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In 2005, an article published by [[Greenpeace]] International stated that “the tasty dark violet wine of açaí is the most important non-wood forest product in terms of money from the river delta of the Amazon.”<ref>{{cite web|authorlink=Greenpeace International|title=Amazon Case Study|url=http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/forests/solutions/amazon-case-study/|accessdate=16 September 2005}}</ref> In 2008, the Los Angeles Times reported that açaí is a renewable resource that can provide a sustainable livelihood for subsistence harvesters without damaging the Amazon Rainforest. The Times noted that wild harvesting of açaí may contribute to forest preservation and support of harvesting families, thereby making the forest more economical intact rather than cut down. While conventionally grown monoculture açaí farming is a threat to the rainforest, açaí has been used to successfully reforest already degraded regions.<ref>{{cite news|last=McDonnell|first=Patrick J.|title=Humble Berry Now a Global Superfood|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|location=Los Angeles, CA|date=21 September 2008|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2008/sep/21/world/fg-acai21}}</ref> In May 2009, Bloomberg reported that the expanding popularity of açaí in the United States was "depriving Brazilian jungle dwellers of a protein-rich nutrient they’ve relied on for generations."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601130&sid=ai8WCgSJrhmY&refer=environment|title=‘Superfood’ Promoted on Oprah’s Site Robs Amazon Poor of Staple|date=14 May 2009|accessdate=30 Dec 2009}}</ref> Although most açaí is grown conventionally, the US company Sambazon established [[USDA Organic]] certification for their açai palm [[plantations]] in 2003 and has also implemented [[fair trade]] certification.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://cms.herbalgram.org/herbalgram/issue86/article3511.html|last=Engels|first=Gayle|title=Açaí|journal=HerbalGram, American Botanical Council|volume=86|pages=1–2|year=2010}}</ref>
In 2005, an article published by [[Greenpeace]] International stated that “the tasty dark violet wine of açaí is the most important non-wood forest product in terms of money from the river delta of the Amazon.”<ref>{{cite web|authorlink=Greenpeace International|title=Amazon Case Study|url=http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/forests/solutions/amazon-case-study/|accessdate=16 September 2005}}</ref> In 2008, the Los Angeles Times reported that açaí is a renewable resource that can provide a sustainable livelihood for subsistence harvesters without damaging the Amazon Rainforest. The Times noted that wild harvesting of açaí may contribute to forest preservation and support of harvesting families, thereby making the forest more economical intact rather than cut down. While conventionally grown monoculture açaí farming is a threat to the rainforest, açaí has been used to successfully reforest already degraded regions.<ref>{{cite news|last=McDonnell|first=Patrick J.|title=Humble Berry Now a Global Superfood|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|location=Los Angeles, CA|date=21 September 2008|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2008/sep/21/world/fg-acai21}}</ref> In May 2009, Bloomberg reported that the expanding popularity of açaí in the United States was "depriving Brazilian jungle dwellers of a protein-rich nutrient they’ve relied on for generations."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601130&sid=ai8WCgSJrhmY&refer=environment|title=‘Superfood’ Promoted on Oprah’s Site Robs Amazon Poor of Staple|date=14 May 2009|accessdate=30 Dec 2009}}</ref> Although most açaí is grown conventionally, the US company Sambazon established [[USDA Organic]] certification for their açai palm [[plantations]] in 2003 and has also implemented [[fair trade]] certification.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://cms.herbalgram.org/herbalgram/issue86/article3511.html|last=Engels|first=Gayle|title=Açaí|journal=HerbalGram, American Botanical Council|volume=86|pages=1–2|year=2010}}</ref>


Today, a half-dozen brands market açaí in the beverage space.<ref>{{cite news|last=Bounds|first=Gwendolyn|title=Running the Show|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|date=19 March 2007|url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://wsjclassroom.com/monday/mx_07mar26.pdf&pli=1}}</ref>
Today, a half-dozen brands market açaí in the beverage space.<ref>{{cite news|last=Bounds|first=Gwendolyn|title=Running the Show|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|date=19 March 2007|url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http://wsjclassroom.com/monday/mx_07mar26.pdf&pli=1}}</ref> The [[Nutrition|nutritional]] value of the fruit, specifically the claim that it lowers or controls [[cholesterol]], has earned it the title of a [[superfood]]<ref name=PS>{{cite web |url=http://www.powersupplements.com/acai/ |title=The Acai Berry ''A True Superfood?'' |publisher=''PowerSupplements'' |accessdate=August 30, 2012}}</ref> and made it renowned in recent years, but the many claims to its medicinal value still remain largely unproven.<ref name=DD>{{cite web |url=http://www.dietingdirection.com/category/scams/ |title=Dieting Direction<nowiki>|</nowiki>Archive<nowiki>|</nowiki>Scams |publisher=''Dieting Direction'' |accessdate=August 30, 2012}}</ref> Many [[dietary supplement]]s supposedly made from or containing açaí berry or its derivatives and with claims of healing power over almost all kinds of ailments has earned it the name [[Enforcement actions against açaí berry supplement manufacturers|scam berry]].<ref name=DD2>{{cite web |url=http://www.dietingdirection.com/how-to-find-reliable-acai-berry-products/ |title=How to Find Reliable Acai Berry Products |publisher=''Dieting Direction'' |accessdate=August 30, 2012}}</ref>


===Cultivars ===
===Cultivars ===

Revision as of 15:11, 31 August 2012

Açaí palm
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Monocots
(unranked):
Commelinids
Order:
Arecales
Family:
Arecaceae
Genus:
Euterpe
Species:
E. oleracea
Binomial name
Euterpe oleracea

The açaí palm (Portuguese: [aˌsaˈi] ⓘ) (Euterpe oleracea) is a species of palm tree in the genus Euterpe cultivated for their fruit and superior hearts of palm. Its name comes from the Portuguese adaptation of the Tupian word ïwaca'i, '[fruit that] cries or expels water'. Global demand for the fruit has expanded rapidly in recent years, and açaí is now cultivated for that purpose primarily. The closely related species Euterpe edulis (juçara) is now predominantly used for hearts of palm.[citation needed]

Eight species are native to Central and South America, from Belize southward to Brazil and Peru, growing mainly in swamps and floodplains. Açaí palms are tall, slender palms growing to 15–30 meters, with pinnate leaves up to 3 meters long.

Harvesting and uses

Fruit

The fruit is a small, round, black-purple drupe about 1 inch (25 mm) in circumference, similar in appearance but smaller than a grape and with less pulp, is produced in branched panicles of 500 to 900 fruits. The exocarp of the ripe fruits is a deep purple color, or green, depending on the kind of açaí and its maturity. The mesocarp is pulpy and thin, with a consistent thickness of 1 mm or less. It surrounds the voluminous and hard endocarp, which contains a single large seed about 0.25–0.40 inches (7–10 mm) in diameter. The seed makes up about 80% of the fruit (Schauss, 2006c). Two crops of fruit are produced each year. The fruits can be harvested and consumed.

A grove of Açaí palms in Brazil
Açaí palm
Serving of açaí pulp
Separation of açaí pulp from seeds in market Belém, Pará Brazil

In a study of three traditional Caboclo populations in the Brazilian Amazon, açaí palm was described as the most important plant species because the fruit makes up a major component of their diet, up to 42% of the total food intake by weight.[1]

In 2005, an article published by Greenpeace International stated that “the tasty dark violet wine of açaí is the most important non-wood forest product in terms of money from the river delta of the Amazon.”[2] In 2008, the Los Angeles Times reported that açaí is a renewable resource that can provide a sustainable livelihood for subsistence harvesters without damaging the Amazon Rainforest. The Times noted that wild harvesting of açaí may contribute to forest preservation and support of harvesting families, thereby making the forest more economical intact rather than cut down. While conventionally grown monoculture açaí farming is a threat to the rainforest, açaí has been used to successfully reforest already degraded regions.[3] In May 2009, Bloomberg reported that the expanding popularity of açaí in the United States was "depriving Brazilian jungle dwellers of a protein-rich nutrient they’ve relied on for generations."[4] Although most açaí is grown conventionally, the US company Sambazon established USDA Organic certification for their açai palm plantations in 2003 and has also implemented fair trade certification.[5]

Today, a half-dozen brands market açaí in the beverage space.[6]

Cultivars

Few named cultivars exist, and varieties differ mostly in the nature of the fruit:

  • 'Branco' is a rare variety local to the Amazon estuary in which the berries do not change color but remain green when ripe. This is believed to be due to a recessive gene since of 'Branco' palm seeds only about 30% mature to express this trait. It has less iron and antioxidants but more oil and many believe it to have a superior taste and digestability to purple açaí.[7]
  • 'BRS-Para Dwarf' was developed by the Brazilian Agricultural Research Agency. It grows to at most 5-7 meters tall, fruits sooner (3 years from seed), and produces a larger seed yielding 25% more fruit pulp than wild açaí.[8]

Other uses

Apart from the use of its fruit as food or beverage, the açaí palm has other commercial uses. Leaves may be made into hats, mats, baskets, brooms and roof thatch for homes, and trunk wood, resistant to pests, for building construction.[9] Tree trunks may be processed to yield minerals.[10] The palm heart is widely exploited as a delicacy.[11]

Comprising 80% of the fruit mass, açaí seeds may be ground for livestock food or as a component of organic soil for plants. Planted seeds are used for new palm tree stock, which, under the right growing conditions, requires months to form seedlings.[citation needed] The seeds are a source of polyunsaturated and saturated fatty acids[9][12][13]

Nutritional content

A powdered preparation of freeze-dried açaí fruit pulp and skin was reported to contain (per 100 g of dry powder) 533.9 calories, 52.2 g carbohydrates, 8.1 g protein, and 32.5 g total fat. The carbohydrate portion included 44.2 g of dietary fiber and low sugar value (pulp is not sweet).[13] The powder was also shown to contain (per 100 g): negligible vitamin C, 260 mg calcium, 4.4 mg iron, and 1002 U vitamin A, as well as aspartic acid and glutamic acid; the amino acid content was 7.59% of total dry weight (versus 8.1% protein).

The fat content of açaí consists of oleic acid (56.2% of total fats), palmitic acid (24.1%), and linoleic acid (12.5%).[13] Açaí also contains beta-sitosterol (78–91% of total sterols).[13][14] The oil compartments in açaí fruit contain polyphenols such as procyanidin oligomers and vanillic acid, syringic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, protocatechuic acid, and ferulic acid, which were shown to degrade substantially during storage or exposure to heat.[15]

Food product

In the general consumer market, açaí is sold as frozen pulp, juice, or an ingredient in various products from beverages (including the grain alcohol, VeeV), smoothies and foods to cosmetics and supplements.

Dietary supplement

See also: Enforcement actions against açaí berry supplement manufacturers

In 2004, it became popular to consume açaí as a supplement due in part to the rapid success of multi-level marketing company MonaVie that sells an açaí blend tonic for $40 a bottle and the proliferation of various açaí supplement companies that misused celebrity names like Oprah Winfrey and Rachael Ray to promote açaí weight loss pills online.[16]

Marketers of these products make unfounded claims that açaí and its antioxidant qualities provide a variety of health benefits, none of which has scientific confirmation to date. False claims include reversal of diabetes and other chronic illnesses, as well as expanding size of the penis and increasing men's sexual virility.[17] As of April 2012, there are no scientifically controlled studies providing proof of any health benefits from consuming açaí. No açaí products have been evaluated (in the United States) by the FDA, and their efficacy is doubtful.[18] Specifically, there is no scientific evidence that açaí consumption affects body weight, promotes weight loss or has any positive health effect.[19]

According to the Washington, D.C. based Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI) thousands of consumers have had trouble stopping recurrent charges on their credit cards when they cancel free trials of açai-based products.[20][21] Even some web sites purporting to warn about açai-related scams are themselves perpetrating scams.[19]

In late 2008, lawyers for The Oprah Winfrey Show began investigating statements from supplement manufacturers who alleged that frequent Oprah guest Dr. Mehmet Oz had recommended their product or açai in general for weight loss.[18]

Polyphenols and antioxidant activity in vitro

A comparative analysis from in vitro studies reported that açaí has intermediate polyphenol content and antioxidant potency among 11 varieties of frozen juice pulps, scoring lower than acerola, mango, strawberry, and grapes.[22]

A powdered preparation of freeze-dried açaí fruit pulp and skin was shown to contain anthocyanins (3.19 mg/g); however, anthocyanins accounted for only about 10% of the overall antioxidant capacity in vitro.[23] The powdered preparation was also reported to contain twelve flavonoid-like compounds, including homoorientin, orientin, taxifolin, deoxyhexose, isovitexin, scoparin, as well as proanthocyanidins (12.89 mg/g), and low levels of resveratrol (1.1 μg/g).[13] A study on another different freeze-dried açaí product (Opti-Acai) reported that the formulation contained much lower levels of anthocyanins, proanthocyanadins, and other polyphenol compounds as compared with blueberries and other antioxidant-rich fruits.[24]

In an in vitro study of different açaí varieties for their antioxidant capacity, a white one displayed no antioxidant activity against different oxygen radicals, whereas the purple variety most often used commercially had antioxidant activity against peroxyl radicals and to a lesser extent peroxynitrite but little activity against hydroxyl radicals.[23]

Freeze-dried açaí powder was found to have antioxidant activity in vitro against superoxide and peroxyl radicals, and mild activity for peroxynitrite and hydroxyl radicals.[24] The powder was reported to inhibit hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidation in neutrophils, and to have a slight stimulatory effect on the reactive radical, nitric oxide.[25]

Extracts of açaí seeds were reported to have antioxidant capacity in vitro against peroxyl radicals, similar to the antioxidant capacity of the pulp, with higher antioxidant capacity against peroxynitrite and hydroxyl radicals.[26]

The anthocyanins of fruit likely have relevance to antioxidant capacity only in the plant's natural defensive mechanisms[27] and in vitro.[28] The Linus Pauling Institute and European Food Safety Authority state that dietary anthocyanins and other flavonoids have little or no direct antioxidant food value following digestion.[29][30][31] Unlike controlled test tube conditions, the fate of anthocyanins in vivo shows they are poorly conserved (less than 5%), with most of what is absorbed existing as chemically modified metabolites destined for rapid excretion.[32]

When the entire scientific literature to date and putative health claims of açaí are assessed, experts concluded in 2011 that the fruit is more a phenomenon of Internet marketing than of scientific substance.[33][34]

Juice blend studies

Various studies have been conducted that analyze the antioxidant capacity of açaí juice blends to pure fruit juices or fruit pulp. Açaí juice blends contain an undisclosed percentage of açaí.

When three commercially available juice mixes containing unspecified percentages of açaí juice were compared for in vitro antioxidant capacity against red wine, tea, six types of pure fruit juice, and pomegranate juice, the average antioxidant capacity was ranked lower than that of pomegranate juice, Concord grape juice, blueberry juice, and red wine. The average was roughly equivalent to that of black cherry or cranberry juice, and was higher than that of orange juice, apple juice, and tea.[35]

The medical watchdog website Quackwatch noted that "açaí juice has only middling levels of antioxidants—less than that of Concord grape, blueberry, and black cherry juices, but more than cranberry, orange, and apple juices." The extent to which polyphenols as dietary antioxidants may promote health is unknown as no credible evidence indicates any antioxidant role for polyphenols in vivo,[36][37]

Other uses

Orally administered açaí has been tested as a contrast agent for magnetic resonance imaging of the gastrointestinal system.[38] Its anthocyanins have also been characterized for stability as a natural food coloring agent.[39]

References

  1. ^ *Murrieta RSS, Dufour DL, Siqueira AD (1999). "Food consumption and subsistence in three Caboclo populations on Marajo Island, Amazonia, Brazil". Human Ecology. 27: 455–75. doi:10.1023/A:1018779624490.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  2. ^ "Amazon Case Study". Retrieved 16 September 2005.
  3. ^ McDonnell, Patrick J. (21 September 2008). "Humble Berry Now a Global Superfood". Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles, CA.
  4. ^ "'Superfood' Promoted on Oprah's Site Robs Amazon Poor of Staple". 14 May 2009. Retrieved 30 December 2009.
  5. ^ Engels, Gayle (2010). "Açaí". HerbalGram, American Botanical Council. 86: 1–2.
  6. ^ Bounds, Gwendolyn (19 March 2007). "Running the Show". The Wall Street Journal.
  7. ^ http://environment.yale.edu/tri/uploads/Ashley-DuVal.pdf
  8. ^ http://www.mbpalms.com/modals/details.aspx?pid=303
  9. ^ a b Silva, S. & Tassara, H. (2005). Fruit Brazil Fruit. São Paulo, Brazil, Empresa das Artes
  10. ^ Dyer, A. P. 1996. Latent energy in Euterpe oleracea. Biomass Energy Environ., Proc. Bioenergy Conf. 9th.
  11. ^ "Açaí Fruit". Archived from the original on 29 March 2010. Retrieved 21 April 2010. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  12. ^ Plotkin MJ, Balick MJ (1984). "Medicinal uses of South American palms". J Ethnopharmacol. 10 (2): 157–79. doi:10.1016/0378-8741(84)90001-1. PMID 6727398. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  13. ^ a b c d e Schauss AG, Wu X, Prior RL, Ou B, Patel D, Huang D, Kababick JP (2006). "Phytochemical and nutrient composition of the freeze-dried amazonian palmberry, Euterpe oleraceae Mart. (acai)". J Agric Food Chem. 54 (22): 8598–603. doi:10.1021/jf060976g. PMID 17061839.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ Lubrano C, Robin JR, Khaiat A (1994). "Fatty-acid, sterol and tocopherol composition of oil from the fruit mesocarp of 6 palm species in French-Guiana". Oleagineux. 49: 59–6.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  15. ^ Pacheco-Palencia LA, Mertens-Talcott S, Talcott ST (2008). "Chemical composition, antioxidant properties, and thermal stability of a phytochemical enriched oil from Açaí (Euterpe oleracea Mart.)". J Agric Food Chem. 56 (12): 4631–6. doi:10.1021/jf800161u. PMID 18522407. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ^ Ellin, Abbey (12 March 2009). "Pressing Açaí for Answers". The New York Times.
  17. ^ "Reality check"
  18. ^ a b James, SD (12 December 2008). "'Superfood' Açaí May not Be Worth Price: Oprah's Dr. Oz Says Açai Is Healthy but No Cure-all; Dieter Feels Ripped Off"". ABC News. Archived from the original on 19 December 2008. Retrieved 30 December 2008. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  19. ^ a b Center for Science in the Public Interest (23 March 2009). "CSPI Warns Consumers about Web-Based Açai Scams". Quackwatch. Retrieved 15 June 2012.
  20. ^ "Oprah is coming after bad Internet Marketers". Adotas.
  21. ^ "AG warns about deceptive weight loss supplement offer". King5 News. Retrieved 9 September 2009. [dead link]
  22. ^ Kuskoski EM, Asuero AG, Morales MT, Fett R (2006). "Wild fruits and pulps of frozen fruits: antioxidant activity, polyphenols and anthocyanins". Cienc Rural. 36 (4 (July/Aug)). doi:10.1590/S0103-84782006000400037.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  23. ^ a b Lichtenthäler R, Rodrigues RB, Maia JG, Papagiannopoulos M, Fabricius H, Marx F (2005). "Total oxidant scavenging capacities of Euterpe oleracea Mart. (Açaí) fruits". Int J Food Sci Nutr. 56 (1): 53–64. doi:10.1080/09637480500082082. PMID 16019315. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. ^ a b Schauss A.G., Wu X., Prior R.L., Ou B., Huang D., Owens J., Agarwal A., Jensen G.S., Hart A.N., Shanbrom E. (2006). "Antioxidant capacity and other bioactivities of the freeze-dried amazonian palm berry, Euterpe oleraceae Mart. (acai)". J Agric Food Chem. 54 (22): 8604–10. doi:10.1021/jf0609779. PMID 17061840.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  25. ^ Alexander G.Schauss et al. "Antioxidant Capacity and Other Bioactivities of the Freeze-Dried Amazonian Palm Berry, Euterpe oleraceae Mart. (Acai)", J. Agric. Food Chem. 54(2006)8604–8610. downloaded 20 November 2010, from http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/jf0609779
  26. ^ Rodrigues RB, Lichtenthäler R, Zimmermann BF; et al. (2006). "Total oxidant scavenging capacity of Euterpe oleracea Mart. (açaí) seeds and identification of their polyphenolic compounds". J Agric Food Chem. 54 (12): 4162–7. doi:10.1021/jf058169p. PMID 16756342. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  27. ^ Simon PW (1997). "Plant Pigments for Color and Nutrition". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |source= ignored (help)
  28. ^ De Rosso VV, Morán Vieyra FE, Mercadante AZ, Borsarelli CD (2008). "Singlet oxygen quenching by anthocyanin's flavylium cations". Free Radical Research. 42 (10): 885–91. doi:10.1080/10715760802506349. PMID 18985487. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  29. ^ Lotito SB, Frei B (2006). "Consumption of flavonoid-rich foods and increased plasma antioxidant capacity in humans: cause, consequence, or epiphenomenon?". Free Radic. Biol. Med. 41 (12): 1727–46. doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2006.04.033. PMID 17157175.
  30. ^ Williams RJ, Spencer JP, Rice-Evans C (2004). "Flavonoids: antioxidants or signalling molecules?". Free Radical Biology & Medicine. 36 (7): 838–49. doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2004.01.001. PMID 15019969. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  31. ^ Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to various food(s)/food constituent(s) and protection of cells from premature aging, antioxidant activity, antioxidant content and antioxidant properties, and protection of DNA, proteins and lipids from oxidative damage pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/20061, EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA)2, 3 European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Parma, Italy, EFSA Journal 2010; 8(2):1489
  32. ^ "Studies force new view on biology of flavonoids", by David Stauth, EurekAlert!. Adapted from a news release issued by Oregon State University
  33. ^ Heinrich M, Dhanjia T, Casselman I (2011). "Açai (Euterpe oleracea Mart.) — A phytochemical and pharmacological assessment of the species' health claims". Phytochem Lett. 4 (3): 10–21. doi:10.1016/j.phytol.2010.11.005. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  34. ^ "'Insufficient and unconvincing' scientific evidence to promote acai, says review". NutraIngredients-USA.com, 16 Mar 2011. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 3 April 2011. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  35. ^ Seeram NP, Aviram M, Zhang Y; et al. (2008). "Comparison of antioxidant potency of commonly consumed polyphenol-rich beverages in the United States". J Agric Food Chem. 56 (4): 1415–22. doi:10.1021/jf073035s. PMID 18220345. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
    Reprint at Pom Wonderful
  36. ^ Williams RJ, Spencer JP, Rice-Evans C (2004). "Flavonoids: antioxidants or signalling molecules?". Free Radical Biology & Medicine. 36 (7): 838–49. doi:10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2004.01.001. PMID 15019969. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); line feed character in |journal= at position 5 (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  37. ^ Frei B. "Controversy: What are the true biological functions of superfruit antioxidants?". Archived from the original on 6 March 2010. Retrieved 5 February 2010. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |source= ignored (help) [dead link]
  38. ^ Córdova-Fraga T, de Araujo DB, Sanchez TA; et al. (2004). "Euterpe Olerácea (Açaí) as an alternative oral contrast agent in MRI of the gastrointestinal system: preliminary results". Magn Reson Imaging. 22 (3): 389–93. doi:10.1016/j.mri.2004.01.018. PMID 15062934. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  39. ^ Del Pozo-Insfran D, Brenes CH, Talcott ST (2004). "Phytochemical composition and pigment stability of Açaí (Euterpe oleracea Mart.)". J Agric Food Chem. 52 (6): 1539–45. doi:10.1021/jf035189n. PMID 15030208. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

Further reading

  • Craft P, Riffle RL (2003). An encyclopedia of cultivated palms. Portland, Oregon, United States: Timber Press. ISBN 0-88192-558-6.

See also

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Açaí_palm&oldid=510123687"