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Removed Chelmno from list of extermination camps supervised by Globocnik. For rationale, please see my entry in the article's Talk section.
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==Genocidal activities==
==Genocidal activities==
OZAK was the scene of genocidal activities. Its commander, Higher [[SS and Police Leader]] [[Odilo Globocnik]], had become one of the most feared Nazi leaders in Eastern Europe after liquidating the [[Jews|Jewish]] [[ghetto]]es in [[Warsaw Ghetto|Warsaw]] and [[Białystok Ghetto Uprising|Białystok]] and supervising the operations of the extermination camps at [[Chełmno]], [[Belzec extermination camp|Belzec]], [[Sobibor extermination camp|Sobibór]], [[Majdanek]], and [[Treblinka]].<ref>[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/Globocnik.html Odilo Globocnik<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> He commanded all the Nazi camps in occupied Poland from 1941 to 1943. After serving briefly as Gauleiter of Vienna he had been posted to Trieste, where to the very end he ran the [[Risiera di San Sabba]] prison, the only SS camp ever set-up on Italian soil.<ref>[http://fcit.usf.edu/holocaust/photos/sabba1/sabba1.htm Gallery - The Risiera di San Sabba - Photos<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
OZAK was the scene of genocidal activities. Its commander, Higher [[SS and Police Leader]] [[Odilo Globocnik]], had become one of the most feared Nazi leaders in Eastern Europe after liquidating the [[Jews|Jewish]] [[ghetto]]es in [[Warsaw Ghetto|Warsaw]] and [[Białystok Ghetto Uprising|Białystok]] and supervising the operations of the extermination camps at [[Belzec extermination camp|Belzec]], [[Sobibor extermination camp|Sobibór]], [[Majdanek]], and [[Treblinka]].<ref>[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/Globocnik.html Odilo Globocnik<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> He commanded all the Nazi camps in occupied Poland from 1941 to 1943. After serving briefly as Gauleiter of Vienna he had been posted to Trieste, where to the very end he ran the [[Risiera di San Sabba]] prison, the only SS camp ever set-up on Italian soil.<ref>[http://fcit.usf.edu/holocaust/photos/sabba1/sabba1.htm Gallery - The Risiera di San Sabba - Photos<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>


Globocnik, returning to his native city in triumph in mid-September 1943, established his office at Via Nizza 21 in Trieste and began to carry out ''Einsatz R'', the systematic persecution of Jews, partisans and anti-Nazi politicians in Friuli, [[Istria]] and other areas of the [[Croatian Littoral|Croatian Adriatic coastline]]. His staff of 92, mostly members of the German and [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] with killing experience gained in [[Operation Reinhard]], was quickly expanded to combat the unrelenting partisan activity throughout the region. Globocnik's domain included [[Risiera di San Sabba]], a large, disused and decrepit rice mill at Ratto della Pileria 43 in the Triestine suburb of San Sabba.<ref>[http://www.studioargento.com/sansabba/index.html Risiera di San Sabba<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Under his supervision it was converted into the only Nazi [[extermination camp]] in Italian territory. The camp was used to detain hostages, [[partisan (military)|partisans]] and [[political prisoner]]s, and as a collection and transit camp for Jews being deported to [[Nazi concentration camps]].<ref>{{cite book|page=23|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=da6acnbbEpAC|title=History in Exile: Memory and Identity at the Borders of the Balkans|author=Pamela Ballinger|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|year=2003|isbn= 9780691086972|access-date=20 January 2013}}</ref> In October 1943, arrests started and the camp opened,<ref>{{cite book|page=248|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8WGZ0MWIgUwC|title=Jews in Italy under Fascist and Nazi Rule, 1922-1945|author=Joshua D. Zimmerman|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2005|isbn= 9780521841016|access-date=20 January 2013}}</ref> staffed primarily by German and Ukrainian members of the SS under the command of SS-[[Sturmbannführer]] [[Christian Wirth]], former commander of [[Belzec extermination camp]]. Wirth was killed by [[Yugoslav Partisans]] in [[Opatija]], on 26 May 1944.<ref>{{cite book|page=267|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LiHL91Mv0u0C|title=Spaniards in the Holocaust: Mauthausen, Horror on the Danube|author=David Wingeate Pike|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2004|isbn= 9780203361238|access-date=20 January 2013}}</ref> He was replaced by Wirth's former deputy in [[Lublin]] and successor in Belzec, SS-[[Hauptsturmführer]] Gottlieb Hering. Hering was replaced by SS-[[Obersturmbannführer]] [[Dietrich Allers]] in August 1944.<ref>{{cite book|page=343|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2arPruq8lhIC|title=Odilo Globocnik: Hitler's man in the East|author=Joseph Poprzeczny|publisher=McFarland|year=2004|isbn= 9780786416257|access-date=20 January 2013}}</ref> On 28 April 1945, the San Sabba camp ceased operating, and Waffen-SS troops set free the remaining inmates and demolished the gas chamber and incinerator building the next day, to destroy evidence of war crimes.<ref>{{cite book|page=19|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T0bNtMMFofYC|title=A City in Search of an Author|author=Katia Pizzi|publisher=[[Continuum International Publishing Group]]|year=2002|isbn= 9781841272849|access-date=20 January 2013}}</ref>
Globocnik, returning to his native city in triumph in mid-September 1943, established his office at Via Nizza 21 in Trieste and began to carry out ''Einsatz R'', the systematic persecution of Jews, partisans and anti-Nazi politicians in Friuli, [[Istria]] and other areas of the [[Croatian Littoral|Croatian Adriatic coastline]]. His staff of 92, mostly members of the German and [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] with killing experience gained in [[Operation Reinhard]], was quickly expanded to combat the unrelenting partisan activity throughout the region. Globocnik's domain included [[Risiera di San Sabba]], a large, disused and decrepit rice mill at Ratto della Pileria 43 in the Triestine suburb of San Sabba.<ref>[http://www.studioargento.com/sansabba/index.html Risiera di San Sabba<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Under his supervision it was converted into the only Nazi [[extermination camp]] in Italian territory. The camp was used to detain hostages, [[partisan (military)|partisans]] and [[political prisoner]]s, and as a collection and transit camp for Jews being deported to [[Nazi concentration camps]].<ref>{{cite book|page=23|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=da6acnbbEpAC|title=History in Exile: Memory and Identity at the Borders of the Balkans|author=Pamela Ballinger|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|year=2003|isbn= 9780691086972|access-date=20 January 2013}}</ref> In October 1943, arrests started and the camp opened,<ref>{{cite book|page=248|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8WGZ0MWIgUwC|title=Jews in Italy under Fascist and Nazi Rule, 1922-1945|author=Joshua D. Zimmerman|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2005|isbn= 9780521841016|access-date=20 January 2013}}</ref> staffed primarily by German and Ukrainian members of the SS under the command of SS-[[Sturmbannführer]] [[Christian Wirth]], former commander of [[Belzec extermination camp]]. Wirth was killed by [[Yugoslav Partisans]] in [[Opatija]], on 26 May 1944.<ref>{{cite book|page=267|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LiHL91Mv0u0C|title=Spaniards in the Holocaust: Mauthausen, Horror on the Danube|author=David Wingeate Pike|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2004|isbn= 9780203361238|access-date=20 January 2013}}</ref> He was replaced by Wirth's former deputy in [[Lublin]] and successor in Belzec, SS-[[Hauptsturmführer]] Gottlieb Hering. Hering was replaced by SS-[[Obersturmbannführer]] [[Dietrich Allers]] in August 1944.<ref>{{cite book|page=343|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2arPruq8lhIC|title=Odilo Globocnik: Hitler's man in the East|author=Joseph Poprzeczny|publisher=McFarland|year=2004|isbn= 9780786416257|access-date=20 January 2013}}</ref> On 28 April 1945, the San Sabba camp ceased operating, and Waffen-SS troops set free the remaining inmates and demolished the gas chamber and incinerator building the next day, to destroy evidence of war crimes.<ref>{{cite book|page=19|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T0bNtMMFofYC|title=A City in Search of an Author|author=Katia Pizzi|publisher=[[Continuum International Publishing Group]]|year=2002|isbn= 9781841272849|access-date=20 January 2013}}</ref>

Revision as of 21:10, 10 February 2021

Operational Zone of the
Adriatic Littoral
Operationszone Adriatisches Küstenland
1943–1945
The Operational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral ("OZAK")
The Operational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral ("OZAK")
CapitalTriest
GovernmentCommissariat
High Commissioner 
• 1943–1945
Friedrich Rainer
History 
1943
1945
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Kingdom of Italy
Yugoslavia
Kingdom of Italy
Today part of Croatia
 Italy
 Slovenia

The Operational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral (German: Operationszone Adriatisches Küstenland, OZAK; or colloquially: Operationszone Adria; Italian: Zona d'operazioni del Litorale adriatico; Croatian: Operativna zona Jadransko primorje; Template:Lang-sl) was a Nazi German district on the northern Adriatic coast created during World War II in 1943. It was formed out of territories that were previously under Fascist Italian control until its takeover by Germany. It included parts of present-day Italian, Slovenian, and Croatian territories.[1] The area was administered as territory attached, but not incorporated to, the Reichsgau of Carinthia. The capital of the zone was the city of Trieste.

Background

OZAK was established, with its headquarters in Trieste, on 10 September 1943, by Adolf Hitler,[2] as a response to the Italian capitulation (8 September 1943) following the Allied invasion of Italy. It comprised the provinces of Udine, Gorizia, Trieste, Pula (Pola), Rijeka (Fiume) and Ljubljana (Lubiana).[3] The Operational Zone of the Alpine Foothills, comprising the provinces of Belluno, South Tyrol, and Trentino, was established on the same day. Both operational zones were separate from the Italian Social Republic (RSI), based in Salò on Lake Garda, which governed the remainder of Italy that had not yet been occupied by the Allies.[4] The name of the zone was a reference to the historical crown land of the Austrian Littoral.[citation needed]

The OZAK was not incorporated in the German Reich outright, but attached to the Gau of Carinthia.[5][6] Friedrich Rainer, Nazi Gauleiter of Carinthia was appointed Reich Defense Commissioner of OZAK, thereby becoming chief of the civil administration of the semi-annexed territory. The province of Ljubljana was given a Slovenian provincial administration. Leading collaborator Gregorij Rožman, Bishop of Ljubljana, recommended to Rainer that notorious anti-Semite Leon Rupnik should be the president of the new Ljubljana provincial government,[7] and Rupnik was then duly appointed on 22 September 1943. SS General Erwin Rösener became Advisor to the President.[3]

Genocidal activities

OZAK was the scene of genocidal activities. Its commander, Higher SS and Police Leader Odilo Globocnik, had become one of the most feared Nazi leaders in Eastern Europe after liquidating the Jewish ghettoes in Warsaw and Białystok and supervising the operations of the extermination camps at Belzec, Sobibór, Majdanek, and Treblinka.[8] He commanded all the Nazi camps in occupied Poland from 1941 to 1943. After serving briefly as Gauleiter of Vienna he had been posted to Trieste, where to the very end he ran the Risiera di San Sabba prison, the only SS camp ever set-up on Italian soil.[9]

Globocnik, returning to his native city in triumph in mid-September 1943, established his office at Via Nizza 21 in Trieste and began to carry out Einsatz R, the systematic persecution of Jews, partisans and anti-Nazi politicians in Friuli, Istria and other areas of the Croatian Adriatic coastline. His staff of 92, mostly members of the German and Ukrainian SS with killing experience gained in Operation Reinhard, was quickly expanded to combat the unrelenting partisan activity throughout the region. Globocnik's domain included Risiera di San Sabba, a large, disused and decrepit rice mill at Ratto della Pileria 43 in the Triestine suburb of San Sabba.[10] Under his supervision it was converted into the only Nazi extermination camp in Italian territory. The camp was used to detain hostages, partisans and political prisoners, and as a collection and transit camp for Jews being deported to Nazi concentration camps.[11] In October 1943, arrests started and the camp opened,[12] staffed primarily by German and Ukrainian members of the SS under the command of SS-Sturmbannführer Christian Wirth, former commander of Belzec extermination camp. Wirth was killed by Yugoslav Partisans in Opatija, on 26 May 1944.[13] He was replaced by Wirth's former deputy in Lublin and successor in Belzec, SS-Hauptsturmführer Gottlieb Hering. Hering was replaced by SS-Obersturmbannführer Dietrich Allers in August 1944.[14] On 28 April 1945, the San Sabba camp ceased operating, and Waffen-SS troops set free the remaining inmates and demolished the gas chamber and incinerator building the next day, to destroy evidence of war crimes.[15]

Over 25,000 Italian, Slovene, Croatian and Jewish civilians passed through the San Sabba camp, about 5,000 were killed there by various methods including gassing. Today the rice mill is an Italian National Memorial Site.[16] The camp's commanders and collaborators were tried in Trieste in 1976,[17] but their sentences were never carried out.

German plans for the region

The Austrian littoral, with Gorizia and Istria in pink and Carniola in yellow

The ethnic and political re-definition of the Adriatic Littoral was considered during the war on a theoretical level. In a telegram sent on 9 September 1943 to foreign minister Ribbentrop, Gauleiter Rainer suggests the future establishment of Reich protectorates in Gorizia, Istria and Carniola, based on the subdivisions of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire. Initial German occupation policy, however, favored incorporating the area into the Reichsgau of Carinthia. The ethnic complexity of the region was to be used to minimize Italian influence, promote ethnic segmentation, and introduce Germandom as a stabilizing force. This strategy was based on an understanding of history of medieval Germany and the Habsburg monarchy, where the German lords and nobles were seen to have made the economic and administrative development of the region possible.[5]

The future of the Province of Udine (Central and Western Friuli, today the provinces of Udine and Pordenone) was uncertain, but it is evident that a strategy similar to the other areas of the operational zone was to be pursued. In the previously mentioned telegram, Rainer emphasizes that the Friuli region is not ethnically Italian, but is composed of speakers of Friulian and, to a small extent German and Slovene. German scholars also presented supposed evidence for the "profound influence" German culture and language have had on the Friulians, including loan words and medieval place-names. Historical evidence was also found for the region of Friuli being a march land in the Carolingian and the early German empires, as well as for the role the German feudal lords played in the region, and its annexation to the Duchy of Carinthia in the late 10th century. It was thus concluded that the Friulians belonged to the German cultural field, and that their land was an ancient part of the German empire and has ever since been part of the German "vital space" (Lebensraum). These supposedly scholarly findings were echoed in German newspapers, although the Italian-language propaganda spread in the province of Udine emphasized the local population's ethnic distinction and regional autonomy, not pan-Germanism.[5]

Several factions within the Nazi government also intended to extend the area of the two operational zones even further to the detriment of Italian territory. Joseph Goebbels wrote in his diary that the only "logical" border would be one that included the territories of the former Habsburg Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, expressing his hopes that Hitler's renewed friendship with Benito Mussolini would not deter him from this step:[18]

We must not only get back South Tyrol, but I envisage the boundary line drawn south of Venice. Whatever was once an Austrian possession we must get back into our own hands. The Italians by their infidelity and treachery have lost any claim to a national state of the modern type.

He eventually managed to convince Hitler that this course of action should be undertaken, who agreed that Venice should be bound to the Reich in "some sort of loose confederation."[18]

Military operations in the zone

Since an Allied landing in the area was anticipated by the Germans,[19] and because of presence of large numbers of Italian, Slovene and Croatian partisans, OZAK also hosted a substantial German military contingent, commanded by General der Gebirgstruppe Ludwig Kübler. On 28 September 1944, these units were redesignated LXXXXVII Army Corps.[20] Nearly every available armored vehicle, modern or obsolete, was pressed into service with Wehrmacht, Waffen-SS, Ordnungspolizei, or fascist Italian and Slovenian units.[citation needed]

On 30 April 1945, several thousand volunteers of the Italian anti-fascist Comitato di Liberazione Nazionale rose up against the Nazis. On 1 May, Globocnik was given command of a chaotic assortment of German and collaborationist troops converging on Trieste as they retreated from Italy and Yugoslavia. These units were immediately engaged by the Partisans' 4th Army before surrendering to the New Zealand 2nd Division commanded by NZ Lieutenant-General Sir Bernard Freyberg on the evening of 2 May. However, fighting continued between Josip Broz Tito's army and remnant Wehrmacht and collaborationist forces for several days. The Partisans began to withdraw from areas west of the Isonzo river on 15 May.[21][22] On 11 June Yugoslav troops began to withdraw from Trieste.[23]

See also

References

  1. ^ (in Italian) http://www.panzer-ozak.it/immagini/mappaozak100grande.gif
  2. ^ A copy of an existing document is available online. It reads
    "In addition to my (...) order of the commander of the Greater German Reich in Italy and the organisation of the occupied Italian area from 10 September 1943 I determine:
    The supreme commanders in the Operational Zone Adriatic Coast consisting of the provinces of Friaul, Görz, Triest, Istrien, Fiume, Quarnero, Laibach, and in the Prealpine Operations Zone consisting of the provinces of Bozen, Trient and Belluno receive the fundamental instructions for their activity from me.
    Führer's headquarters, 10 September 1943.
    The Führer Gen. Adolf Hitler".
  3. ^ a b Jozo Tomasevich (2001). War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941-1945: Occupation and Collaboration. Stanford University Press. pp. 121–123. ISBN 9780804736152. Retrieved 20 January 2013.
  4. ^ Bresadola, Gianmarco (2004). "The Legitimising Strategies of the Nazi Administration in Northern Italy: Propaganda in the Adriatisches Küstenland". Contemporary European History. 13 (4): 425–451. ISSN 0960-7773.
  5. ^ a b c Michael Wedekind (2005). "The Sword of Science". In Ingo Haar; Michael Fahlbusch (eds.). German scholars and ethnic cleansing, 1919-1945. Berghahn Books. pp. 111–123. ISBN 9781571814357. Retrieved 20 January 2013.
  6. ^ Speer, Albert (1995). Inside the Third Reich. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 420. ISBN 9781842127353.
  7. ^ Tone Ferenc, The German Occupier in Ljubljana p211; Jozo Tomašević, War and Revolution in Yugoslavia 1941-1945 p122, available online at https://books.google.com/books?id=fqUSGevFe5MC&dq=the+chetniks+by+jozo+toma%C5%A1evi%C4%87&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=-LhVfrc7Pg&sig=5MdcxAM9qowMnXF0Szy38oeOC1k#PPR1,M1
  8. ^ Odilo Globocnik
  9. ^ Gallery - The Risiera di San Sabba - Photos
  10. ^ Risiera di San Sabba
  11. ^ Pamela Ballinger (2003). History in Exile: Memory and Identity at the Borders of the Balkans. Princeton University Press. p. 23. ISBN 9780691086972. Retrieved 20 January 2013.
  12. ^ Joshua D. Zimmerman (2005). Jews in Italy under Fascist and Nazi Rule, 1922-1945. Cambridge University Press. p. 248. ISBN 9780521841016. Retrieved 20 January 2013.
  13. ^ David Wingeate Pike (2004). Spaniards in the Holocaust: Mauthausen, Horror on the Danube. Routledge. p. 267. ISBN 9780203361238. Retrieved 20 January 2013.
  14. ^ Joseph Poprzeczny (2004). Odilo Globocnik: Hitler's man in the East. McFarland. p. 343. ISBN 9780786416257. Retrieved 20 January 2013.
  15. ^ Katia Pizzi (2002). A City in Search of an Author. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 19. ISBN 9781841272849. Retrieved 20 January 2013.
  16. ^ ANED | The camps | The "Risiera" National Memorial Site
  17. ^ ANED | The camps | Risiera. The Trial
  18. ^ a b [Rich, Norman: Hitler's War Aims: The Establishment of the New Order, page 320. W.W. Norton & Company Inc. 1981.]
  19. ^ László Borhi (2004). Hungary in the Cold War, 1945-1956: Between the United States and the Soviet Union. Central European University Press. p. 31. ISBN 9789639241800. Retrieved 20 January 2013.
  20. ^ Germany and the Second World War, volume 5. Oxford University Press. 2003. p. 80. ISBN 9780198208730. Retrieved 20 January 2013. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |authors= ignored (help)
  21. ^ UK Official History &#149 Trieste and Austrian Crises
  22. ^ II: Confrontation with the Yugoslavs | NZETC
  23. ^ McLintock, A. H., ed. (1966). "The Army – From the Senio to Trieste". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 31 December 2013.

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