older and had had diabetes for over 20 years.[86]
In January 2008, the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) published the first randomized controlled trial comparing the efficacy of laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding against conventional medical therapy in the obese patient with type 2 diabetes. Laparoscopic Adjustable Gastric Banding results in remission of type 2 diabetes among affected patients diagnosed within the previous two years according to a randomized controlled trial.[87] The relative risk reduction was 69.0%. For patients at similar risk to those in this study (87.0% had type 2), this leads to an absolute risk reduction of 60%. 1.7 patients must be treated for one to benefit (number needed to treat = 1.7).[original research?][88] to adjust these results for patients at higher or lower risk of type 2 diabetes.
These results have not yet produced a clinical standard for surgical treatment of type 2 diabetes, as the mechanism, if any, is currently obscure. Surgical cure of type 2 diabetes must be, as a result, considered currently experimental.
Epidemiology
![]() | The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with the U.S. and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. (August 2010) |
There are an estimated 23.6 million people in the United States (7.8% of the population) with diabetes with 17.9 million being diagnosed,[89] 90% of whom are type 2.[90] With prevalence rates doubling between 1990 and 2005, CDC has characterized the increase as an epidemic.[91] Traditionally considered a disease of adults, type 2 diabetes is increasingly diagnosed in children in parallel to rising obesity rates [92] due to alterations in dietary patterns as well as in life styles during childhood.[93]
About 90–95% of all North American cases of diabetes are type 2,[94] and about 20% of the population over the age of 65 has type 2 diabetes. The incidence of type 2 diabetes in other parts of the world varies substantially, almost certainly because of environmental and lifestyle factors, though these are not known in detail. Diabetes affects over 150 million people worldwide and this number is expected to double by 2025.[94]
References
- ^ "Diabetes Blue Circle Symbol". International Diabetes Federation. 17 March 2006.
- ^ Kumar, Vinay; Fausto, Nelson; Abbas, Abul K.; Cotran, Ramzi S. ; Robbins, Stanley L. (2005). Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease (7th ed.). Philadelphia, Pa.: Saunders. pp. 1194–1195. ISBN 0-7216-0187-1.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Welch, B. J.; Zib, I. (2004). "Case Study: Diabetic Ketoacidosis in Type 2 Diabetes: "Look Under the Sheets"". Clinical Diabetes. 22 (4): 198–200. doi:10.2337/diaclin.22.4.198.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ Cooke DW, Plotnick L (2008). "Type 1 diabetes mellitus in pediatrics". Pediatr Rev. 29 (11): 374–84, quiz 385. doi:10.1542/pir.29-11-374. PMID 18977856.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ a b Risérus U, Willett WC, Hu FB (2009). "Dietary fats and prevention of type 2 diabetes". Progress in Lipid Research. 48 (1): 44–51. doi:10.1016/j.plipres.2008.10.002. PMC 2654180. PMID 19032965.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Masters SL, Dunne A, Subramanian SL, Hull RL, Tannahill GM, Sharp FA; et al. (2010). "Activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome by islet amyloid polypeptide provides a mechanism for enhanced IL-1β in type 2 diabetes". Nat Immunol. 11 (10): 897–904. doi:10.1038/ni.1935. PMID 20835230.
{{cite journal}}
: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Mozaffarian D, Kamineni A, Carnethon M, Djoussé L, Mukamal KJ, Siscovic, D (2009). "Lifestyle risk factors and new-onset diabetes mellitus in older adults: the cardiovascular health study". Archives of Internal Medicine. 169 (8): 798–807. doi:10.1001/archinternmed.2009.21. PMC 2828342. PMID 19398692.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2004). "Prevalence of overweight and obesity among adults with diagnosed diabetes—United States, 1988–1994 and 1999–2002". MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 53 (45): 1066–8. PMID 15549021.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ Arlan Rosenbloom, Janet H Silverstein (2003). Type 2 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents: A Clinician's Guide to Diagnosis, Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, Prevention, and Treatment. American Diabetes Association, U.S. p. 1. ISBN 978-1580401555.
- ^ Lang IA, Galloway TS, Scarlett A; et al. (2008). "Association of urinary bisphenol A concentration with medical disorders and laboratory abnormalities in adults". JAMA. 300 (11): 1303–10. doi:10.1001/jama.300.11.1303. PMID 18799442.
{{cite journal}}
: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Jack L, Boseman L, Vinicor F (2004). "Aging Americans and diabetes. A public health and clinical response". Geriatrics. 59 (4): 14–7. PMID 15086069.
{{cite journal}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Lovejoy JC (2002). "The influence of dietary fat on insulin resistance". Curr. Diab. Rep. 2 (5): 435–40. doi:10.1007/s11892-002-0098-y. PMID 12643169.
{{cite journal}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ Hu FB (2003). "Sedentary lifestyle and risk of obesity and type 2 diabetes". Lipids. 38 (2): 103–8. doi:10.1007/s11745-003-1038-4. PMID 12733740.
{{cite journal}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ a b Iwasaki Y, Takayasu S, Nishiyama M; et al. (2008). "Is the metabolic syndrome an intracellular Cushing state? Effects of multiple humoral factors on the transcriptional activity of the hepatic glucocorticoid-activating enzyme (11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1) gene". Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology. 285 (1–2): 10–8. doi:10.1016/j.mce.2008.01.012. PMID 18313835.
{{cite journal}}
: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Chiodini I, Torlontano M, Scillitani A; et al. (2005). "Association of subclinical hypercortisolism with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a case-control study in hospitalized patients". European Journal of Endocrinology. 153 (6): 837–44. doi:10.1530/eje.1.02045. PMID 16322389.
{{cite journal}}
: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Taniguchi T, Hamasaki A, Okamoto M (2008). "Subclinical hypercortisolism in hospitalized patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus". Endocrine Journal. 55 (2): 429–32. doi:10.1507/endocrj.K07E-045. PMID 18362453.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) [dead link] - ^ a b Saad F, Gooren L (2009). "The role of testosterone in the metabolic syndrome: a review". The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 114 (1–2): 40–3. doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2008.12.022. PMID 19444934.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ Farrell JB, Deshmukh A, Baghaie AA (2008). "Low testosterone and the association with type 2 diabetes". The Diabetes Educator. 34 (5): 799–806. doi:10.1177/0145721708323100. PMID 18832284.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Sakagashira S, Sanke T, Hanabusa T; et al. (1996). "Missense mutation of amylin gene (S20G) in Japanese NIDDM patients". Diabetes. 45 (9): 1279–81. doi:10.2337/diabetes.45.9.1279. PMID 8772735.
{{cite journal}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help); Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Cho YM, Kim M, Park KS, Kim SY, Lee HK (2003). "S20G mutation of the amylin gene is associated with a lower body mass index in Korean type 2 diabetic patients". Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract. 60 (2): 125–9. doi:10.1016/S0168-8227(03)00019-6. PMID 12706321. Retrieved 19 July 2008.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Eberhart, M. S. (2004). "Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity Among Adults with Diagnosed Diabetes --- United States, 1988--1994 and 1999--2002". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 53 (45). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: 1066–8. PMID 15549021. Retrieved 19 July 2008.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) - ^ Camastra S, Bonora E, Del Prato S, Rett K, Weck M, Ferrannini E (1999). "Effect of obesity and insulin resistance on resting and glucose-induced thermogenesis in man. EGIR (European Group for the Study of Insulin Resistance)". Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 23 (12): 1307–13. doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0801072. PMID 10643689.
{{cite journal}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Cotran, Kumar, Collins; Robbins Pathologic Basis of Disease, Saunders Sixth Edition, 1999; 913-926.
- ^ Lyssenko V, Jonsson A, Almgren P; et al. (2008). "Clinical risk factors, DNA variants, and the development of type 2 diabetes". The New England Journal of Medicine. 359 (21): 2220–32. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0801869. PMID 19020324.
{{cite journal}}
: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ McCarthy, M. I. (2010). Feero, W. G.; Guttmacher, A. E. (eds.). "Genomics, Type 2 Diabetes, and Obesity". The New England Journal of Medicine. 363 (24): 2339–50. doi:10.1056/NEJMra0906948. PMID 21142536.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ Rother KI (2007). "Diabetes treatment—bridging the divide". The New England Journal of Medicine. 356 (15): 1499–501. doi:10.1056/NEJMp078030. PMID 17429082.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ Walley AJ, Blakemore AI, Froguel P (2006). "Genetics of obesity and the prediction of risk for health". Human Molecular Genetics. 15 Spec No 2: R124–30. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddl215. PMID 16987875.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "Monogenic Forms of Diabetes: Neonatal Diabetes Mellitus and Maturity-onset Diabetes of the Young". National Diabetes Information Clearinghouse (NDIC). National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, NIH. Retrieved 2008-08-04.
{{cite news}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Barrett TG (2001). "Mitochondrial diabetes, DIDMOAD and other inherited diabetes syndromes". Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 15 (3): 325–43. doi:10.1053/beem.2001.0149. PMID 11554774.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ "The origin of diabetes Don't blame your genes They may simply be getting bad instructions—from you". Economist. 3 September 2009.
{{cite news}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help)CS1 maint: date and year (link) - ^ Definition and diagnosis of diabetes mellitus and intermediate hyperglycemia: Report of a WHO/IDF consultation (PDF). Geneva: World Health Organization. 2006. p. 21. ISBN 978-92-4-159493-6.
- ^ Vijan S (March 2010). "In the clinic. Type 2 diabetes". Annals of Internal Medicine. 152 (5): ITC31-15, quiz ITC316. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-152-5-201003020-01003. PMID 20194231.
- ^ World Health Organization. "Definition, diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus and its complications: Report of a WHO Consultation. Part 1. Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus". Retrieved 29 May 2007.
- ^ a b Harris R, Donahue K, Rathore SS, Frame P, Woolf SH, Lohr KN (2003). "Screening adults for type 2 diabetes: a review of the evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force". Ann. Intern. Med. 138 (3): 215–29. PMID 12558362. Retrieved 19 July 2008.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Rolka DB, Narayan KM, Thompson TJ; et al. (2001). "Performance of recommended screening tests for undiagnosed diabetes and dysglycemia". Diabetes Care. 24 (11): 1899–903. doi:10.2337/diacare.24.11.1899. PMID 11679454.
{{cite journal}}
: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Pradhan AD, Rifai N, Buring JE, Ridker PM (2007). "Hemoglobin A1c predicts diabetes but not cardiovascular disease in nondiabetic women". Am. J. Med. 120 (8): 720–7. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2007.03.022. PMC 2585540. PMID 17679132.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Chiasson JL, Josse RG, Gomis R, Hanefeld M, Karasik A, Laakso M (2003). "Acarbose treatment and the risk of cardiovascular disease and hypertension in patients with impaired glucose tolerance: the STOP-NIDDM trial". JAMA. 290 (4): 486–94. doi:10.1001/jama.290.4.486. PMID 12876091. Retrieved 19 July 2008.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Lindström J, Ilanne-Parikka P, Peltonen M; et al. (2006). "Sustained reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes by lifestyle intervention: follow-up of the Finnish Diabetes Prevention Study". The Lancet. 368 (9548): 1673–9. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69701-8. PMID 17098085.
{{cite journal}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help); Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Torgerson JS, Hauptman J, Boldrin MN, Sjöström L (2004). "XENical in the prevention of diabetes in obese subjects (XENDOS) study: a randomized study of orlistat as an adjunct to lifestyle changes for the prevention of type 2 diabetes in obese patients". Diabetes Care. 27 (1): 155–61. doi:10.2337/diacare.27.1.155. PMID 14693982. Retrieved 19 July 2008.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Knowler WC, Barrett-Connor E, Fowler SE; et al. (2002). "Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin". N. Engl. J. Med. 346 (6): 393–403. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa012512. PMC 1370926. PMID 11832527. Retrieved 19 July 2008.
{{cite journal}}
: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Lee CM, Huxley RR, Lam TH; et al. (2007). "Prevalence of diabetes mellitus and population attributable fractions for coronary heart disease and stroke mortality in the WHO South-East Asia and Western Pacific regions". Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 16 (1): 187–92. PMID 17215197.
{{cite journal}}
: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Seidell JC (2000). "Obesity, insulin resistance and diabetes—a worldwide epidemic". The British Journal of Nutrition. 83 Suppl 1: S5–8. doi:10.1017/S000711450000088X. PMID 10889785.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (2003). "Screening for type 2 diabetes mellitus in adults: recommendations and rationale". Ann. Intern. Med. 138 (3): 212–4. PMID 12558361. Retrieved 19 July 2008.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ Grade I recommendation
- ^ grade B recommendation
- ^ Raina Elley C, Kenealy T (2008). "Lifestyle interventions reduced the long-term risk of diabetes in adults with impaired glucose tolerance". Evid Based Med. 13 (6): 173. doi:10.1136/ebm.13.6.173. PMID 19043031.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ Santaguida PL, Balion C, Hunt D; et al. (2005). "Diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of impaired glucose tolerance and impaired fasting glucose" (PDF). Evid Rep Technol Assess (Summ) (128): 1–11. PMID 16194123. Retrieved 19 July 2008.
{{cite journal}}
: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ evidence report
- ^ "Physical activity and dietary intervention for chronic diseases: a quick fix after all?", Frank W. Booth & Manu V. Chakravarthy, J Appl Physiol, May 1, 2006; 100(5): 1439 - 1440.
- ^ Roberts, CK; Won, D; Pruthi, S; Kurtovic, S; Sindhu, RK; Vaziri, ND; Barnard, RJ (2006). "Effect of a short-term diet and exercise intervention on oxidative stress, inflammation, MMP-9, and monocyte chemotactic activity in men with metabolic syndrome factors". J Appl Physiol. 100 (5): 1657–65. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.01292.2005. PMID 16357066.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|laydate=
ignored (help); Unknown parameter|laysource=
ignored (help); Unknown parameter|laysummary=
ignored (help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ Hawthorne, K.; Robles, Y.; Cannings-John, R.; Edwards, A. G. K. (2008). "Culturally appropriate health education for type 2 diabetes mellitus in ethnic minority groups". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3). doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006424.pub2. PMID 18646153. CD006424.
- ^ Nield, L.; Summerbell, C. D.; Hooper, L.; Whittaker, V.; Moore, H. (2008). "Dietary advice for the prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus in adults". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3). doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005102.pub2. PMID 18646120. CD005102.
- ^ American Diabetes (2006). "Standards of medical care in diabetes--2006". Diabetes Care. 29 Suppl 1: S4–42. PMID 16373931. Retrieved 19 July 2008.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ Qaseem A, Vijan S, Snow V, Cross JT, Weiss KB, Owens DK (2007). "Glycemic control and type 2 diabetes mellitus: the optimal hemoglobin A1c targets. A guidance statement from the American College of Physicians". Ann. Intern. Med. 147 (6): 417–22. PMID 17876024. Retrieved 19 July 2008.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b Canadian Diabetes Association Clinical Practice Guidelines Expert Committee (2008). "Canadian Diabetes Association 2008 clinical practice guidelines for the prevention and management of diabetes in Canada". Can J Diabetes. 32 (suppl 1): S1–S201. Retrieved 19 July 2008.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ Brown AF, Mangione CM, Saliba D, Sarkisian CA (2003). "Guidelines for improving the care of the older person with diabetes mellitus". J Am Geriatr Soc. 51 (5 Suppl Guidelines): S265–80. doi:10.1046/j.1532-5415.51.5s.1.x. PMID 12694461. Retrieved 19 July 2008.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) [dead link] - ^ Sigal RJ, Kenny GP, Boulé NG; et al. (2007). "Effects of aerobic training, resistance training, or both on glycemic control in type 2 diabetes: a randomized trial". Ann. Intern. Med. 147 (6): 357–69. PMID 17876019.
{{cite journal}}
: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Non-technical summary - ^ Song S (17 September 2007). "Study: The Best Exercise for Diabetes". Time Inc. Retrieved 28 September 2007.
- ^ Farmer A, Wade A, Goyder E; et al. (2007). "Impact of self monitoring of blood glucose in the management of patients with non-insulin treated diabetes: open parallel group randomised trial". BMJ. 335 (7611): 132. doi:10.1136/bmj.39247.447431.BE. PMC 1925177. PMID 17591623.
{{cite journal}}
: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b Lowe, Julia (2010). "Self-monitoring of blood glucose in type 2 diabetes". Australian Prescriber (33): 138–140.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ "Clinical Guideline:The management of type 2 diabetes (update)".
- ^ Gerstein, H. C., M. E. Miller; et al. (2008). "Effects of intensive glucose lowering in type 2 diabetes". New England Journal of Medicine, the. 358 (358(24)): 2545–59. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0802743. PMID 18539917.
{{cite journal}}
: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ National Diabetes Fact Sheet, 2007
- ^ Bolen S et al. Systematic Review: Comparative Effectiveness and Safety of Oral Medications for Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Ann Intern Med 2007;147:6
- ^ a b
Kahn SE, Haffner SM, Heise MA; et al. (2006). "Glycemic durability of rosiglitazone, metformin, or glyburide monotherapy". N. Engl. J. Med. 355 (23): 2427–43. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa066224. PMID 17145742.
{{cite journal}}
: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "NEJM -- Effect of Rosiglitazone on the Risk of Myocardial Infarction and Death from Cardiovascular Causes". Retrieved 21 May 2007.
- ^ "MedWatch - 2007 Safety Information Alerts (Actos (pioglitazone))". Retrieved 21 May 2007.
- ^ "MedWatch - 2007 Safety Information Alerts (Rosiglitazone)". Retrieved 21 May 2007.
- ^ Eurich DT, McAlister FA, Blackburn DF; et al. (2007). "Benefits and harms of antidiabetic agents in patients with diabetes and heart failure: systematic review". BMJ. 335 (7618): 497. doi:10.1136/bmj.39314.620174.80. PMC 1971204. PMID 17761999.
{{cite journal}}
: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Amori RE, Lau J, Pittas AG (2007). "Efficacy and safety of incretin therapy in type 2 diabetes: systematic review and meta-analysis". JAMA. 298 (2): 194–206. doi:10.1001/jama.298.2.194. PMID 17622601.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ National Prescribing Service (August 1, 2010). "Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors ('gliptins') for type 2 diabetes mellitus". RADAR.
- ^ Diabetes (Report). MyOptumHealth. Retrieved Jan 21, 2010.
- ^ Diabetes and Medication (Report). Diabetes New Zealand. Retrieved Jan 21, 2010.
- ^ a b Yki-Järvinen H, Ryysy L, Nikkilä K, Tulokas T, Vanamo R, Heikkilä M (1999). "Comparison of bedtime insulin regimens in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. A randomized, controlled trial". Ann. Intern. Med. 130 (5): 389–96. PMID 10068412. Retrieved 19 July 2008.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Holman RR, Turner RC (1985). "A practical guide to basal and prandial insulin therapy". Diabet. Med. 2 (1): 45–53. doi:10.1111/j.1464-5491.1985.tb00592.x. PMID 2951066.
{{cite journal}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ a b Mooradian AD, Bernbaum M, Albert SG (2006). "Narrative review: a rational approach to starting insulin therapy". Ann. Intern. Med. 145 (2): 125–34. PMID 16847295.
{{cite journal}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Yki-Järvinen H, Kauppila M, Kujansuu E; et al. (1992). "Comparison of insulin regimens in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus". N. Engl. J. Med. 327 (20): 1426–33. doi:10.1056/NEJM199211123272005. PMID 1406860.
{{cite journal}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help); Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Kratz A, Lewandrowski KB (1998). "Case records of the Massachusetts General Hospital. Weekly clinicopathological exercises. Normal reference laboratory values". N. Engl. J. Med. 339 (15): 1063–72. doi:10.1056/NEJM199810083391508. PMID 9761809. Retrieved 19 July 2008.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ a b Holman RR, Thorne KI, Farmer AJ; et al. (2007). "Addition of biphasic, prandial, or basal insulin to oral therapy in type 2 diabetes". N. Engl. J. Med. 357 (17): 1716–30. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa075392. PMID 17890232. Retrieved 19 July 2008.
{{cite journal}}
: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b Raskin P, Allen E, Hollander P; et al. (2005). "Initiating insulin therapy in type 2 Diabetes: a comparison of biphasic and basal insulin analogs". Diabetes Care. 28 (2): 260–5. doi:10.2337/diacare.28.2.260. PMID 15677776. Retrieved 19 July 2008.
{{cite journal}}
: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Malone JK, Kerr LF, Campaigne BN, Sachson RA, Holcombe JH (2004). "Combined therapy with insulin lispro Mix 75/25 plus metformin or insulin glargine plus metformin: a 16-week, randomized, open-label, crossover study in patients with type 2 diabetes beginning insulin therapy". Clin Ther. 26 (12): 2034–44. doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2004.12.015. PMID 15823767. Retrieved 19 July 2008.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Horvath K, Jeitler K, Berghold A; et al. (2007). "Long-acting insulin analogues versus NPH insulin (human isophane insulin) for type 2 diabetes mellitus". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2). doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005613.pub3. PMID 17443605. CD005613.
{{cite journal}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help); Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Jothydev Kesavadev, Shyam Balakrishnan, Ahammed S,Sunitha Jothydev; et al. (2009). "Reduction of glycosylated hemoglobin following 6 months of continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion in an Indian population with type 2 diabetes". Diabetes Technol Ther. 11 (8): 517–21. doi:10.1089/dia.2008.0128. PMID 19698065.
{{cite journal}}
:|access-date=
requires|url=
(help); Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Cummings DE, Flum DR (2008). "Gastrointestinal surgery as a treatment for diabetes". JAMA. 299 (3): 341–3. doi:10.1001/jama.299.3.341. PMID 18212321.
- ^ Folli F, Pontiroli AE, Schwesinger WH (2007). "Metabolic aspects of bariatric surgery". Med. Clin. North Am. 91 (3): 393–414, x. doi:10.1016/j.mcna.2007.01.005. PMID 17509385.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Robert J. Tanenberg (April 1, 2005). "Gastric Bypass Surgery". Diabetes Health.
- ^ Dixon JB, O'Brien PE, Playfair J; et al. (2008). "Adjustable gastric banding and conventional therapy for type 2 diabetes: a randomized controlled trial". JAMA. 299 (3): 316–23. doi:10.1001/jama.299.3.316. PMID 18212316.
{{cite journal}}
: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Clinical Calculator
- ^ "Total Prevalence of Diabetes and Pre-diabetes". American Diabetes Association. Retrieved 2008-11-29.[dead link]
- ^ Inzucchi, S. E.; Sherwin, R. S. (2005). "The prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus". Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 34 (1): 199–219. doi:10.1016/j.ecl.2004.11.008. PMID 15752928.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ Gerberding, Julie Louise (2007-05-24). Diabetes. Atlanta: Centres for Disease Control. Retrieved 2007-09-14.[verification needed]
- ^ Diabetes rates are increasing among youth National Institutes of Health (NIH), November 13, 2007
- ^ Steinberger J, Moran A, Hong CP, Jacobs DR, Sinaiko AR (2001). "Adiposity in childhood predicts obesity and insulin resistance in young adulthood". J Pediatr. 138 (4): 469–73. doi:10.1067/mpd.2001.112658. PMID 11295707.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b Zimmet P, Alberti KG, Shaw J (2001). "Global and societal implications of the diabetes epidemic". Nature. 414 (6865): 782–7. doi:10.1038/414782a. PMID 11742409. Retrieved 19 July 2008.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
External links
- Type 2 diabetes at Curlie
- Diabetes mellitus type 2
- Type 2 Diabetes - General Information
- Type 2 Diabetes - Causes, Symptoms and Treatment
Organizations
- IDF Diabetes Atlas
- International Diabetes Federation
- World Diabetes Day (International Diabetes Federation)
- Diabetes UK - Largest organisation in the UK working for people with diabetes
- American Diabetes Association
Authorities
Further reading
![]() | This "Further reading" section may need cleanup. (August 2010) |
- Diabetes Symptoms Revisited: Are They Too Vague and Too Late?
- ABC Radio National transcript on hypothesised aetiology involving gut hormone
This template is no longer used; please see Template:Endocrine pathology for a suitable replacement