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==Seismicity and tsunamis==
==Seismicity and tsunamis==
{{see also|List of earthquakes in Japan}}
{{see also|List of earthquakes in Japan}}
The eastern margin of the Sea of Japan was the source of historically destructive earthquakes and tsunamis. These events were considered [[intraplate earthquake]]s until 1983 when the plate boundary theory was proposed.<ref name="Ohtake95" /> The associated geological faults related to the opening of the sea and compressive forces along the eastern margin influences seismic activity. Large earthquakes which occurred in 1833, 1940, 1964, 1983, and 1993 were the result of reverse faulting associated with the present deformation. The Sea of Japan is considered one of the world's most seismically active back-arc basins.<ref name="No2014">{{cite journal |last1=No |first1=T. |last2=Sato |first2=T. |last3=Kodaira |first3=S. |last4=Ishiyama |first4=T. |last5=Sato |first5=H. |last6=Takahashi |first6=N. |last7=Kaneda |first7=Y. |title=The source fault of the 1983 Nihonkai–Chubu earthquake revealed by seismic imaging |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |date=15 August 2014 |volume=400 |pages=14–25 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2014.05.026|bibcode=2014E&PSL.400...14N }}</ref>
The eastern margin of the Sea of Japan was the source of historically destructive earthquakes and tsunamis. These events were considered [[intraplate earthquake]]s until 1983 when the plate boundary theory was proposed.<ref name="Ohtake95" /> The associated geological faults related to the opening of the sea and compressive forces along the eastern margin influence seismic activity. Large earthquakes in 1833, 1940, 1964, 1983, and 1993 were the result of reverse faulting associated with the present deformation. The Sea of Japan is considered one of the world's most seismically active back-arc basins.<ref name="No2014">{{cite journal |last1=No |first1=T. |last2=Sato |first2=T. |last3=Kodaira |first3=S. |last4=Ishiyama |first4=T. |last5=Sato |first5=H. |last6=Takahashi |first6=N. |last7=Kaneda |first7=Y. |title=The source fault of the 1983 Nihonkai–Chubu earthquake revealed by seismic imaging |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |date=15 August 2014 |volume=400 |pages=14–25 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2014.05.026|bibcode=2014E&PSL.400...14N }}</ref>


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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|-
|-
|[[1793 Tsugaru earthquake|1793]] ([[:ja:%E8%A5%BF%E6%B4%A5%E8%BB%BD%E5%9C%B0%E9%9C%87|ja]])
|[[1793 Tsugaru earthquake|1793]] ([[:ja:%E8%A5%BF%E6%B4%A5%E8%BB%BD%E5%9C%B0%E9%9C%87|ja]])
|Aomori
|Amoroi
|Earthquake ({{M|unk}} 6.9)
|Earthquake ({{M|unk}} 6.9)
|Generated a tsunami along the [[Tsugaru Peninsula]].<ref name="Okada22">{{cite journal |last1=Okada |first1=R. |last2=Umeda |first2=K. |last3=Kamataki |first3=T. |last4=Sawai |first4=Y. |last5=Matsumoto |first5=D. |last6=Shimada |first6=Y. |last7=Ioki |first7=K. |title=Geological record of 18th and 19th century tsunamis along the Japan Sea coast of Tsugaru Peninsula, northwestern Japan |journal=Marine Geology |year=2022 |volume=453 |page=106905 |doi=10.1016/j.margeo.2022.106905|s2cid=252657984 }}</ref> Twelve people killed and 164 homes destroyed. Considerable damage in [[Ajigasawa, Aomori|Ajigasawa]].<ref name=Nishi-TsugaruEQ>{{citation|title=Significant Earthquake Database|url=https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazel/view/hazards/earthquake/event-more-info/1520|author=National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS)|publisher=[[National Geophysical Data Center]], [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]|doi=10.7289/V5TD9V7K|year=1972|type=Data Set|access-date=2023-01-11|archive-date=2023-01-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112050832/https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazel/view/hazards/earthquake/event-more-info/1520|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Nishi-TsugaruTS>{{citation|title=Global Historical Tsunami Database|url=https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazel/view/hazards/tsunami/event-more-info/572|author=National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS)|publisher=[[National Geophysical Data Center]], [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]|doi=10.7289/V5PN93H7|year=1972|type=Data Set|access-date=2023-01-11|archive-date=2023-01-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112050834/https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazel/view/hazards/tsunami/event-more-info/572|url-status=live}}</ref>
|Generated a tsunami along the [[Tsugaru Peninsula]].<ref name="Okada22">{{cite journal |last1=Okada |first1=R. |last2=Umeda |first2=K. |last3=Kamataki |first3=T. |last4=Sawai |first4=Y. |last5=Matsumoto |first5=D. |last6=Shimada |first6=Y. |last7=Ioki |first7=K. |title=Geological record of 18th and 19th century tsunamis along the Japan Sea coast of Tsugaru Peninsula, northwestern Japan |journal=Marine Geology |year=2022 |volume=453 |page=106905 |doi=10.1016/j.margeo.2022.106905|s2cid=252657984 }}</ref> Twelve people killed and 164 homes destroyed. Considerable damage in [[Ajigasawa, Aomori|Ajigasawa]].<ref name=Nishi-TsugaruEQ>{{citation|title=Significant Earthquake Database|url=https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazel/view/hazards/earthquake/event-more-info/1520|author=National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS)|publisher=[[National Geophysical Data Center]], [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]|doi=10.7289/V5TD9V7K|year=1972|type=Data Set|access-date=2023-01-11|archive-date=2023-01-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112050832/https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazel/view/hazards/earthquake/event-more-info/1520|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Nishi-TsugaruTS>{{citation|title=Global Historical Tsunami Database|url=https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazel/view/hazards/tsunami/event-more-info/572|author=National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS)|publisher=[[National Geophysical Data Center]], [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]|doi=10.7289/V5PN93H7|year=1972|type=Data Set|access-date=2023-01-11|archive-date=2023-01-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112050834/https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazel/view/hazards/tsunami/event-more-info/572|url-status=live}}</ref>
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===Hazard===
===Hazard===
Off the coast of Akita Prefecture lies a {{cvt|75|km}}-long [[seismic gap]] known as the Akita-Oki seismic gap. No large earthquakes have ruptured the plate boundary segment historically. The seismic gap lies between the rupture areas of the 1983 and 1833 earthquakes. Another seismic gap measuring {{cvt|50|km}} is thought to exist off the coast of Hokkaido, between the 1940 and 1993 rupture areas. The Akita-Oki seismic gap is capable of producing a magnitude 7.5 earthquake; expected to occur by the end of the 21st century.<ref name="Ohtake95">{{cite journal |last1=Ohtake |first1=M. |title=A seismic gap in the eastern margin of the Sea of Japan as inferred from the time-space distribution of past seismicity |journal=Island Arc |date=September 1995 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=156–165 |doi=10.1111/j.1440-1738.1995.tb00140.x}}</ref>
The {{cvt|75|km}}-long [[seismic gap]] Akita–Oki [[seismic gap]] is lies off the coast of [[Akita Prefecture]]. No large earthquakes have ruptured the plate boundary segment historically. The seismic gap is located between the rupture zones of the 1983 and 1833 earthquakes. Another seismic gap measuring {{cvt|50|km}} is thought to exist off the coast of Hokkaido, between the 1940 and 1993 rupture zones. The Akita–Oki gap has the potential to produce a magnitude 7.5 earthquake and could do so before the end of the 21st century.<ref name="Ohtake95">{{cite journal |last1=Ohtake |first1=M. |title=A seismic gap in the eastern margin of the Sea of Japan as inferred from the time-space distribution of past seismicity |journal=Island Arc |date=September 1995 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=156–165 |doi=10.1111/j.1440-1738.1995.tb00140.x}}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==

Revision as of 14:50, 2 January 2024

The eastern margin of the Sea of Japan defined by the Headquarters for Earthquake Research Promotion in 2003

The eastern margin of the Sea of Japan is a zone of concentrated geological strain which extends several hundred kilometers and north–south along the eastern margin of the Sea of Japan. The margin has undergone convergence tectonics since the end of the Pliocene.[1][2] It is believed to be an incipient subduction zone which defines the tectonic boundary between the Amurian and Okhotsk plates. This geological zone is seismically active and has been the source of destructive tsunamis. The feature runs off the west coast of Honshu, passes west of the Shakotan Peninsula on Hokkaido and through the Strait of Tartary, between Sakhalin and mainland Russia.

Plate tectonics

Topographical map of the Sea of Japan

The Sea of Japan represents a back-arc basin that formed via geological rifting of continental crust from the late Oligocene to middle Miocene (28–13 million years ago).[3] The Sea of Japan can be divided into sub-basins; the Japan Basin, Yamato Basin and Tsushima Basin. Seafloor spreading in the Sea of Japan was restricted to the Japan Basin and ceased by the middle Miocene.[4]

Following the end of seafloor spreading, its eastern margin experienced weak compression between 10 and 3.5 million years ago. Crustal shortening has been ongoing in the eastern margin and back-arc region of the Northeastern Japan Arc since 3.5 million years ago. This deformation is attributed to east–west compressive forces, forming fold and thrust belts along the eastern margin. The southern margin was subjected to north–south or northwest–southeast compression about 8–5 million years ago. Presently, the southern margin hosts mainly strike-slip faults.[4]

The margin is located at the boundary marking the Amurian and Okhotsk plates. Oceanic lithosphere from the Sea of Japan located on the Amurian Plate converges with the Japanese archipelago on the Okhotsk Plate. A Wadati–Benioff zone which is evidence for subduction, is absent in the zone, hence subduction is doubtful. However, it may be an incipient eastward-dipping subduction zone.[5] In 1983, it was proposed that subduction along the eastern margin commenced about 1–2 million years ago.[6]

The basis for defining this tectonic boundary is the occurrence of large magnitude 7 or greater earthquakes along a linear zone from offshore Niigata Prefecture to off the west coast of Hokkaido.[7] Following the 1983 Nihonkai-Chubu earthquake, the idea of a young plate boundary was proposed, but its mechanism is unknown—it has been proposed as a transform boundary or collision zone.[8]

Location

Plate boundary marked by the purple line

The margin passes north–south through the Shakotan Peninsula, Oshima Peninsula, and Tōhoku region. It junctions with the Niigata–Kobe Tectonic Zone and Itoigawa-Shizuoka Tectonic Line between Sado Island and the Noto Peninsula.[9] It strikes southwest in the western part of Fukushima Prefecture and extends to the border of Nagano and Toyama Prefecture. It exits north of Lake Biwa and continues to the eastern part of Shimane Prefecture. In the Sea of Japan, the cluster of extensional faults which were active during the formation of the sea remained. After the Pliocene, the stress field evolved from extensional to convergence. The compressive forces reactivated these faults and displayed thrust mechanisms.[10]

Seismicity and tsunamis

See also: List of earthquakes in Japan

The eastern margin of the Sea of Japan was the source of historically destructive earthquakes and tsunamis. These events were considered intraplate earthquakes until 1983 when the plate boundary theory was proposed.[11] The associated geological faults related to the opening of the sea and compressive forces along the eastern margin influence seismic activity. Large earthquakes in 1833, 1940, 1964, 1983, and 1993 were the result of reverse faulting associated with the present deformation. The Sea of Japan is considered one of the world's most seismically active back-arc basins.[12]

Year Location Event Comments
1741 Oshima, off the coast of Hokkaido Volcanic eruption[13][14] About 2,000 people killed along the west coast of Japan from the resulting tsunami. Homes and fishing boats destroyed in Korea.[15] Tsunami magnitude calculated at Mt  8.4; largest tsunami in the region.[16]
1792 Shiribeshi Earthquake (M 7.1) At least five people killed in Oshoro by the tsunami and additional tsunami casualties at Bikuni.[17]
1793 (ja) Aomori Earthquake (Muk  6.9) Generated a tsunami along the Tsugaru Peninsula.[18] Twelve people killed and 164 homes destroyed. Considerable damage in Ajigasawa.[19][20]
1802 (ja) Sado Island Earthquake (Muk  6.6) At least 19 people killed, 732 homes destroyed and 1,423 damaged.[21] Caused 2 m (6 ft 7 in) of uplift on the Ogi Peninsula, exposing pillow lava from the Miocene.[22]
1804 (ja) Kisa, Akita Earthquake (Mw  7.1[23]) At least 450 killed and 10,810 houses destroyed.[21] A 1 m (3 ft 3 in) tsunami flooded 300 homes in Kisagata and Sakata.[24]
1828 (ja) Sanjō Niigata Earthquake (Muk  6.9[25]) At least 1,443 killed and 11,750 houses ruined.[26] No tsunami.[24]
1833 Yamagata Earthquake (MJMA  7.5–7.7[27]) At least 150 people killed.[27] Tsunami recorded with a maximum height of 8 m (26 ft) at Kamo.[16]
1939 Akita Earthquake (MJMA  7.0[28]) Onshore event. At least 27 killed and 52 injured.[29]
1940 Shakotan, Hokkaido Earthquake (Mw  7.5[28]) Ten people killed, 24 injured, and many homes and fishing boats damaged or destroyed in Hokkaido, North Korea and Russia.[30] Tsunami recorded with a maximum height of 5 m (16 ft) at Kamenka, Primorsky Krai.[31]
1947 Shakotan, Hokkaido Earthquake (Mw  7.1[28]) Felt at Haboro and Rumoi. Tsunami recorded with a height of 2 m (6 ft 7 in) at Wakkanai and Rishiri Island; 0.7 m (2 ft 4 in) at Haboro and several tens of centimeters at Otaru. Minor damage.[32][33]
1964 Akita offshore Earthquake (Mw  7.0[28]) Tsunami recorded 20 cm (7.9 in) along Niigata and Hokkaido prefectures.[30]
1964 Niigata, Niigata Earthquake (Mw  7.6[28]) At least 36 people killed and over 300 injured. Tsunami with a maximum height of 6 m (20 ft) at Fuya.[34]
1971 Moneron Island, Russia Earthquake (Mw  7.3[28]) Rockfalls and landslides on Moneron Island. Damage to buildings in Shebunino and Gomozavodsk on Sakhalin. Felt VII–VIII (MSK) on Moneron Island and VII (MMI) in southern Sakhalin.[35] Tsunami recorded with a maximum height of 2 m (6 ft 7 in) at Shebunino, Sakhalin.[36]
1983 Akita offshore Earthquake (Mw  7.7[28]) Heavy damage due to liquefaction. At least 104 people dead—4 as a direct effect of the earthquake. One hundred deaths attributed to the tsunami including three deaths in South Korea.[37]
1993 Okushiri, Hokkaido Earthquake (Mw  7.7[28]) At least 230 people killed including 165 on Okushiri. Tsunami recorded 30.6 m (100 ft) on the southern coast of Okushiri; 10 m (33 ft) along the Hokkaido coast; also recorded in Russia and South Korea. Considerable damage from fires, landslides and tsunami. Three people missing along Russia's southeastern coast.
1995 Neftegorsk, Sakhalin Earthquake (Mw  7.0[28]) Strike-slip earthquake producing up to 8.1 m (27 ft) of surface offset. Approximately 2,000 people dead in Neftegorsk.[38]
2000 Uglegorsk, Sakhalin Earthquake (Mw  6.8[28]) Eight people injured and many buildings damaged.[39]
2004 Niigata Earthquake (Mw  6.6[28]) Sixty eight people killed, 4,805 injured and extensive damage. Maximum intensity 7 on the JMA seismic intensity scale.[40][41]
2007 Niigata Earthquake (Mw  6.6[28]) Eleven people killed, 1,000 injured and 342 houses destroyed.[42][43][44]
2007 (ru) Nevelsk, Sakhalin Earthquake (Mw  6.2[28]) Occurred on a west-dipping reverse fault as opposed to east-dipping faults involved in large Sea of Japan earthquakes. Three tsunami waves measuring up to 3.2 m (10 ft).[45] Two people killed, ten injured and severe damage occurred in Nevelsk. Over half of the town's 11,000 residents displaced. Maximum MSK-64 intensity VIII.[46]
2011 Nagano Earthquake (Mw  6.3[28]) Three people killed and nine injured. Seventy three houses destroyed and 427 damaged.[47]
2014 Nagano Earthquake (Mw  6.3[28]) Forty-one people were injured and 50 houses collapsed.[48] Significant surface ruptures were observed.[49]
2019 Yamagata Earthquake (Mw  6.4) Twenty-six people injured and 149 houses damaged.[50][51]
2024 Noto Earthquake (Mw  7.5.[52]) Casualties and damage under assessment.

Offshore earthquakes

Simulation of the 1983 tsunami

Large earthquakes with epicenters offshore and north of the Noto Peninsula are mostly accompanied by tsunamis. These events have recurrence intervals of 1,000 years.[53] Due to their closer proximity to land, the accompanying tsunamis require a shorter time arriving compared to earthquakes along Japan's Pacific coast.[54] These earthquakes tend to generate considerably large tsunamis.[55]

Hazard

The 75 km (47 mi)-long seismic gap Akita–Oki seismic gap is lies off the coast of Akita Prefecture. No large earthquakes have ruptured the plate boundary segment historically. The seismic gap is located between the rupture zones of the 1983 and 1833 earthquakes. Another seismic gap measuring 50 km (31 mi) is thought to exist off the coast of Hokkaido, between the 1940 and 1993 rupture zones. The Akita–Oki gap has the potential to produce a magnitude 7.5 earthquake and could do so before the end of the 21st century.[11]

See also

References

  1. ^ 過去にも繰り返し発生　新潟沖にのびる「ひずみ集中帯」の地震 Archived 2019-07-03 at the Wayback Machine FNN.jpプライムオンライン 記事：2019年6月19日
  2. ^ 佐藤比呂志 ほか、「ひずみ集中帯地殻構造探査・三条-弥彦測線の成果 (総特集 日本海東縁ひずみ集中帯の構造とアクティブテクトニクス(2))」 『月刊地球』 32(7), 403–410, July 2010
  3. ^ Matsuzaki, K.M.; Itaki, T.; Tada, R.; Kamikuri, S. (18 September 2018). "Paleoceanographic history of the Japan Sea over the last 9.5 million years inferred from radiolarian assemblages (IODP Expedition 346 Sites U1425 and U1430)". Progress in Earth and Planetary Science. 54 (5): 54. Bibcode:2018PEPS....5...54M. doi:10.1186/s40645-018-0204-7. S2CID 59942556.
  4. ^ a b Sato, T.; No, T.; Arai, R.; Miura, S.; Kodaira, S. (9 January 2020). "Transition from continental rift to back-arc basin in the southern Japan Sea deduced from seismic velocity structures". Geophysical Journal International. 221 (1): 722–739. doi:10.1093/gji/ggaa006.
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  12. ^ No, T.; Sato, T.; Kodaira, S.; Ishiyama, T.; Sato, H.; Takahashi, N.; Kaneda, Y. (15 August 2014). "The source fault of the 1983 Nihonkai–Chubu earthquake revealed by seismic imaging". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 400: 14–25. Bibcode:2014E&PSL.400...14N. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2014.05.026.
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  25. ^ Nishiyama, A.; Satake, K.; Yata, T.; Urabe, A. (2010). "Re-examination of the damage distribution and the source of the 1828 Sanjo Earthquake in central Japan". AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts. 2010. American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2010, abstract id. T11B-2066. Bibcode:2010AGUFM.T11B2066N. Archived from the original on 2023-01-12. Retrieved 2023-01-11.
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