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=== Volcanic-sedimentary greenstone sequences ===
=== Volcanic-sedimentary greenstone sequences ===
The volcanic-sedimentary greenstone sequence occupies the majority of the Archean crustal record, which is about 30%. The western block comprises the greenstone sequences with adequate sediments, while the central block and the eastern block comprise the greenstone sequences with adequate volcanic rocks and some minor sediments.<ref name=":0" />
The volcanic-sedimentary greenstone sequence occupies the majority of the Archean crustal record, which is about 30%. The western block comprises the greenstone sequences with adequate sediments, while the central block and the eastern block comprise the greenstone sequences with adequate volcanic rocks but minor sediments.<ref name=":0" />
{| class="wikitable"

|+
!Blocks
!Main composition of the volcanic greenstone
!Associated group(s)
!Characteristics
|-
|western block
|ultramafic [[komatiite]] with interlayered sediments
|Sargur group and Dharwar Supragroup
|
* rocks were formed in calm and shallow water environments
* basaltic flows, conglomerate and some felsic volcanics can be found in the greenstone of the Dharwar Supragroup
|-
|central block
|basalts with minor ultramafic komatiite
|Kolar group
|
|-
|eastern block
|basalts with minor ultramafic komatiite
|Kolar group
|
|}
There are the older Sargur Group and the younger Dharwar Supragroup in the western block. The Sargur Group shows the volcanic greenstone sequences with ultramafic [[komatiite]] and interlayered sediments, indicating they were formed in calm and shallow water environments. According to the Sm-Nd [[Isochron dating|isochron]] ages, the whole-rock age of the komatiite flows is between 3380 and 3150 Ma. <ref>Maya, J.M., Bhutani, R., Balakrishnan, S., Rajee Sandhya, S., 2017. Petrogenesis of 3.15 Ga old banasandra komatiites from the Dharwar craton, India: implications for early mantle heterogeneity. Geosci. Front. 8, 467–481.</ref> The Dharwar Supergroup can be divided into the lower Bababudan Group and the upper Chitradurga Group. The Bababudan Group comprises the oligomict conglomerate and basaltic flows, that are interlayered with some quartzite layers. The Sm-Nd isochrons shows the whole-rock ages of the basaltic flows is between 2911 and 2848 Ma.<ref name=":3">Kumar, A., Bhaskar Rao, Y.J., Sivaraman, T.V., Gopalan, K., 1996. Sm-Nd ages of Archaean metavolcanic of the Dharwar craton, South India. Precambrian Res. 80, 206–215.</ref> Meanwhile, the Chitradurga Group was formed with the polymict conglomerate, basaltic flows, intermediate to felsic volcanics and some sedimentary sequences. The Sm-Nd whole-rock isochron ages of its basaltic flows is 2747 Ma. <ref name=":3" />
There are the older Sargur Group and the younger Dharwar Supragroup in the western block. The Sargur Group shows the volcanic greenstone sequences with ultramafic [[komatiite]] and interlayered sediments, indicating they were formed in calm and shallow water environments. According to the Sm-Nd [[Isochron dating|isochron]] ages, the whole-rock age of the komatiite flows is between 3380 and 3150 Ma. <ref>Maya, J.M., Bhutani, R., Balakrishnan, S., Rajee Sandhya, S., 2017. Petrogenesis of 3.15 Ga old banasandra komatiites from the Dharwar craton, India: implications for early mantle heterogeneity. Geosci. Front. 8, 467–481.</ref> The Dharwar Supergroup can be divided into the lower Bababudan Group and the upper Chitradurga Group. The Bababudan Group comprises the oligomict conglomerate and basaltic flows, that are interlayered with some quartzite layers. The Sm-Nd isochrons shows the whole-rock ages of the basaltic flows is between 2911 and 2848 Ma.<ref name=":3">Kumar, A., Bhaskar Rao, Y.J., Sivaraman, T.V., Gopalan, K., 1996. Sm-Nd ages of Archaean metavolcanic of the Dharwar craton, South India. Precambrian Res. 80, 206–215.</ref> Meanwhile, the Chitradurga Group was formed with the polymict conglomerate, basaltic flows, intermediate to felsic volcanics and some sedimentary sequences. The Sm-Nd whole-rock isochron ages of its basaltic flows is 2747 Ma. <ref name=":3" />


Revision as of 10:58, 30 October 2021

The location map of the Dharwar Craton. The shaded area represents the Dharwar Craton. Generated from GeoMapApp (Ryan et al., 2009).[1]

The Dharwar Craton is an Archean continental crust formed between 3.6-2.5 billion years ago (Ga), which is located in the Southern India.

Recent studies suggest that the craton can be separated into three crustal blocks since they show different accretionary history (i.e. the history of block collisions) and thermal records. The craton includes the western, central and eastern blocks and the three blocks are divided by serveral shear zones.[2] [3]

The lithologies of the Dharwar Craton are mainly TTG (Tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite) gneisses, volcanic-sedimentary greenstone sequences and calc-alkaline granitoids. [4] The western Dharwar Craton contains the oldest basement rocks, with greenstone sequences between 3.0-3.4 Ga, whereas the central block of the craton mainly contains migmatitic TTG gneisses, and the eastern block contains 2.7 Ga greenstone belts and calc-alkaline plutons.[5]

The formation of the basement rock of the Dharwar Craton was proposed by the plume-arc model, including intraplate hotspot model and two-stage melting of oceanic crust. The continuous melting of the oceanic arc crust and the mantle upwelling generated the TTG and sanukitoid plutons over the Dharwar Craton.[6] [7]

Overview of the regional geology

Simplified geological map of the Dharwar Craton, which shows the western, central and eastern blocks. Modified from Jayananda et al., (2018).[2]

The Dharwar Craton is surrounded by the Arabian Sea in the West, the Deccan Trap in the North, the Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt in the East and the Southern Granulite Belt in the South.[8]

The Dharwar Craton is traditionally divided into two main blocks including the western Dharwar Craton and the eastern Dharwar Craton. The mylonite zone at the eastern boundary of the Chitradurga greenstone belt was considered as the boundary between the two main blocks.[9] The western Dharwar Craton is older with a cratonisation age around 3.0 Ga while the eastern Dharwar Craton is younger with the cratonisation age around 2.5 Ga.[5] The boundary between the two blocks (the eastern boundary of the Chitradurga greenstone belt) is a steep shear zone with some mylonitised granite and volcanic rocks.[8] The Chitradurga greenstone belt is an elongated linear supracrustal belt which is 400 km long from North to South.[10]

The WDC is dominated by 2.9 Ga to 3.35 Ga TTG gneiss. From Paleoarchean to Mesoarchean, the western Dharwar Craton are with groups of rocks including the 3.0 Ga to 3.3 Ga Sargur Group and the 2.6 to 2.9 Ga Dharwar Supergroup. Those two groups are separated by an unconformity. The Sargur Group includes quartzite, pelite, calc-silicate, basalt, komatiite, banded iron formation (BIF) and layered mafic and serpentinized or chromite-bearing ultramafics. The Dharwar Supergroup can be divided into two groups as well, including the Bababudan group with an older age (oligomitic conglomerate, quartzite, basalt and BIF) and the Chitradurga group with a younger age (polymictic conglomerate, quartzite, greywacke, pelite, basalt and BIF).[5][8]

Since the eastern Dharwar Craton cratonised later than the western Dharwar Craton, the eastern Dharwar Craton is dominated by 2.7 Ga Kolar-type greenstone belts and 2.7–2.5 Ga calc-alkaline felsic plutonic and volcanic rocks.[11] The older Kolar-type greenstone mainly contains greenschist to amphibolite facies metabasalts, as well as some subordinate felsic volcanic rocks and metasediments,[12] while the younger granitoids include TTG gneisses, high-magnesium sanukitoids and potassium-rich leucogranites.[11]

Simplified cross-section of the Dharwar Craton from SW to NE, showing the shear zone and the granitic intrusions. Modified from Jayananda et al., (2018).[2]

Lithlogies

TTG gneisses

There are two kinds of gneisses can be found on the Dharwar Craton, which includes the typical TTG-type gneisses and the dark grey TTG banded gneisses:[13]

Blocks Main TTG type Associated group Characteristics
western block typical TTG gneisses[7] Sargur Group[7]
  • some of the TTG are with minor granitic intrusions[7]
central block transitional TTG (mixture of the typical TTG and dark grey banded gneisses)[7] Kolar Group[13]
  • the TTG shows foliation
  • the abundance of the weakly foliated TTG gneisses decreases gradually from the west to the east
  • the abundance of the dark grey banded gneisses with younger age increases gradually from the west to the east [13]
eastern block banded gneisses[7] Kolar Group[2]
  • it contains less TTG than those of the western and central blocks[2]

Volcanic-sedimentary greenstone sequences

The volcanic-sedimentary greenstone sequence occupies the majority of the Archean crustal record, which is about 30%. The western block comprises the greenstone sequences with adequate sediments, while the central block and the eastern block comprise the greenstone sequences with adequate volcanic rocks but minor sediments.[2]

Blocks Main composition of the volcanic greenstone Associated group(s) Characteristics
western block ultramafic komatiite with interlayered sediments Sargur group and Dharwar Supragroup
  • rocks were formed in calm and shallow water environments
  • basaltic flows, conglomerate and some felsic volcanics can be found in the greenstone of the Dharwar Supragroup
central block basalts with minor ultramafic komatiite Kolar group
eastern block basalts with minor ultramafic komatiite Kolar group

There are the older Sargur Group and the younger Dharwar Supragroup in the western block. The Sargur Group shows the volcanic greenstone sequences with ultramafic komatiite and interlayered sediments, indicating they were formed in calm and shallow water environments. According to the Sm-Nd isochron ages, the whole-rock age of the komatiite flows is between 3380 and 3150 Ma. [14] The Dharwar Supergroup can be divided into the lower Bababudan Group and the upper Chitradurga Group. The Bababudan Group comprises the oligomict conglomerate and basaltic flows, that are interlayered with some quartzite layers. The Sm-Nd isochrons shows the whole-rock ages of the basaltic flows is between 2911 and 2848 Ma.[15] Meanwhile, the Chitradurga Group was formed with the polymict conglomerate, basaltic flows, intermediate to felsic volcanics and some sedimentary sequences. The Sm-Nd whole-rock isochron ages of its basaltic flows is 2747 Ma. [15]

The greenstone belts in the central block mainly comprise with volcanic rocks and minor sediment. The majority of the volcanic sequences is basalts and felsic rocks with a small amount of ultramafic komatiite. [16] According to the isochron ages from different greenstone belts in the central block, the metabasalts from the Sandur greenstone belt show the Sm-Nd whole-rock isochron age of 2706 Ma,[17] while the Sm-Nd whole-rock isochron ages of the amphibolites from the Javagondanahalli belt indicates the age of 2740 Ma.[2]

The eastern block contains the volcanic greenstone belts, which contain the high magnesium basalts, felsic volcanics, as well as minor komatiite. They are interlayered with sediments like carbonate and greywacke argillite.[18] The Pb-Pb whole-rock isochron ages of the basalts in all greenstone belts of the eastern block indicate the age between 2700 and 2640 Ma.[19]

Sanukitoids (Calc-alkaline granitoids)

There is no sanukitoid record in the western block. However, there are a lot of granitoid intrusions in the central block, which become less in the eastern block.[2]

In the central block, the intrusions comprise the dark grey quartz-monzonite to monzodiorite, and porphyritic monzogranite with pink phenocrysts.[2] A number of granitoid intrusions form many plutons over the central block, that are north-south trending. The largest pluton in the central block is the Closepet Batholith.[4] The sanukitoids formed discrete plutons which intrude the gneiss greenstone sequences.[20]

The distribution of the granitoid intrusions is associated with the diatexites in the eastern block. For example, the granitoids at the east of the Kolar greenstone belt contain the dark grey monzodiorite, quartz-monzonite and monzogranite facies.[21]

Anatectic granites

The western block contains some small discrete potassic plutons with anatectic granite that intrude the TTG and greenstone. The intrusions include the 3000 Ma Bukkapatna granite and the 2620–2560 Ma Arsikere-Banavara, Chitradurga and Gadag granites.[2]

In the central block, the anatectic granites are confined to the margin of the plutons and formed some cross-cutting dykes and veins in the pre-existing rocks. The anatectic granite often occupies the ductile shear zones that pass over the migmatitic gneisses.[2]

The anatectic granite is a significant lithology in the eastern block since it occupies a large portion of rocks there. Some pink to light grey anatectic granite veins and dykes cutting across the banded grey gneisses in the southern part of the eastern block. Many mafic magmatic inclusions and mafic to ultramafic xenoliths can be found in the anatectic granite. [22]

Metamorphic record

Blocks P-T conditions Metamorphic facies Record
Western block Progressive increase from the N to the S From the greenschist facies in the N to the hornblende-granulite facies to the S[2]
  • The mineral assemblages of garnet-chloritoid, garnet-staurolite and kyanite-garnet, indicating the 6–8 Kb metamorphic pressure and 500–675 °C temperature range in the Holenarsipur greenstone belt[23]
  • The garnet-sillimanite in the metapelites and the garnet-hornblende-clinopyroxene in the metagabbros indicate the upper amphibolite to granulite facies with a temperature range between 650 and 750 °C in the Gundlupet region[24]
Central block Progressive increase from the N to the S From the greenschist facies in the Sandur greenstone belt in the N to the granulite facies in the Kabbaldurga to the S[25]
  • The granulite facies mineral assemblages (sillimanite-spinel-quartz) in the pelite indicate the ultrahigh temperature conditions in the Pavagada region, the central part of the central block [26]
  • The mineral assemblages in the charnockites and metapelites indicate the amphibolite to granulite facies with the P-T conditions from 600–775 °C and 5–9 Kb in the B.R Hills region[24]
Eastern block Poorly understood Poorly understood
  • The plagioclase-K-feldspar-hornblende-clinopyroxene bearing dykes indicate the amphibolite facies in the northernmost part of the eastern block, around the Hutti greenstone belt[27]
  • The amphibolite-granulite facies transition indicates a progressive increase in temperature condition from 650 to 800 °C in the Krishnagiri-Dharmapuri region, the southern part of the eastern block[28]

Archean crust accretions

According to the zircon U-Pb ages of the TTG gneisses from the Dharwar Craton, there were five major accretion events leading to the formation of the Archean felsic continental crust. The events occurred with the ranges of age 3450–3300 Ma, 3230–3200 Ma, 3150–3000 Ma, 2700–2600 Ma and 2560–2520 Ma.[2]

The western block records the two earliest crust accretion events, that happened in 3450 Ma and 3230 Ma. The rates of the continental growth of the two events are fast since the events leading to the widespread of greenstone volcanism.[5]

The central block records four major accretion events, that occurred in 3375 Ma, 3150 Ma, 2700 Ma and 2560 Ma. The isotopic data suggests that the scale of the continental growth due to felsic crust accretion was large during 2700–2600 Ma and 2560–2520 Ma, leading to the large scale bimodal greenstone volcanism at that time. [16]

The eastern block records the two latest major accretion events occurring in 2700 Ma and 2560 Ma with massive continental growth.[19]

Crustal reworking events

The crustal reworking events happened in the time range of 3100–3000 Ma.[7] All three crustal blocks record the crustal reworking events in 2520 Ma due to the final assembly of the Superia supercontinent. [3]

For the western block, there are two reworking events. The first event happened in 3100–3000 Ma accounting to the high-grade metamorphism and emplacement of high potassium granite.[7] The second reworking event led to the intrusions of 2640–2600 Ma high-K plutons of Arsikere-Banavara and Chitradurga granites.[29]

For the central block, the earliest reworking event occurred in 3140 Ma due to the TTG accretion event between 3230–3140 Ma. The second high-temperature reworking event in the central of the eastern block happening in 2640–2620 Ma is related to the greenstone volcanism of the TTG accretion event in 2700 Ma.[26]

Formation and evolution

Intraplate hotspot model

Before 3400 Ma, the magma upwelling from the mantle led to the intraplate hotspot setting. the upwelling magma formed the oceanic plateaus with komatiites and komatiitic basalts in the oceanic crust.[6][30]

The annotated diagram of the intraplate hotspot model before 3400 Ma, forming the oceanic plateaus. Modified from Jayananda et al, (2018).[2]
The evolutionary diagram of the two-stage melting of the oceanic crust during 3350-3100 Ma, forming the TTG plutons. Modified from Jayananda et al, (2018) and Tushipokla et al, (2013).[2][6]

Two-stage melting of oceanic crust

After the mantle plume hotspots were formed, the tectonic setting was followed by the two-stage melting, which include the melting of the subducted oceanic crust and the melting of the thickened oceanic arc crust.[31]

In 3350 Ma, due to the ridge push from the oceanic spreading centres (mid-oceanic ridges), some oceanic crust subducted under the mantle. The low angle subduction of the crust at shallow levels (40–60 km) led to the melting of the subducted crust and formed magma that rose to the oceanic crust and formed oceanic island arc crust.[2]

During 3350–3270 Ma, the mafic to ultramafic hydrous melt formed by the slab melting melted the base of the thickened oceanic arc crust, which formed the TTG melt, as well as magmatic protoliths of TTGs in the oceanic arc crust.[2][6]

During 3230–3100 Ma, the continuous collision of the oceanic island arc crust, newly formed TTG and the oceanic plateaus caused the melting of the juvenile crust in the oceanic island arc, which generated trondhjemite plutons in 3200 Ma. The trondhjemite emplacement generated heat and fluid that led to the low degree melting that made the low-density TTG crust rose while the high-density greenstone volcanics sank, which developed the dome-keel structures between the TTG and greenstone.[32]

The model showing the transitional TTG accretion, shifting from the melting of oceanic crust to the melting of the mantle, as well as the sanukitoid magmatism during 2740-2500 Ma. Modified from Jayananda et al, (2013, 2018).[2][4]

Transitional TTGs in the central and eastern blocks

The transitional TTGs in the central and eastern blocks during 2700–2600 Ma are relatively enriched in incompatible elements like LREE, K, Ba, Sr etc., compared to the TTGs with older age. The enrichment of the incompatible elements could be account for the high-angle subduction and the chemical interaction between the mantle wedge and the melt from the subducted crust.[33]

During the 2700 Ma, the central and eastern block of the Dharwar Craton had developed into microcontinents. The weathering and erosion of the microcontinents led to a large amount of detrital input to the ocean floor and subduction zone. Therefore, the subducted slab with a large amount of sediment brought incompatible elements into the mantle due to a high-angle subduction. The mantle wedge interacted with the slab, leading to the partial enrichment of the incompatible elements in the wedge and generated mafic to intermediate magma. The mafic magma rose and accumulated under the oceanic arc crust, leading to the partial melting of the thickened, incompatible element enriched arc crust and their magma mixed to form the transitional TTGs during 2700–2600 Ma.[34]

Shifting from oceanic crust melting to mantle melting

After the transitional TTG accretion, the inflexible subducted oceanic crust broke and fell into the asthenosphere, leading to the mantle upwelling under the pre-existing crust. The upwelling mantle rock rose to the shallow depth and melted the upper mantle to generate intermediate to mafic magma. Then, the magma intruded into the middle part of the crust. It underwent differentiation in magma chambers. The heat from the magma transferred into the surrounding rock leading to the partial melting of gneisses and the formation of calc-alkaline granitoids.[35]

Sanukitoid magmatism

Sanukitoids were formed during the Neoarchean magmatic accretion events, that are originated from the mantle with low silicon dioxide and high magnesium, but some of them are with incompatible elements like LREE, K and Ba and lower magnesium.[11] The sanukitoid magma could be generated by either plate subduction or plume setting.

The sanukitoids created by subduction might lead to the metasomatism of the mantle wedge and the melting of the metasomatized mantle wedge. The peridotitic mantle wedge was mixed with intermediate to felsic melts.[36] This can be explained by the mixing of the previous TTG melts.[37] The sanukitoids created by plume setting would lead to the sanukitoid intrusions with high magnesium content and low silicon dioxide.

The sanukitoid magmatism is not related to the TTG accretion events during 3450–3000 Ma. The magmatism was followed by the transitional TTG accretion event in 2600 Ma (50–100 Ma after the transitional TTG accretion) and only occurred in the central and eastern blocks. Since the sanukitoids are enriched in both incompatible and compatible elements, while the TTGs are not, it indicates the appearance of the sanukitoid magmatism shows the tectonic change from oceanic crust melting to mantle melting during 2600–2500 Ma.[2]

Closure of subduction zones

During 2560–2500 Ma, the three blocks joined together to form the Dharwar Craton and all the subduction zones closed, followed by the regional metamorphism due to heat release from the mantle during 2535–2500 Ma. The final cratonisation finished in 2400 Ma through slow cooling.[38]

Implication for global crust history

Possible relationships with the Dharwar Craton
Bundelkhand Craton
  • They have similar lithologies with the typical units like TTG gneisses, volcanic-sedimentary greenstone sequences and calc-alkaline granitoids.
  • There were 3 major crust creating events during 3327–3270 Ma, 2700 Ma and 2578–2544 Ma in the Bundelkhand Craton, which occurred at the same time as the TTG accretion event and the sanukitoid intrusions of the Dharwar Craton.[39]
North China Craton
  • The accretion events with the continental growth and assembly of micro-blocks were recorded during 2720–2600 Ma, 2550–2500 Ma from the North China Craton.[40] The North China Craton shows a similar late Neoarchean crustal history of magmatism, crustal reworking and high rates of continental growth with that of the central and eastern blocks of the Dharwar Craton.[40]
  • The magmatic, sedimentological and metamorphic history of the North China Craton is similar to those of the peninsular India so they may be the same continent from the Mesoarchaean to the Palaeoproterozoic.[41]
Kaapvaal Craton
  • The zircon ages of the TTG gneisses and granitoids from the Kaapvaal Craton are the same as the 3400–3200 Ma TTG gneisses and 2650–2620 Ma potassic granites from the western Dharwar Craton.[13]
  • The sanukitoids from the central part of the Limpopo belt in the Kaapvaal Craton showed the ages of 2617–2590 Ma. Those sanukitoids correspond with the 2600 Ma transitional TTGs and earliest sanukitoids in the central and eastern block of the Dharwar craton.[42]
Pilbara Craton
  • The Pilbara Craton recorded the accretion event with a large number of gneisses and granitoids in 3500–3220 Ma, which occurred at a similar time to the 3450–3200 Ma TTG accretion event in the western Dharwar Craton.[3]
  • The detrital zircons in the TTG gneisses of the western Dharwar Craton showed the ages of 3700–3800 Ma. The zircons might come from the old crust of the Pilbara Craton.[5]
Yilgarn Craton
  • The 2700–2630 Ma gneisses and granitoids are abundant in the Yilgarn Craton. The ages corresponded with the transitional TTGs accretion event in the central and eastern blocks of the Dharwar craton.[43]
Tanzania Craton
  • The basement gneisses in the Tanzania Craton indicated the U-Pb ages of 3234-3140 Ma, which corresponded to the ages TTG gneisses and detrital zircons in the western Dharwar Craton.[7]
  • The granitoids and greenstone sequences are with the ages of 2720-2640 Ma and 2815 Ma respectively. They share the same ages with the transitional TTGs and the greenstone sequences in the central and the eastern blocks of the Dharwar Craton.[44]
Antongil Craton
  • The TTG gneisses in the Antongil Craton formed during 3320-3231 Ma, and 3187-3154 Ma.[45] The zircon ages indicate the crust forming events in the Antongil Craton occurred at the same time with the crust building and reworking events in the western Dharwar Craton.[7]

See also

References

  1. ^ Jayananda, M, et al. “Neoarchean Greenstone Volcanism and Continental Growth, Dharwar Craton, Southern India: Constraints from SIMS U–Pb Zircon Geochronology and Nd Isotopes.” Precambrian Research, vol. 227, 2013, pp. 55–76.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s M, J., M, S., & K.R, A. (2018). Formation of Archean (3600–2500 Ma) continental crust in the Dharwar Craton, southern India. Earth-science Reviews, 181, 12-42.
  3. ^ a b c Peucat, J., Jayananda, M., Chardon, D., Capdevila, R., Fanning, C., & Paquette, J. (2013). The lower crust of the Dharwar Craton, Southern India: Patchwork of Archean granulitic domains. Precambrian Research, 227, 4-28.
  4. ^ a b c Jayananda, M., Peucat, J., Chardon, D., Rao, B., Fanning, C., & Corfu, F. (2013). Neoarchean greenstone volcanism and continental growth, Dharwar craton, southern India: Constraints from SIMS U–Pb zircon geochronology and Nd isotopes. Precambrian Research, 227, 55-76.
  5. ^ a b c d e Lancaster, P., Dey, S., Storey, C., Mitra, A., & Bhunia, R. (2015). Contrasting crustal evolution processes in the Dharwar craton: Insights from detrital zircon U–Pb and Hf isotopes. Gondwana Research, 28(4), 1361-1372.
  6. ^ a b c d Tushipokla, M. Jayananda. “Geochemical Constraints on Komatiite Volcanism from Sargur Group Nagamangala Greenstone Belt, Western Dharwar Craton, Southern India： Implications for Mesoarchean Mantle Evolution and Continental Growth.” Di Xue Qian Yuan., vol. 4, no. 3, 2013, pp. 321–340.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Jayananda, M., Chardon, D., Peucat, -J.-J., Fanning, C.M., 2015. Paleo- to Mesoarchean TTG accretion and continental growth, western Dharwar craton, southern India: SHRIMP U-Pb zircon geochronology, whole-rock geochemistry and Nd-Sr isotopes. Precambrian Res. 268, 295–322. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2015.07.015.
  8. ^ a b c Gao, P., & Santosh, M. (2020). Mesoarchean accretionary mélange and tectonic erosion in the Archean Dharwar Craton, southern India: Plate tectonics in the early Earth. Gondwana Research, 85, 291-305.
  9. ^ Swami Nath, J., Ramakrishnan, M. (Eds.), 1981. Early Precambrian Supracrustals of Southern Karnataka. Memoir, vol. 112. Geological Survey of India, pp. 350.
  10. ^ Hokada, T., Horie, K., Satish-Kumar, M., Ueno, Y., Nasheeth, A., Mishima, K., & Shiraishi, K. (2013). An appraisal of Archaean supracrustal sequences in Chitradurga Schist Belt, Western Dharwar Craton, Southern India. Precambrian Research, 227, 99-119.
  11. ^ a b c Jayananda, M., Moyen, J.-F., Martin, H., Peucat, J.-J., Auvray, B., Mahabaleswar, B., 2000. Late Archaean (2550–2520 Ma) juvenile magmatism in the Eastern Dharwar craton, southern India: constraints from geochronology, Nd-Sr isotopes and whole rock geochemistry. Precambrian Research 99, 225–254. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0301-9268(99)00063-7.
  12. ^ Balakrishnan, S., Hanson, G.N., Rajamani, V., 1991. Pb and Nd isotope constraints on the origin of high Mg and tholeiitic amphibolites, Kolar Schist Belt, South India. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 107, 279–292. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00325099.
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  14. ^ Maya, J.M., Bhutani, R., Balakrishnan, S., Rajee Sandhya, S., 2017. Petrogenesis of 3.15 Ga old banasandra komatiites from the Dharwar craton, India: implications for early mantle heterogeneity. Geosci. Front. 8, 467–481.
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Category:Cratons Category:Geology of India

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