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Coordinates: 35°53′42″N 14°31′14″E / 35.89500°N 14.52056°E / 35.89500; 14.52056
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===January===
===January===
On 8 January the supply ship ''Glengyle'', the 15th Cruiser Squadron, comprising three light cruisers and six destroyers reached Malta and the destroyers joined ''Breconshire'' on their return journey.{{sfn|Roskill|1962|p=44}} Four ships in the two-ship convoys MW8A and MW8B sailed from Alexandria in Operation MF3 on 16 January with the anti-aircraft cruiser ''Carlisle'' and two [[destroyer division]]s. The 15th Cruiser Squadron, still with three light cruisers and six destroyers, sortied on 17 January. Aircraft damaged the 6,655-ton ''Thermopylae'' of MW8A after she developed mechanical faults and was detached to Benghazi (she was later scuttled); the other three freighters arrived safely at Malta. Fighters from 201 Naval Co-operation Group in Cyrenaica, Hurricanes from Malta and the warships' guns prevented Axis aircraft from attacking the convoy but on 17 January, the destroyer {{HMS|Gurkha|G63|6}} was sunk by {{GS|U-133|1941|2}}; Dutch freighter ''Isaac Sweers'' towed her clear of blazing oil, allowing most of her crew to be rescued.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=280–281}} ''Breconshire'' was escorted into Malta soon after and two ships in ballast made the return journey, escorted by ships from Malta, rendezvousing on 26 January east of the island. The two escort forces exchanged freighters and returned safely.{{sfn|Roskill|1962|p=45}}
On 8 January the fast supply ship ''Glengyle'' was escorted to Malta from Alexandria and ''Breconshire'' escorted back from the island. The ships were covered by the 15th Cruiser Squadron (Rear-Admiral Philip Vian), comprising the light cruisers ''Naiad'', ''Dido'' and ''Euryalus'', along with six destroyers. The light cruisers were equipped with dual-purpose guns and were used as the main escorts as a bluff in the absence of bigger ships to challenge a sortie by the ''Regia Marina''{{sfn|Roskill|1962|p=44}} Four ships in the two-ship convoys MW8A and MW8B sailed from Alexandria in Operation MF3 on 16 January, with the anti-aircraft cruiser ''Carlisle'' and two [[destroyer division]]s. The 15th Cruiser Squadron, still with three light cruisers and six destroyers, sailed on 17 January to pass the convoy and join the escort force. [[Force K]] from Malta with the cruiser ''Penelope'' and six destroyers departed to rendezvous with the convoy on 18 January. The 6,655-ton ''Thermopylae'' of MW8A developed mechanical faults and was diverted to Benghazi but while en route, was severely damaged by bombing and had to be scuttled. On 17 January, the destroyer {{HMS|Gurkha|G63|6}} was torpedoed by {{GS|U-133|1941|2}}; Dutch freighter ''Isaac Sweers'' towed her clear of blazing oil, allowing most of her crew to be rescued before the ship sank.{{sfn|Woodman|2003|pp=280–281}} The three remaining freighters arrived safely at Malta, air attacks on the ships being intercepted by fighters from 201 Naval Co-operation Group based in Cyrenaica, the convoy and escorts' anti-aircraft guns and Hurricanes from Malta as soon as the convoy came into their range. As soon as it was certain that the Italian fleet was still in port, the 15th Cruiser Squadron and its destroyers turned for Alexandria and arrived on 20 January. On 26 January, in a similar operation, ''Breconshire'' and escorts from Alexandria met two ships sailing in ballast from Malta with escorts from Force K, which escorted ''Breconshire'' back to the island and the escorts from Alexandria returned with the two ships from Malta.{{sfn|Roskill|1962|pp=44–45}}


===February===
===February===

Revision as of 09:13, 19 September 2017

Not to be confused with Battle of the Malta Convoy (1800).
Malta Convoys
Part of The Battle of the Mediterranean
Relief map of the Mediterranean Sea
Operational scopeSupply operations
Location
Malta

35°53′42″N 14°31′14″E / 35.89500°N 14.52056°E / 35.89500; 14.52056
Planned byMediterranean Fleet
RAF Middle East (RAF Middle East Command from 29 December 1941)
Merchant Navy
Allies
Commanded byAdmiral Sir Andrew Cunningham, 1 June 1939 – March 1942
Admiral Sir Henry Harwood, 22 April 1942 – February 1943
ObjectiveDefeat Axis siege of Malta
Date27 June 1940 – 31 December 1943
OutcomeBritish victory
Casualties1,600 civilians on Malta
5,700 service personnel on land, sea and in the air
Aircraft: 707
Merchant ships: 31 sunk
Navy: 1 battleship, 2 aircraft carriers
4 cruisers, 1 minelayer
20 destroyers/minesweepers
40 submarines
unknown number of smaller vessels

The Malta Convoys were Allied supply convoys of the Second World War. The convoys took place during the Siege of Malta in the Mediterranean Theatre. The civilian population and the garrison required imports of food, medical supplies, fuel and equipment; the military forces on the island needed reinforcements, ammunition and spare parts. British convoys were escorted to Malta by ships of the Mediterranean Fleet and aircraft of the Fleet Air Arm and Royal Air Force, during the Battle of the Mediterranean (1940–1943). British and Allied ships were attacked by the Italian Regia Aeronautica (Royal Air Force) and Regia Marina (Royal Navy) in 1940 and starting in 1941, by the German Luftwaffe (German Air Force) and Kriegsmarine (German Navy).

Malta was a base from which British sea and air forces could attack Italian ships carrying supplies from Italy to Italian Libya for Italian civilian colonists and the Axis armies in North Africa, which fought the Western Desert Campaign (1940–1943) against the British Eighth Army. The desert war was fought for control of Libya and Egypt, for the Suez Canal and British controlled oilfields in the Middle East. The strategic value of Malta was so great that the British risked many merchant vessels and warships to supply the island and the Axis made determined efforts to starve out the population. The destruction of the Italian 10th Army in Egypt and Libya during Operation Compass (9 December 1940 – 9 February 1941) and defeat in the Italo-Greek War (28 October 1940 – 23 April 1941) led to German intervention in the Mediterranean. German bombers and submarines joined the effort to neutralise Malta and plans were made to invade the island.

The British assembled large flotillas to escort convoys, sent fast warships to make solo runs to the island and organised Magic Carpet supply runs by submarine. Hawker Hurricane and then Supermarine Spitfire fighters were flown to Malta from aircraft carriers on Club Runs from Gibraltar towards Malta. In mid-1942, Axis air attacks on the island and on supply convoys neutralised Malta as an offensive base and an Axis invasion plan, Unternehmen Herkules (Operation Hercules), was set for mid-July 1942. After the Axis victory in the Battle of Gazala (26 May – 21 June 1942), the capture of Tobruk and then the Axis pursuit into Egypt, Herkules was postponed and then cancelled. The siege of Malta eased late in 1942, after Second Battle of El Alamein (23 October–11 November) and Operation Torch (8–16 November), when the Allies captured territory and landing grounds in Libya and Algeria, bringing more of the seas around Malta into range of land-based Allied aircraft.

Background

Malta

In the 1940s, Malta, a Mediterranean island of 122 square miles (320 km2), had a population of 275,000 but Maltese agriculture could feed only one-third of its population. Malta was a staging post on the British Suez Canal sea route to India, East Africa, the oilfields of Iraq and Iran, India and the Far East. The island was also close to the Sicilian Channel between Sicily and Tunis and was a threat to the Italian sea route to Libya.[1][a]

Malta had been a British colony since 1814 but when Italy declared war on the Allies on 10 June 1940, the Taranto Naval Squadron did not sail to occupy Malta as suggested by Admiral Carlo Bergamini[1][2] With Italian bases in Sicily, maintenance of British control was more difficult from the British bases in Gibraltar to the west and Cyprus, Egypt and Palestine to the east, which were much further away. Two weeks after the Italian declaration of war, the Second Armistice at Compiègne between France and Germany ended British access to French Mediterranean Sea bases. The attack on Mers-el-Kébir (3 July 1940) against French naval ships by the British, created a Vichy French antipathy towards Britain. Axis support for General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War caused British to be apprehensive about the security of the British base at Gibraltar.

Italy, Sicily, Sardinia and Libya dominated the central Mediterranean and an Italian conquest of Egypt would link Abyssinia, Italian Somaliland and Eritrea. The Italian invasion of Egypt in September 1940, was followed by Operation Compass, a British counter-offensive in December, which led to the conquest of Cyrenaica in January 1941. Hitler transferred Fliegerkorps X of the Luftwaffe to Sicily in Unternehmen Mittelmeer (Operation Mediterranean) to protect the Axis supply routes past Malta and sent the Afrika Korps to Libya in Unternehmen Sonnenblume (Operation Sunflower) which, with Italian reinforcements, recaptured Cyrenaica.[3]

Fliegerkorps X was transferred to Greece in April 1941 and the 23rd U-boat Flotilla was based at Salamis, near Athens, in September.[4] Resources available to sustain Malta were reduced when Japan declared war in December 1941 and conducted the Indian Ocean raid in April, 1942.[5] Malta was neutralised as an offensive base against Italian convoys by the attacks of the Regia Aeronautica and the Luftwaffe in early 1942. Several warships were sunk in Valletta harbour and others were withdrawn to Gibraltar and Egypt. Food and medicines for the Maltese population and the British garrison dwindled along with fuel, ammunition and spare parts with the success of Axis attacks on Malta convoys. The Italian Operation C3 and the German-Italian Unternehmen Herkules (Operation Hercules) invasion plans against Malta were prepared but then cancelled on 16 June 1942.[6][7]

1940

July

Map of Malta

In the Battle of Calabria (Battaglia di Punta Stilo), Regia Marina escorts (two battleships, 14 cruisers and 32 destroyers) of an Italian convoy engaged the battleships HMS Warspite, Malaya and Royal Sovereign and the aircraft carrier HMS Eagle.[8] British cruisers and destroyers covered convoys MF 1 (ME 1) with El Nil, Knight of Malta and Rodi and MS 1 (ME 1) with Kirkland, Masirah, Novasli, Tweed and Zeeland from Malta to Alexandria.[8]

August, Operation Hurry

Main article: Operation Hurry

Twelve Hurricanes were flown off the carrier HMS Argus to Malta in the first Club Run to reinforce the air defence of the island. Club Runs continued until it was possible to fly the aircraft direct from Gibraltar.[9]

September, Operation Hats

The Mediterranean Fleet escorted fast convoy MF 2 of three transports (carrying 40,000 short tons (36,000 t) of supplies, including reinforcements and ammunition for the island's anti-aircraft defences) from Alexandria and collected another convoy from Gibraltar.[10] En route, Italian airbases were raided; the Regia Marina had superior forces at sea but missed the opportunity to exploit their advantage.[11]

October, Operation MB 6

Four ships of convoy MF 3 reached Malta safely from Alexandria and three ships returned to Alexandria as convoy MF 4.[10] The convoys were part of Operation MB 6 and the escort included four battleships and two aircraft carriers. An Italian attempt against the returning escort by destroyers and torpedo boats ended in the Battle of Cape Passero, a British success.[12]

November, Operations Collar, White and Judgement

Main articles: Operation Collar, Operation White, and Battle of Taranto
Balearic Sea, east of Gibraltar, venue for Club Runs to Malta

Five ship convoy MW 3 from Alexandria and four ship return convoy ME 3 arrived safely, coinciding with a troop convoy from Gibraltar and the air attack on the Italian battlefleet at the Battle of Taranto (Operation Judgement).[10][13]

In Operation White, twelve Hurricanes were flown off Argus to reinforce Malta but the threat of the Italian fleet lurking south of Sardinia prompted a premature fly-off from Argus and its return to Gibraltar. Eight Hurricanes ran out of fuel and ditched at sea, with seven pilots lost.[14]

The cruisers HMS Manchester and HMS Southampton sailing with 1,400 soldiers and RAF personnel from Gibraltar to Malta and Alexandria, survived an attack by the Italian fleet at the Battle of Cape Spartivento.[15] The combined Operation MB 9 began with a four ship convoy MW 4 from Alexandria with Memnon, Clan Macaulay, Clan Ferguson and HMS Breconshire. The empty Waiwera, Devis, Volo and Rodi from convoy MW 3 and SS Cornwall sailed in the return convoy ME 4.[10][16]

December

Convoy MW 5A with Lanarkshire and Waiwera carrying supplies and munitions and convoy MW 5B of Volo, Rodi and Devis, the tanker Pontfield, Hoegh Hood and ulster Prince from Alexandria and convoy ME 5 with the empty Breconshire, Memnon, Clan Macaulay and Clan Ferguson arrived safely at Alexandria.[17] Convoy MG 1 with Clan Forbes and Clan Fraser reached Gibraltar from Malta.[10][18]

1941

January

Main article: Operation Excess
An Italian Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 during an attack

Operation Excess delivered one ship from Gibraltar to Malta and three to Piraeus. The operation was coordinated with Operation MC 4, consisting of convoy MW 5+1⁄2 of Breconshire and Clan Macaulay from Alexandria to Malta, and convoys ME 6, a return journey of ME 5+1⁄2 with Lanarkshire and Waiwera and ME 6, with Volo, Rodi, Pontfield, Devis, Hoegh Hood, Trocas and RFA Plumleaf. The convoys arrived safely with 10,000 short tons (9,100 t) of supplies. The Royal Navy lost the cruiser HMS Southampton; the cruiser HMS Gloucester and aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious were badly damaged, and a destroyer was damaged beyond repair.[19] This was the first action to involve the Luftwaffe. The Italian torpedo boat Vega was sunk in the course of the operations.[20]

February

Operation MC 8 from 19–21 February, ran troops, vehicles and stores to Malta in the cruisers Orion, Ajax and Gloucester and the Tribal-class destroyers Nubian and Mohawk, covered by Barham, Valiant, Eagle, Coventry, Decoy, Hotspur, Havock, Hereward, Hero, Hasty, Ilex, Jervis, Janus and Jaguar. The return journey to Alexandria with the unloaded Breconshire and Clan Macaulay by 23 February was uneventful.[21]

March

Operation MC 9 covered convoy MW 6 consisting of Perthshire, Clan Ferguson, City of Manchester and City of Lincoln, which sailed from Alexandria on 19 March and arrived at Malta, returning by 26 March.[22]

April, Operation Temple

In Operation Dunlop, HMS Ark Royal sailed from Gibraltar on 24 April and flew off 24 Hurricanes at dawn on 27 April. Bristol Blenheims and Beaufighters were also flown in. Three battleships and an aircraft carrier covered the fast transport HMS Breconshire from Alexandria to Malta. The operation was coordinated with four ship convoy ME 7 from Malta to Alexandria.[23]

An Afrika Korps convoy of the German ships Aegina, Arta, Adana and Iserlhon with 3,000 troop reinforcements on board, the Italian Sabaudia loaded with ammunition and three Italian destroyer escorts was annihilated by the destroyers Jervis, Janus, Nubian and Mohawk, in the Battle of the Tarigo Convoy near the Kerkennah Islands off Tunisia, demonstrating the value of Malta as an offensive base.[24][25]

During Operation Temple, the freighter Parracombe sailed for Malta from Gibraltar on the night of 28/29 April, disguised as a Spanish merchantman and later the Vichy steamer Oued-Kroum and was lost on 2 May after striking a mine, which blew off the forepart of the ship. The ship sank with 21 Hurricanes, equipment, ammunition and military freight. but another ship reached Alexandria from Malta as convoy MD 3.[26]

May, Operations Tiger and Splice

Map of Greater Italia, showing Malta and central Mediterranean

Operation Tiger, a five ship supply convoy from Gibraltar to Alexandria, coincided with reinforcements for the Mediterranean Fleet, six ship convoy MW 7 from Egypt to Malta, and 48 more Hurricanes flown off HMS Ark Royal and Furious in Operation Splice. The only loss was the 9,200-gross register ton (GRT) cargo ship Empire Song, which hit a mine and sank with a cargo of 57 tanks, ten aircraft, and several trucks. Tiger carried Matilda tanks and the new Crusader tank for the Western Desert Campaign in North Africa. These were to be sent around the Cape, but were instead delivered via the Mediterranean; over 200 tanks reached Alexandria on 12 May. The Luftwaffe transferred much of its strength from Sicily to prepare for the Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the USSR, relieving some of the pressure on Malta. The Malta-based submarine HMS Upholder attacked and sank the large Italian troop transport Conte Rosso.[27]

June, Operation Tracer

Supply convoys became very difficult, with convoys from Alexandria under attack from Luftwaffe and Regia Aeronautica bases in Crete and Libya, while convoys from Gibraltar were attacked from Sardinia and Sicily. Submarines were used to bring in urgent supplies. On 14 June, HMS Ark Royal and the new carrier HMS Victorious, coming east from Gibraltar, flew off 46 Hurricanes to Malta, 42 of which arrived safely.[28]

July, Operation Substance

Convoy GM 1 of six ships, ran from Gibraltar to Malta, escorted by six destroyers and covered by Ark Royal, Renown, Nelson, cruisers and destroyers (Operation Substance). On 23 July, south of Sardinia, there were sustained Italian air attacks. One cruiser was hit and a destroyer sunk. The 12,000 GRT steamer Sydney Star was torpedoed by an Italian MAS boat and crippled but the Australian destroyer HMAS Nestor assisted her safe arrival to harbour and she was seaworthy again by September. All six ships eventually reached Malta and seven ships returned to Gibraltar as convoy MG 1. An Italian raid to sink the transports in Grand Harbour failed and 65,000 short tons (59,000 t) of supplies were landed.[29]

September

Operations Status I and II, Propeller and Halberd

Three British cruisers during Operation Halberd

Ark Royal and Furious flew off over 50 Hurricanes to Malta in operations Status I and Status II. SS Empire Guillemot reached Malta from Gibraltar as Operation Propeller and another ship completed the trip independently.[30] The 19,000 GRT Italian transports MS Neptunia and Oceania were sunk by the submarine Upholder.[31] Nine ship convoy GM 2 from Gibraltar to Malta and the one ship return convoy MG 2 were escorted by Nelson, Rodney, Prince of Wales and Ark Royal (Operation Halberd). Italian ships attempted to intercept but the British capital ships returned to Gibraltar unharmed, except for Nelson, which was damaged by a torpedo. The 10,000 GRT transport Imperial Star was sunk by an aerial torpedo but the rest of the convoy reached Malta and landed 85,000 short tons (77,000 t) of supplies.[32]

October

To attack Axis shipping, Force K was formed at Malta, consisting of the cruisers HMS Aurora and Penelope and the destroyers HMS Lance and Lively. One of four ships sailing independently from Malta to Gibraltar was lost.[33]

November

Force K intercepted an Italian convoy off Cape Spartivento and sank all seven transports and two Italian destroyers.[34] More Hurricanes were flown off from Ark Royal and Argus, sailing from Gibraltar (Operation Perpetual, 10–12 November 1941). On the return leg, U-81 torpedoed Ark Royal, which sank the next day.[35] An attempt to supply Malta (Operation Astrologer, 14–15 November 1941) by two unescorted freighters, Empire Defender and Empire Pelican, ended with Italian Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 torpedo bombers sinking both ships south of Galite Islands.[36]

December, First Battle of Sirte

Main article: First Battle of Sirte

An Italian battlefleet covered a convoy bound for Benghazi. A British flotilla from Alexandria planned to link with Force K from Malta but the submarine HMS Urge torpedoed and damaged Vittorio Veneto and the Italians retired.[37] MV Breconshire was escorted from Malta by Force B to rendezvous with Force K near the Gulf of Sirte. Soon after, the British came across Italian battleships escorting a convoy to Tripoli and the First Battle of Sirte took place.[38] After seeing Breconshire into Malta, Force K sailed again to search for the Tripoli convoy but ran into a minefield off Tripoli. HMS Neptune and Kandahar were sunk, Aurora and Penelope were damaged.[39] The four-ships of convoy ME 8 from Malta reached Alexandria.[40]

1942

January

On 8 January the fast supply ship Glengyle was escorted to Malta from Alexandria and Breconshire escorted back from the island. The ships were covered by the 15th Cruiser Squadron (Rear-Admiral Philip Vian), comprising the light cruisers Naiad, Dido and Euryalus, along with six destroyers. The light cruisers were equipped with dual-purpose guns and were used as the main escorts as a bluff in the absence of bigger ships to challenge a sortie by the Regia Marina[41] Four ships in the two-ship convoys MW8A and MW8B sailed from Alexandria in Operation MF3 on 16 January, with the anti-aircraft cruiser Carlisle and two destroyer divisions. The 15th Cruiser Squadron, still with three light cruisers and six destroyers, sailed on 17 January to pass the convoy and join the escort force. Force K from Malta with the cruiser Penelope and six destroyers departed to rendezvous with the convoy on 18 January. The 6,655-ton Thermopylae of MW8A developed mechanical faults and was diverted to Benghazi but while en route, was severely damaged by bombing and had to be scuttled. On 17 January, the destroyer HMS Gurkha was torpedoed by U-133; Dutch freighter Isaac Sweers towed her clear of blazing oil, allowing most of her crew to be rescued before the ship sank.[42] The three remaining freighters arrived safely at Malta, air attacks on the ships being intercepted by fighters from 201 Naval Co-operation Group based in Cyrenaica, the convoy and escorts' anti-aircraft guns and Hurricanes from Malta as soon as the convoy came into their range. As soon as it was certain that the Italian fleet was still in port, the 15th Cruiser Squadron and its destroyers turned for Alexandria and arrived on 20 January. On 26 January, in a similar operation, Breconshire and escorts from Alexandria met two ships sailing in ballast from Malta with escorts from Force K, which escorted Breconshire back to the island and the escorts from Alexandria returned with the two ships from Malta.[43]

February

During German air raids on Malta on 12 February, HMS Maori was sunk at her moorings in Grand Harbour.[44] On the same day, a three ship convoy MW 9, escorted by Carlisle and eight destroyers, sailed from Alexandria in Operation MF5; several hours later, two cruisers from 15th Cruiser Squadron, escorted by eight destroyers, sortied. On 13 February, Breconshire, accompanied by cruiser and six destroyers, departed with three ships in ballast, bound for Alexandria. On 14 February, SS Clan Campbell was bombed and forced to seek shelter in Tobruk, SS Clan Chattan was bombed, caught fire and scuttled in the afternoon; SS Rowallan Castle was near-missed, disabled and taken under tow but scuttled by Lively after it was realised she could not reach Malta before dark: the escort had been warned the Italian battleship Caio Duilio had sailed from Taranto to intercept the convoy.[45][46]

March

Operations Spotter, Picket and MG 1

See also: Second Battle of Sirte
Convoy MW 10
westbound, March 1942[47]
Type No. Sunk Dgd
Cruisers 4 — 3
AA Ships 1 — —
Destroyers 18 3 2
Submarines 5 1 —
Freighters 4 1 —
Freighters
arriving		 3 in
dock		 —

On 6 March, Operation Spotter, a club run by the aircraft carriers Eagle and Argus flew off the first 15 Spitfire reinforcements for Malta. An earlier attempt had been abandoned but the right external ferry tanks were fitted; seven Blenheims flew direct from Gibraltar. On 10 March, the Spitfires flew their first sorties against a raid by Ju 88s escorted by Bf 109 fighters.[48]

Operation MG 1 began with convoy MW 10 of four ships sailing from Alexandria at 7:10 a.m. on 20 March, each with a navy liaison party and Defensively equipped merchant ship (DEMS) gunners, supplemented by service passengers. The convoy was escorted by Force B, the cruisers HMS Cleopatra, Dido, Euryalus, the anti-aircraft cruiser Carlisle and the 22nd Destroyer Flotilla. The 5th Destroyer Flotilla sailed from Tobruk on an anti-submarine sweep, before joining the convoy on 21 March. Clan Campbell struggled to keep up because of engine trouble and the convoy timetable was not met. Several British submarines participated near Messina and Taranto to watch for Italian ships. Long Range Desert Group parties were to attack the airfields at Martuba and Tmimi in Cyrenaica as RAF and FAA aircraft bombed them to ground Ju 88 bombers; 201 Group RAF provided air cover and reconnaissance of the convoy route. A club run, Operation Picket was to use Argus and Eagle, with Force H as a decoy, but the Spitfire ferry tanks were found to be defective and the operation was called off.[49]

On 22 March, when MW 10 was through Bomb Alley, news arrived that an Italian squadron had sailed and from 10:35 a.m. – 12:05 p.m. five Italian torpedo bomber attacks were made but with no hits. In the afternoon, German and Italian air attacks began, with bombs and torpedoes, again to no effect. Smoke was seen at 2:10 p.m. and the escorts moved to intercept in rough seas as the convoy was hidden by a smoke screen. Italian cruisers commenced fire, then turned to lure the British cruisers towards Littorio; the British did not take the bait. The exchange was the beginning of the Second Battle of Sirte and Axis aircraft concentrated on the convoy, which manoeuvred so effectively that no ship was hit, but the ships and close escort fired much of their ammunition. During the battle near the convoy, the escorts kept laying smoke screens and the Italians came within 8 nmi (9.2 mi; 15 km) as Force B dodged around in the smoke, attacking at every opportunity.[50]

German air attacks continued and Force B turned for Alexandria, very short of fuel as Force K joined the convoy for the last leg. The convoy had been ordered to disperse, three ships diverting southwards and Clan Campbell making straight for Grand Harbour, the diversions being calculated to bring the ships back together just short of Malta by daylight on 23 March. The detours were a mistake and Pampas was hit by a bomb during the morning but kept going, reaching Malta. Talabot was also frequently attacked but arrived undamaged, except from some small bombs dropped by a Bf 109 fighter-bomber. Clan Campbell was sunk 20 nmi (23 mi; 37 km) from Malta and Breconshire, after being taken in tow by destroyers and tugs several times, reached Marsaxlokk harbour on 25 March. Unloading of the ships was very slow and Luftwaffe attacks on 26 March sank Breconshire in the evening and continued bombing Valletta harbour into the night. Talabot and Pampas were set on fire before unloading, only 4,952 short tons (4,492 t) of the 29,500 short tons (26,800 t) of supplies were landed and several destroyers were seriously damaged.[51]

April, Operation Calendar

The island had ceased to be an effective offensive base and Axis convoys were mostly untroubled. Several submarines and destroyers were bombed and sunk in harbour and naval units were ordered to leave for Gibraltar or Alexandria. Not all arrived safely. Forty-seven Spitfires were flown off to Malta from the American carrier USS Wasp (Operation Calendar), escorted by the battlecruiser Renown, cruisers HMS Cairo and Charybdis and six British and US destroyers. Most of the aircraft were destroyed on the ground by bombing.[52]

May, Operations Bowery and LB

Main articles: Operation Bowery and Operation LB

The submarine HMS Olympus struck a mine and sank while leaving Malta with the survivors of submarines HMS Pandora, P36 and P39 on board. In Operation Bowery, 64 Spitfires were flown off to Malta from Wasp and Eagle and a second batch of 16 fighters were flown in from Eagle in Operation LB.[53]

June, Operation Style

On 20 May, SS Empire Conrad departed from Milford Haven, Wales with a cargo of 32 Spitfires in cases. The aircraft were all Spitfire Mk VcT. Also on board were the ground crew who were to assemble them, a total of over 110 men. Empire Conrad was escorted by the 29th ML Flotilla and the corvette HMS Spirea. The convoy was later joined by the Minesweepers HMS Hythe and Rye. Empire Conrad arrived at Gibraltar on 27 May. The aircraft were transferred to the aircraft carrier HMS Eagle where they were assembled. On 2 June, Eagle departed from Gibraltar escorted by the cruiser Charybdis and destroyers HMS Antelope, Ithuriel, Partridge, Westcott and Wishart. On 3 June, the aircraft were flown off Eagle, bound for Malta. Twenty-eight arrived safely, with the other four being shot down en route.[54]

June

Operation Julius (Harpoon and Vigorous)

Main articles: Operation Harpoon (1942) and Operation Vigorous
Satellite photograph of the Straits of Gibraltar, the starting point for Operation Harpoon

The arrival of more Spitfires from Eagle and the transfer of German aircraft to the Russian Front eased the pressure on Malta but supplies were needed. Operation Julius was planned to send two convoys sailed simultaneously from both ends of the Mediterranean.[55] A convoy of 11 transports from Haifa, Palestine and Port Said, Egypt (Operation Vigorous) and one of six transports from Gibraltar (Operation Harpoon). Both had strong naval escorts. Strong Axis naval and air forces attacked both convoys. Two ships from Harpoon with 15,000 short tons (14,000 t) of supplies reached Malta for the loss of four transports and two destroyers (HMS Bedouin and the Polish Kujawiak).[b] Vigorous was attacked by aircraft, torpedo boats, and submarines over four days, threatened by a strong Italian battlefleet and eventually returned to Alexandria. No transports reached Malta; one cruiser (HMS Hermione), the destroyers (HMS Hasty, HMS Airedale and Nestor were sunk along with two transports.[56]

July

Eagle made two Club Runs, flying off 31 and 28 Spitfires for Malta. On 16 July HMS Welshman arrived, having made an independent supply run carrying specialist personnel, concentrated foods and cooking oil. Unbroken returned to Malta and at the end of July, an Italian flying boat landed in a bay after a captured Beaufort crew being flown from Greece to Italy overpowered the crew and changed course.[57][58]

August, Operation Pedestal

Main article: Operation Pedestal

As supplies on Malta dwindled, particularly of aviation fuel, the largest convoy to date was assembled at Gibraltar for Operation Pedestal. It consisted of 14 merchant ships, including the large oil tanker SS Ohio. These were protected by powerful escort and covering forces, totalling forty-four warships, including the aircraft carriers Eagle, Indomitable and Victorious and battleships Nelson and Rodney. A diversionary operation was staged from Alexandria. The convoy was attacked fiercely. Three transports reached Malta on 13 August and another on 14 August. Ohio arrived on 15 August, heavily damaged by air attacks and being towed by destroyers HMS Penn and Ledbury. The rest were sunk. Ohio later broke in two in Valletta Harbour but not before much of her cargo had been unloaded. The aircraft carrier Eagle, cruisers Cairo and Manchester and the destroyer HMS Foresight were sunk and there was serious damage to other warships. The Italian losses were two submarines and damage to two cruisers.[59]

This convoy, especially the arrival of Ohio, was seen as Divine intervention by the people of Malta. August 15 is celebrated as the feast of St. Mary's Assumption and many Maltese attributed the arrival of Ohio into Grand Harbour as the answer to their prayers.[60] It had been agreed by military commanders at the time that if supplies became any lower, they would surrender the islands (the actual date, deferred as supplies were received, was referred to as the target date).[61] At that time, to stretch the supply of flour, the Maltese mixed flour with potato peelings, making a sort of brown bread. The situation became so dire that bread once again became white when there were no more potato peelings to add to flour. Pedestal delivered 12,000 long tons (12,000 t) of coal, 32,000 long tons (33,000 t) freight and 11,000 long tons (11,000 t) of oil on Ohio of the 121,000 long tons (123,000 t) on the ships when the convoy began. The commodities landed were enough for Malta to last out until mid-November and on 16 August, 29 Spitfires reached Malta of 32 flown from Furious in Operation Baritone.[62][63]

September

The submarine HMS Talisman was lost on a supply run from Gibraltar, either stranded in a minefield or depth-charged by Italian torpedo boats north-west of Malta on 17 September.[64] Attacks on Axis convoys to North Africa deprived the Axis armies of 300,000 long tons (300,000 t) of supplies, using the fuel delivered by Ohio.[65]

October

Magic Carpet rides by submarine reached Malta on 2 October (Rorqual), 3 October (Parthian), and 6 October (Clyde), with petrol and other stores, departing for Beirut on 8 October carrying survivors from Pedestal.[63] In Operation Train, a Club Run from 28 to 30 October, Furious flew off 29 Spitfires for Malta, all of which arrived.[66]

November, Operations Stone Age and Crupper

Main article: Operation Stone Age
Fairey Albacore

An attempt in early November to sneak an independently routed, disguised freighter to Malta from Alexandria failed; on Operation Crupper, the disguised merchant ships Ardeola (2,609 tons) and Tadorna (1,947 tons) from Gibraltar, were captured and interned at Bizerta while passing through Vichy territorial waters. The fast minelayer Welshman made a dash from Gibraltar with a cargo of dried food and torpedoes during the landings of Operation Torch, Manxman and six destroyers sailed from Alexandria on 11 November; both efforts succeeded.[67] On 17 November, convoy MW 13 (two U.S., one Dutch, and one British merchant ship, carrying 35,000 short tons (32,000 t) of supplies) departed Alexandria, escorted by three cruisers of the 15th Cruiser Squadron; from 18 November, this was reduced to ten destroyers. Axis air attacks began and at 6:00 p.m., the cruiser HMS Arethusa was torpedoed and set on fire; she was towed stern-first through gales to Alexandria, 155 men having been killed. Many of the air attacks were intercepted by Allied fighters flying from desert airfields and on 20 November, MW 13 arrived escorted by Euryalus and ten Hunt class destroyers. By 25 November, the ships had landed an adequate quantity of aviation fuel and Magic Carpet rides were cancelled. On 20 November, the minelayer HMS Adventure sailed from Plymouth to Gibraltar with 2,000 depth charges for Malta and made a repeat run in December.[68] The success of Stone Age relieved the siege of Malta, albeit by a narrow margin because the lack of military stores and food for the population would have been exhausted by December. Malta submarines were freed to increase the number of offensive patrols, Force K was re-established with Dido, Euryalus and four destroyers, an MTB flotilla arrived and 821 Squadron FAA with Fairey Albacores began operations from the island.[69][70]

December, Operation Portcullis

Main article: Operation Portcullis

In Operation Portcullis, the five ships of convoy MW 14 arrived from Port Said with 55,000 short tons (50,000 t) of supplies, the first convoy to arrive without loss since 1941.[71] Nine more ships arrived in convoys MW 15 to MW 18, delivering 18,200 short tons (16,500 t) of fuel and another 58,500 short tons (53,100 t) of general supplies and military stores by the end of December; thirteen ships returned to Alexandria as convoys ME 11 and ME 12. Increased rations to civilians helped to stave off the general decline in health of the population, which had led to an outbreak of poliomyelitis.[72]

December–January 1943

Portcullis was the last direct convoy to Malta; in Operations Quadrangle A, B, C and D, eight ships to Malta joined with ordinary west-bound convoys then rendezvoused with escorts from Force K and arrived with no loss.[71]

Aftermath

Analysis

There were 35 large supply operations to Malta from 1940–1942. Operations White, Tiger, Halberd, MF5, MG1, Harpoon, Vigorous, and Pedestal were turned back or suffered severe losses from Axis forces. There were long periods when no convoy runs were even attempted and only a trickle of supplies reached Malta by submarine or fast warship. The worst period for Malta was from December 1941 – October 1942, when Axis forces had the upper hand, achieving complete air and naval supremacy in the central Mediterranean.

At the end of 1942, despite the tactical defeat and ship losses, Operation Pedestal was a strategic success that revived Malta as an offensive base. Operations from Malta denied supplies to Axis forces in North Africa at the time of the battles at El Alamein, restricted the capabilities of the Axis armies in North Africa. The British re-conquest of Egypt and Libya changed the military balance in favour of the Allies and Malta-bound convoys henceforth had cover from aircraft based there. The invasions of Sicily and Italy were supported from Malta.

Casualties

From June 1940 to December 1943, about 1,600 civilians and 700 soldiers were killed on Malta. The RAF lost about 900 men killed, 547 aircraft on operations and 160 on the ground and Royal Navy losses were 1,700 submariners and 2,200 sailors; about 200 merchant navy men died. Of 110 voyages by merchant ships to Malta 79 arrived, three to be sunk soon after reaching the island and one ship was sunk on a return voyage. Six of seven independent sailings failed, three ships being sunk, two were interned by Vichy authorities and one ship turned back. The Mediterranean Fleet lost a battleship, two aircraft carriers, four cruisers, a fast minelayer, twenty destroyers and minesweepers and forty submarines. Many small ships were sunk and many surviving ships were damaged.[73]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Iran was occupied in the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran in 1941, to secure the oilfields and create a supply route to the Soviet Union.[1]
  2. ^ Merlins over Malta (CHRONOLOGY OF THE SIEGE OF MALTA, 1940-43) states that 25,000 tons were landed, enough to sustain the population for two to three months.

Footnotes

  1. ^ a b c Bartimeus 1944, pp. 42–47.
  2. ^ Di Cirella 2003.
  3. ^ Potter & Nimitz 1960, pp. 521–527.
  4. ^ Helgason 2012.
  5. ^ Potter & Nimitz 1960, pp. 654–661.
  6. ^ Woodman 2003, p. 324.
  7. ^ Greene & Massignani 2002, p. 225.
  8. ^ a b Greene & Massignani 2002, pp. 63–81.
  9. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 58, 61.
  10. ^ a b c d e Hague 2000, pp. 192–193.
  11. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 61–62, 64, 73–74.
  12. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 78–80.
  13. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 82, 86–87.
  14. ^ Greene & Massignani 2002, p. 115.
  15. ^ Greene & Massignani 2002, pp. 115–128.
  16. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 94–97.
  17. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 106–108.
  18. ^ Woodman 2003, p. 107.
  19. ^ Thomas 1999, p. 65.
  20. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 110–111, 113–114, 125–126.
  21. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 131.
  22. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 133–134.
  23. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 164–166, 250.
  24. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 158–159.
  25. ^ Greene & Massignani 2002, pp. 162–164.
  26. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 165–167.
  27. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 167–176.
  28. ^ Woodman 2003, p. 177.
  29. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 184–185, 206–208, 212–213, 218.
  30. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 218–219.
  31. ^ Woodman 2003, p. 217.
  32. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 212–239.
  33. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 240–243.
  34. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 243–245.
  35. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 246–250.
  36. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 250–251.
  37. ^ Woodman 2003, p. 266.
  38. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 267–268.
  39. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 271–273.
  40. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 274–275.
  41. ^ Roskill 1962, p. 44.
  42. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 280–281.
  43. ^ Roskill 1962, pp. 44–45.
  44. ^ Woodman 2003, p. 284.
  45. ^ Roskill 1962, p. 48.
  46. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 285–286.
  47. ^ Roskill 1962, p. 73.
  48. ^ Woodman 2003, p. 291.
  49. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 293–295.
  50. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 300, 303.
  51. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 306–316.
  52. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 320–322.
  53. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 321–322, 328.
  54. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 211, 328.
  55. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 328–329.
  56. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 329–370.
  57. ^ Woodman 2003, p. 370.
  58. ^ Roskill 1962, pp. 75–76.
  59. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 283, 372–380, 386–442, 454–455, 463.
  60. ^ Castillo 2006, p. 207.
  61. ^ Woodman 2003, p. 283.
  62. ^ Castillo 2006, p. 199.
  63. ^ a b Woodman 2003, pp. 450–457.
  64. ^ DNC 1952, p. 376.
  65. ^ Woodman 2003, p. 455.
  66. ^ Roskill 1962, pp. 311–312.
  67. ^ Roskill 1962, pp. 340, 312.
  68. ^ Roskill 1962, p. 340.
  69. ^ Roskill 1962, pp. 341–342.
  70. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 458–461.
  71. ^ a b Roskill 1962, p. 346.
  72. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 461–464.
  73. ^ Woodman 2003, pp. 470–471.

References

Books

  • Bartimeus, W. M. (1944). East of Malta, West of Suez. New York/Boston: Little, Brown. OCLC 1727304.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
  • Castillo, Dennis Angelo (2006). The Maltese Cross: A Strategic History of Malta. Greenwood. ISBN 978-0-313-32329-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
  • Di Cirella, A. C. G. (2003) [1996]. Per l'onore dei Savoia, 1943–1944: da un superstite della corazzata Roma. Testimonianze fra cronaca e storia, Guerre fasciste e seconda guerra mondiale [Testimonies of Events and History: Fascist Wars and World War II]. Milano: Mursia Editore. OCLC 499174431. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
  • Greene, J.; Massignani, A. (2002) [1998]. The Naval War in the Mediterranean 1940–1943 (pbk. ed.). Rochester: Chatham. ISBN 978-1-86176-190-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
  • Hague, Arnold (2000). The Allied Convoy System 1939–1945. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-55750-019-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
  • H. M. Ships Damaged or Sunk by Enemy Action, 3rd September, 1939 to 2nd September, 1945 (PDF). London: Admiralty: Director of Naval Construction. 1952. OCLC 38570200. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
  • Potter, E. B.; Nimitz, C. W., eds. (1960). Sea Power. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. OCLC 933965485.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
  • Roskill, S. W. (1962) [1956]. The Period of Balance. History of the Second World War: The War at Sea 1939–1945. Vol. II (3rd impression ed.). London: HMSO. OCLC 174453986. Retrieved 25 November 2016.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
  • Thomas, D. A. (1999). Malta Convoys. Barnsley: Pen and Sword Books. ISBN 978-0-85052-663-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
  • Woodman, R. (2003). Malta Convoys 1940–1943 (pbk. ed.). London: John Murray. ISBN 978-0-7195-6408-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

Websites

  • Helgason, Guðmundur. "23rd Flotilla". German U-boats of WWII - uboat.net. Retrieved 20 June 2012.

Further reading

Books

Journals

Theses

Websites

External links

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